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SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 

PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICES 


•T 

-5- 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK  • BOSTON  • CHICAGO  • DALLAS 
ATLANTA  • SAN  FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  & CO.,  Limited 

LONDON  • BOMBAY  • CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd 

TORONTO 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICES 


BY 

JOHN  J.  DONOVAN,  B.S. 

ARCHITECT 

MEMBER  OF  THE  AMERICAN  INSTITUTE  OF 
ARCHITECTS 

AND  OTHERS 


WITH  ILLUSTRATIONS 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 
1921 


All  rights  reserved 


Copyright,  1921, 


BY 

JOHN  J.  DONOVAN.  Architect 
Printed  from  type.  Published  April,  rg2i. 


Nortooofi 

J.  S.  Cushing  Co.  — Berwick  & Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


SDCDkatfD 


TO  THE  ADVANCEMENT  OF  AMERICAN  EDUCATION 

AND 

WITH  DEEP  AFFECTION 
TO  MY  WIFE  AND  TO  MY  MOTHER 
WHOSE  STEADFAST  LOYALTY 
AND  SYMPATHY 

HAVE  MADE  MANY  THINGS  POSSIBLE 
FOR  ME 


354145 


PREFACE 


When  the  necessity  for  a comprehensive  book  of  this  kind  was  realized  by  the  writer,  it  was  his  first  intention  to 
offer  a treatise  on  the  planning  of  school  buildings,  written  wholly  from  the  architect’s  point  of  view.  After  a few 
months  of  effort  it  dawned  upon  him  that  in  order  to  make  the  most  thorough  use  of  such  information,  it  would 
be  more  valuable  to  both  architect  and  schoolman  if  the  organization  of  American  schools  were  first  discussed  and 
emphasized  as  a basis  for  the  discussion  of  the  architectural  features.  Thus  the  application  of  modern  school  archi- 
tecture to  modern  school  development  could  be  concisely  and  logically  shown.  This  plan  has  been  followed.  In- 
formation on  the  organization  of  schools  was  very  much  needed  by  the  writer  when  he  first  turned  his  attention 
to  the  architecture  of  school  buildings,  and,  no  doubt,  such  a need  is  felt  by  many  others  who  are  now  approaching 
the  subject. 

It  must  be  realized  that  the  old  school,  even  that  of  live  years  ago,  has  passed  just  as  surely  as  the  little  red  school- 
house  that  once  stood  on  the  hill.  In  its  place  has  already  appeared  the  new,  throbbing,  spirited  institution,  receiving 
its  impulse  from  the  heart  of  industry,  commerce,  and  society,  which,  in  turn,  are  looking  to  the  school  for  practical 
aid  in  the  solving  of  their  accumulating  problems  of  trade,  employment,  and  American  citizenship.  But  this  new 
school  cannot  stand  alone ; it  must  rest  on  the  foundations  and  traditions  of  its  predecessor,  just  as  the  nation  de- 
pends on  the  securely  anchored  constitutional  footing  given  to  it  by  its  founders.  It  is  this  transition  which  the 
schoolman  and  the  architect,  working  together  and  in  sympathy,  must  bring  about  with  saneness  and  economy. 

The  organization  of  the  school,  through  the  extension  of  its  branches,  has  become  very  complex  to  many  who 
are  out  of  touch  with  it ; to  those  intimately  associated  with  it,  it  is  seen  as  a clearly  unified  development.  The 
writer  understood,  that,  if  the  organization  was  to  be  properly  presented,  it  should  be  described  by  those  who  know 
it  best.  Therefore,  the  collaborators  were  selected  with  much  care,  and  their  contributions  are  a very  important 
part  of  the  book.  A deep  debt  of  gratitude  is  felt  for  all  the  assistance  these  associates  have  given ; they  have 
entered  into  the  work  with  a zeal  and  interest  that  has  surpassed  all  anticipation.  The  conferences  and  discussions 
have  been  a great  pleasure  and  an  education  in  themselves. 

Particularly  has  the  author  profited  in  discussing  the  problems  of  the  school  with  Mr.  William  F.  Ewing,  formerly 
Director  of  Business  Affairs  of  the  Technical  High  School,  Oakland,  California,  whose  vision  of  the  school  of  the 
future  is  most  delightfully  hopeful;  and  with  Dr.  Edna  Watson  Bailey,  Head  of  the  Science  Department  of  the 
University  High  School  of  the  same  city,  who  is  eminently  successful  in  arousing  the  interest  of  her  students. 

Acknowledgment  is  due  for  the  encouragement  and  aid  so  cheerfully  extended  by  Mr.  William  C.  Bruce,  Editor 
of  the  American  School  Board  Journal,  and  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Crocker,  Editor  of  the  American  Architect,  whose  splendid 
journals  have  often  been  a source  of  valuable  information ; also  to  Mr.  George  M.  Thiriot,  Head  of  the  Academic 
Department  of  the  Technical  Continuation  School,  Oakland,  California,  for  his  valuable  assistance  in  editing  the 
manuscript  prepared  by  the  writer. 

The  author  is  deeply  grateful  to  his  fellow  architects  who  have  so  kindly  furnished  photographs  and  drawings  of 
their  work.  He  hopes  the  book  will  be  helpful  in  providing  plans  for  schoolhouses  in  which  the  highest  ideals  of 
the  American  school  may  be  more  effectively  realized. 

John  J.  Donovan 

Oakland,  California 
June,  1920 


vii 


INTRODUCTION 


During  the  past  quarter  century,  each  succeeding  year  has  witnessed  the  broadening  development  of  public 
education.  The  relation  of  the  school  tb  the  community  has  radically  changed.  Systems  of  education  have  been 
evolved  as  the  result  of  the  careful  observation  of  those  engaged  in  pedagogy,  and  these  systems  have  become  broad- 
ened and  extended  until  the  present  aspect  of  modern  educational  methods  is  closely  allied  to  the  best  elements  of 
paternalism. 

With  this  evolution  and  extension  of  educational  methods  it  was  logical  to  assume  that  the  modern  schoolhouse 
would  keep  pace  in  its  designing  and  planning.  In  addition  to  the  development  of  the  school  building  and  its  sur- 
roundings for  educational  purposes,  there  has  been  developed,  particularly  in  the  larger  cities,  a further  use  of  the 
schoolhouse  as  the  community  center.  This  added  use  of  the  school  building  has  increased  the  problems  that  are 
present  in  the  arrangement  of  plan  and  the  perfection  of  design. 

The  problem,  therefore,  that  confronts  the  architect  who  undertakes  to  provide  school  accommodations  is  per- 
haps more  complex  than  any  other  professional  task  he  may  be  given.  The  very  elements  of  paternalism  that  sur- 
round the  modern  school  building  not  only  carry  with  them  the  obligation  to  provide  such  convenient  and  at- 
tractive features  as  are  possible  of  attainment  with  the  money  available,  but  there  is  also  the  even  more  important 
element  that  looks  to  the  safeguarding  of  the  pupils’  health  and  the  measures  that  will  be  necessary  to  protect  them 
from  every  possible  injury. 

Architects  engaged  in  this  responsible  work  need  to  know  the  essentials  of  hygiene  and  sanitation.  Ventilation, 
heating,  lighting,  both  natural  and  artificial,  must  all  be  carefully  considered.  Men  who  have  spent  years  of  suc- 
cessful practice  in  the  solution  of  the  problems  that  surround  the  modern  schoolhouse  will  have  acquired  as  the  re- 
sult of  long  practice,  close  study,  and  observation,  a wide  fund  of  information  that  is  practical  and  valuable  as  it  is 
based  on  actual  operations. 

The  successful  stage  to  which  schoolhouse  design  has  been  brought  in  this  country  is  primarily  due  to  three  groups 
of  men  who  prominently  stand  forth  as  the  best  exponents  of  the  development  of  the  modern  school  buildings. 
These  groups,  located  on  the  eastern  seaboard,  in  the  middle  west,  and  on  the  Pacific  coast,  are  responsible  for  the 
development  of  successful  types  of  school  buildings.  The  author  of  this  book  is  prominent  among  the  members  of 
these  three  groups.  His  success  in  the  special  field  of  architecture,  to  which  he  has  devoted  so  many  years  of  practice, 
makes  this  work  absolutely  authoritative  and  dependable.  Its  method  of  preparation  is  calculated  to  greatly  sim- 
plify its  use  as  an  encyclopedic  treatise  on  the  subject.  Whether  used  by  architects,  members  of  school  boards, 
superintendents,  or  any  of  the  many  people  who  are  directly  interested  in  the  various  phases  of  the  modern  school- 
house  and  modern  educational  methods,  this  work  clearly  sets  forth  the  answer  to  every  question  that  is  likely  to 
arise. 

W.  H.  Crocker 

Editor,  The  American  Architect 


IX 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  Sites  and  Grounds  . 

John  J.  Donovan,  B.S.,  Architect,  A.l.A. 

II.  Architecture,  Planning,  and  Construction 18 

John  J.  Donovan,  B.S.,  Architect,  A.l.A. 

III.  Landscape  Development  of  School  Grounds 61 

Howard  Gilkey,  B.S.,  Landscape  Architect. 

IV.  Cost  of  School  Buildings 70 

John  J.  Donovan,  B.S.,  Architect,  A.l.A. 

V.  Organization  of  the  Elementary  School  as  Affecting  Buildings 85 

E.  Morris  Cox,  A.B.,  Assistant  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Oakland,  California. 

VI.  Organization  of  the  Intermediate  or  Junior  High  School  as  Affecting  Buildings  . . . hi 

E.  Morris  Cox,  A.B.,  Assistant  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Oakland,  California. 

VII.  Organization  and  Administration  of  Senior  High  Schools  as  Affecting  Buildings  . . .126 

Clarence  D.  Kingsley,  M.A.,  Supervisor  of  High  Schools,  Massachusetts  Department  of  Education. 

VIII.  Buildings  and  Equipment  for  Vocational  Schools 157 

J.  C.  Wright,  Acting  Assistant  Director  for  Industrial  Education,  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education. 

IX.  The  Hygiene  of  Schools 204 

Robert  T.  Legge,  M.D.,  Professor  of  Hygiene  and  University  Physician,  University  of  California.  Fellow  of  American 
College  of  Surgeons,  Captain,  Medical  Corps,  United  States  Army. 

X.  Physical  Education 218 

Jay  B.  Nash,  A.B.,  Assistant  State  Supervisor  of  Physical  Education,  California. 

XI.  Administrative  Offices  in  Public  School  Buildings  . . . 243 

William  F.  Ewing,  M.A.,  Principal  of  Pasadena  High  School,  Pasadena,  California. 

XII.  The  Classroom 253 

John  J.  Donovan,  B.S.,  Architect,  A.l.A. 

XIII.  The  Kindergarten 279 

John  J.  Donovan,  B.S.,  Architect,  A.l.A. 

XIV.  The  School  Library 291 

John  J.  Donovan,  B.S.,  Architect,  A.l.A. 

XV.  Corridors,  Stairways,  and  Entrances 305 

John  J.  Donovan,  B.S.,  Architect,  A.l.A. 

XVI.  The  Assembly  Hall 320 

John  J.  Donovan,  B.S.,  Architect,  A.l.A. 

XVII.  The  Music  Department 342 

Glen  H.  Woods,  A.A.G.O.,  Director  of  Music  School  Department,  Oakland,  California. 

XVIII.  Physics  and  Chemistry 350 

Arthur  L.  Jordan,  Head  of  Department  of  Science,  Polytechnic  High  School,  San  Francisco,  California. 

XIX.  The  General  Science  and  Biological  Laboratories 385 

Edna  Watson  Bailey,  Ph.D.,  Head  of  Science  Department,  University  High  School,  Oakland,  California. 


xi 


CONTENTS 


xii 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XX.  Commercial  Department  397 

Reginald  R.  Stuart,  Principal,  Oakland  Technical  Continuation  High  School,  Oakland,  California. 

XXI.  The  Drawing  Department 41 1 

Ralph  C.  Sisson,  B.S.,  M.A.,  Instructor  in  Drawing,  Oakland  Technical  High  School,  Oakland,  California. 

XXII.  The  Industrial  Arts  Department 424 

Walter  A.  Tenney,  Principal,  Vocational  High  School,  Oakland,  California. 

XXIII.  The  Home  Economics  Department 468 

Agnes  Fay  Morgan,  Ph.D.,  Associate  Professor  of  Household  Science,  University  of  California,  Berkeley,  California. 

XXIV.  The  Cafeteria 513 

William  R.  Adams,  Engineer  of  Hotel  Equipment  Department,  Mangrum  Otter  Co.,  Inc.,  San  Francisco,  California. 

XXV.  Heating  and  Ventilation 523 

George  E.  Reed,  M.E.,  Member  of  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers. 

XXVI.  Plumbing 541 

George  E.  Reed,  M.E.,  Member  of  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers. 

XXVII.  Electrical  Installation  and  Illumination 550 

Romaine  W.  Myers,  Consulting  Electrical  Engineer,  Member  of  Illuminating  Engineering  Society. 

XXVIII.  Standards  of  Schoolhouse  Planning 569 

Frank  Irving  Cooper,  Architect.  Chairman,  National  Education  Committee  on  Standardization  of  Schoolhouse  Plan- 
ning and  Construction. 

Supplementary  Illustrations _ . . 575 

References 711 

Index  713 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  BY  ARCHITECTS 


Allen,  James  E. 

Lawrence,  Mass. : Oliver  School  (assembly  hall),  339. 

Allison  and  Allison 

Glendora,  Calif. : Grammar  School  No.  2,  108,  109,  no,  607,  608. 

Monrovia,  Calif. : Polytechnic  High  School,  673,  674,  675. 

Santa  Monica,  Calif. : High  School,  675,  676,  677,  678,  679. 

Dickey,  Chas.  W.,  and  Donovan,  John  J. 

Santa  Barbara,  Calif. : Proposed  New  High  School,  14,  127,  128,  129,  130,  131. 

Elko,  Nevada : Elko  County  High  School,  653,  654,  655. 

Donovan,  John  J. 

Albany,  Calif.  : Elementary  School,  637. 

General  plans  and  characteristics  of  good  school  sites,  2,  3,  5,  7. 

Modesto,  Calif. : Sewing  Unit  Layout  for  High  School,  508. 

Oakland,  Calif. : Clawson  Elementary  School,  89,  90,  91,  92,  93  ; 247  (principal’s  office) ; 270  (classroom  showing 
open  windows) ; 282  (kindergarten  porch) ; 461  (manual  training  room)  ; 491  (domestic  science  room) ; 
543,  544,  546,  548  (plumbing  and  toilet  systems). 

McChesney  Elementary  School,  582,  583,  584. 

Santa  Fe  Elementary  School,  579,  580. 

Theater-Auditorium,  329,  330. 

Palo  Alto,  Calif. : Leland  Stanford  Jr.  University  Elementary  School,  96,  97,  98,  99,  212. 

Plans  of  Eye-strain  Preventive  Desks  and  Seats,  208,  209. 

Sacramento,  Calif. : Oak  Park  Elementary  School,  29,  30,  31. 

San  Leandro,  Calif.  : McKinley  School,  577,  578. 

Washington  School,  578. 

San  Luis  Obispo,  Calif. : Elementary  School,  631. 

Donovan,  John  J.,  and  Hobart,  Louis  P.  (Associate  Architect). 

Oakland,  Calif.  : Lockwood  Elementary  School,  580,  581,  582. 

Donovan,  John  J.,  and  Hornbostel,  Henry  (Consulting  Architect). 

Oakland,  Calif.:  Oakland  Technical  High  School,  13  (group  plan;  42,  43,  44,  45,  46,  47,  48,  49;  356,  362, 
378  (physics  and  chemistry  lecture  rooms  and  laboratories)  ; 404,  406,  417  (bookkeeping,  typing, 
and  drawing  rooms);  425,  429,  433,  441,  460  (shops);  487  (cooking  room);  510  (costume-designing 
classroom). 

Donovan,  John  J.,  and  Howard,  John  Galen  (Associate  Architect). 

Oakland,  Calif.  : Emerson  Elementary  School,  12,  234  (grounds,  actual  layout) ; 25,  26,  27,  28;  236  (kinder- 
garten porch) ; 273  (open  windows  in  patio). 

Donovan,  John  J.,  and  Miller,  Washington  J.  (Associate  Architect). 

Oakland,  Calif.  : Jefferson  School,  634,  635,  636. 

Donovan,  John  J.,  and  Mullgardt,  Louis  C.  (Associate  Architect). 

Oakland,  Calif.  : Durant  Elementary  School,  604,  605,  606. 

Donovan,  John  J.,  and  Reed,  Walter  D.  (Associate  Architect). 

Oakland,  Calif. : Claremont  Elementary  School,  632,  633. 

xiii 


XIV 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  BY  ARCHITECTS 


Garber  and  Woodward 

Cincinnati,  Ohio:  Guilford  School,  624,  625,  626. 

Lafayette  Bloom  School,  622,  623. 

Westwood  Public  School,  627,  628,  629,  630. 

Gee,  Edwin  M. 

Toledo,  Ohio:  Lincoln  Elementary  School  (kindergarten),  285,  590,  591,  592,  593. 

Mott  School,  613,  614,  615,  616. 

G lkey,  Howard 

Modesto,  Calif. : Grounds  of  High  School,  62. 

Gregg,  Professor  John  W. 

Berkeley,  Calif.  John  Muir  School,  64. 

Fresno1,  Calif. : Longfellow  School  Grounds  (landscape  plan  for  proposed  developments),  238. 

Imperial  Valley,  Calif. : Westmoreland  School  Grounds,  68. 

Kingsburg,  Calif. : Union  High  School  (landscape  plan),  67. 

Los  Angeles,  Calif. : High  School  (landscape  plan),  65. 

Puente,  Calif. : Union  High  School  (landscape  plan),  66. 

Wasco,  Calif. : Union  High  School  (proposed  arrangement  for  buildings  and  park  and  park  playground  areas), 
242. 

Guilbert,  E.  F. 

Newark,  N.  J. : South  Side  High  School,  133,  134,  135,  136,  137,  340. 

Guilbert  and  Betelle 

Newark,  N.  J. : Cleveland  School  (kindergarten),  290. 

Lafayette  School,  32,  33. 

Ridge  School,  600,  601. 

State  Normal  (detail  of  doorway),  599. 

Hays,  Wm.  C. 

San  Francisco,  Calif. : Lux  School  (interior  views),  499,  500,  502,  506,  507,  509. 

Holland,  H.  Osgood 

Buffalo,  N.  Y. : Hutchinson  Central  High  School  (library),  298,  299. 

Hussander,  A.  F. 

Chicago,  111. : Albert  R.  Sabin  School,  94,  95. 

Alexander  Graham  Bell  School,  36,  37,  38,  39,  40. 

Carter  H.  Harrison  Technical  High  School,  228,  231  (gymnasium) ; 316  (main  entrance  lobby) ; 335,  336 
(assembly  hall) ; 697,  698,  699,  700,  701,  702,  703. 

Henry  O.  Shepard  School,  585,  586. 

Lindblom  High  School,  704,  705,  706,  707,  708,  709. 

Rezin  Orr  Public  School,  586,  587,  588,  589. 

Seating  plans  for  classroom,  258. 

Ittner,  Wm.  B. 

Greenfield,  Ohio:  Edward  Lee  McLean  High  School,  230  (gymnasium);  317  (main  entrance  vestibule);  649. 
650,  651,  652. 

Minneapolis,  Minn. : New  High  School  (chemistry  group),  381. 

Kirkwood,  Mo. : Grammar  School,  106,  107. 

St.  Louis,  Mo. : Ashland  School,  105. 

Bryan  Mullanphy  Elementary  School,  20,  21,  22,  23,  24;  285,  286  (kindergarten). 

Clark  Elementary  and  Soldan  High  School,  19. 

Glasgow  School,  104. 

Grover  Cleveland  High  School,  141,  142,  143,  144,  145,  146;  331,  332  (auditorium);  349  (music  room); 
361  (physics  laboratory) ; 382  (chemistry  laboratory) ; 394  (conservatory) ; 395  (physiology  labora- 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  BY  ARCHITECTS 


xv 


Ittner,  Wm.  B.  — Continued 

tory) ; 407  (typing  room);  421,  422  (drawing  rooms);  494  (cooking-room);  505  (laundry  labora- 
tory); 516  (cafeteria). 

Laclede  Elementary  School,  86,  87  ; 287  (kindergarten). 

Washington,  D.  C. : Central  High  School,  50,  51,  52,  53,  54,  55,  56,  57,  58,  59,  60;  306  (main  corridor). 

Johnson,  Wm.  Templeton 

San  Diego,  Calif. : Francis  W.  Parker  Elementary  School,  213,  284,  594,  595,  596. 

Kilham  and  Hopkins 

Atlantic  Heights,  N.  H. : Schoolhouse,  617,  618. 

Taunton,  Mass. : Taunton  High  School,  666,  667,  668,  669,  670,  671,  672. 

Lawrence  and  Holford 

Portland,  Ore. : Fernwood  Grammar  School,  620,  621. 

Maginnis  and  Walsh 

New  York,  N.  Y. : Regis  High  School,  690,  691,  692,  693,  694,  695,  696. 

McCornack,  W.  R. 

Cleveland,  Ohio : Addison  Elementary  School,  638,  639,  640. 

Almira  School,  641,  642,  643,  644. 

Empire  School,  645,  646,  647,  648. 

Morgan,  Agnes  Fay,  and  Donovan,  John  J.  (collaborators). 

Plans  of  Home  Economics  Departments,  471,  472,  474,  476,  478,  489,  503,  51 1. 

Myers,  Romaine  W.  (Consulting  Electrical  Engineer.) 

Plans  of  Electric  Work,  551,  552,  553,  554,  555,  556,  557,  558. 

Naramore,  Floyd  A. 

Portland,  Oregon:  Benson  Polytechnic  High  School  (boiler,  engine,  and  fan  rooms),  528,  529,  530,  533, 
535)  536- 

Franklin  High  School  (boiler  and  toilet  rooms),  537,  538,  547. 

New  Couch  School  (fan  installation),  539,  540. 

Olmsted  Brothers 

Fitchburg,  Mass. : Crocker  Field,  15,  16,  17. 

Packard,  Frank  L.  (Architect),  and  Mueller,  Frederick  G.  (Associate  Architect;. 

Hamilton,  Ohio:  High  School,  680,  681,  682,  683,  684,  685. 

Packard,  Frank  L.  (Architect),  Snyder,  Ralph  (Associate  Architect),  and  Babitt,  Edward  N.  (Engineer). 
Parkersburg,  West  Virginia  : High  School  (Assembly  hall),  341 ; 686,  687,  688,  689. 

Perkins,  Fellows,  and  Hamilton 

Downer’s  Grove,  111. : Kindergarten  (floor  plan  and  interior  views),  288,  289. 

Evanston,  111. : Lincolnwood  School,  District  75,  338,  597,  598. 

Oakton  School  District,  76,  102,  103. 

Kenilworth,  111.:  New  Trier  Township  High  School,  15  (athletic  field);  41  (interior);  439  (foundry);  517 
(cafeteria) ; 659,  660,  661,  662. 

Winnetka,  111. : Skokie  Elementary  School,  34,  35,  36. 

Pontiac,  Mich. : High  School  (gymnasium),  227 ; 656,  657,  658. 

Fond  du  Lac,  Wis. : Edward  S.  Bragg  School,  100,  101 ; 337  (assembly  hall  gymnasium). 

Poland,  Wm.  A. 

Trenton,  N.  J. : Junior  High  School,  112,  113,  114,  115,  116,  117,  118  ; 229  (gymnasium)  ; 333  (assembly  hall) ; 
452  (printing  shop) ; 498  (cooking-room). 

Ratcliff,  Walter  H.,  Jr. 

Berkeley,  Calif. : Edison  Junior  High  School,  124,  125. 


XVI 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  BY  ARCHITECTS 


Reed,  George  E.  (Mechanical  Engineer). 

Heating  and  ventilating  plans,  525,  526,  527. 

Plumbing  systems,  542. 

Sanders,  Theo.  M. 

Little  Rock,  Ark.:  Junior  High  School,  119,  120,  121,  122,  123. 

Sellons  and  Pearson 

Sacramento,  Calif. : Fremont  School  (open-air  kindergarten),  290. 

Snyder,  C.  B.  J. 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y. : Boys’  High  School  (plan  of  library),  300. 

Girls’  High  School  (plan  of  library),  301,  302. 

Public  School  No.  29  (interior  plans),  259,  314,  410,  480. 

Stotz,  Edward  A. 

Pittsburgh,  Pa. : Schenley  High  School  (interior  views),  296,  313,  315,  334,  383,  391,  492,  501,  663,  664,  665. 

Symmes,  Edwin  J.  (Architect),  and  Crim,  William  H.  (Associate  Architect). 

Crystal  Springs,  Calif. : Preliminary  Sketch,  602,  603. 

Tenney,  Walter  A.,  and  Donovan,  John  J.  (collaborators). 

Plans  of  shops  for  large  cosmopolitan  high  school,  426,  428,  432,  438,  440,  445,  447,  450,  454,  457.  459,  464. 
Power  hammer  foundation,  443. 

Shop  lecture  and  exhibit  rooms,  466. 

Whitehouse  and  Fouilhoux 

Astoria,  Oregon:  Central  Grammar  School,  609,  610,  611,  612. 

Portland,  Oregon:  Lincoln  High  School,  152,  153,  154,  155,  156. 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  BY  LOCATION  OF  SCHOOLS 


Arkansas 

Little  Rock:  Junior  High  School,  119,  120,  121,  122,  123. 

California 

Albany:  Elementary  School,  637. 

Berkeley:  Edison  Junior  High  School,  124,  125. 

John  Muir  Elementary  School,  64. 

University  of  California  (Dental  Clinic),  216;  (bookstack)  297. 

Crystal  School  District:  Grammar  School,  602,  603. 

Fresno:  Longfellow  School  Grounds,  238. 

Glendora:  Grammar  School  No.  2,  108,  109,  no,  607,  608. 

Imperial  Valley:  Westmoreland  School  Grounds,  68. 

Kingsburg:  Union  High  School  (landscape  plan),  67. 

Los  Angeles:  High  School  (landscape  development),  65. 

Lincoln  High  School  (trade  sewing-room),  512. 

Modesto  : High  School  (grounds),  62  ; (sewing  unit  layout),  508. 

Monrovia:  Polytechnic  High  School,  673,  674,  675. 

Oakland:  Bushrod  Playground,  239,  241. 

Claremont  Elementary  School,  632,  633. 

Clawson  Elementary  School,  89,  90,  91,  92,  93  ; 247  (principal's  office)  ; 270  (classroom)  ; 281,  282  (kinder- 
garten); 461,  491  (manual  training  and  domestic  science  rooms);  543,  544,  546,  548  (plumbing 
system) . 

Durant  Elementary  School,  604,  605,  606. 

Emerson  Elementary  School,  12,  234  (grounds  and  actual  layout);  25,  26,  27,  28;  236  (kindergarten 
porch) ; 273  (open  windows  in  patio). 

Jefferson  Elementary  School,  634,  635,  636. 

Lockwood  Elementary  School,  580,  581,  582. 

McChesney  Elementary  School,  582,  583,  584. 

Mosswood  Park  (tennis  grounds),  240;  (hockey  field),  241. 

Oakland  Technical  High  School,  13  (group  plan) ; 42,  43,  44,  45,  46,  47,  48,  49;  356,  362,  377,  378,  404, 
406,  417,  425,  429,  433,  441,  460,  487,  and  510  (lecture  rooms,  laboratories,  and  shops). 

Santa  Fe  Elementary  School,  579,  580. 

Theater-Auditorium,  329,  330. 

Palo  Alto : Leland  Stanford  Jr.  University  Elementary  School,  96,  97,  98,  99,  212. 

Puente:  Union  High  School  (landscape  plan),  66. 

Sacramento:  Fremont  School  (kindergarten),  290. 

Oak  Park  School,  29,  30,  31. 

San  Diego:  Francis  W.  Parker  School,  213;  (kindergarten),  284;  594,  595,  596. 

San  Francisco:  Lux  School  (interior  views),  499,  500,  502,  506,  507,  509. 

San  Leandro:  McKinley  School,  577,  578. 

Washington  School,  578. 

San  Luis  Obispo  : Elementary  School,  631. 

Santa  Barbara:  Proposed  new  high  school,  14,  127,  128,  129,  130,  131. 

Santa  Monica:  High  School,  675,  676,  677,  678,  679. 

Wasco  : Union  High  School  (proposed  arrangement  for  buildings  and  park,  and  playground  areas),  242. 

xvii 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  BY  LOCATION  OF  SCHOOLS 


xviii 


Colorado 

Sterling:  Logan  County  Industrial  Arts  High  School,  197,  198. 

District  of  Columbia 

Washington:  Central  High  School,  50,  51,  52,  53,  54,  55,  56,  57,  58,  59,  60;  306  (main  corridor). 

Illinois 

Chicago  : Albert  R.  Sabin  School,  94,  95. 

Alexander  Graham  Bell  School,  36,  37,  38,  39,  40. 

Carter  H.  Harrison  Technical  High  School,  228  ; 231  (gymnasium)  ; 316  (main  entrance  lobby)  ; 335,  336 
(assembly  hall) ; 697,  698,  699,  700,  701,  702,  703. 

Henry  O.  Shepard  School,  585,  586. 

Lindblom  High  School,  704,  705,  706,  707,  708,  709. 

Rezin  Orr  Public  School,  586,  587,  588,  589. 

Downer’s  Grove  : Kindergarten,  288,  289. 

Evanston:  Lincolnwood  School  District  75;  (assembly  hall),  338,  597,  598. 

Oakton  School  District,  76,  102,  103. 

Kenilworth:  New  Trier  Township  High  School,  15  (athletic  field);  41  (interior  view);  439  (foundry);  517 
(cafeteria);  659,  660,  661,  662. 

Pullman:  Pullman  Free  School  of  Manual  Training,  187,  188,  189. 

Winnetka : Skokie  Elementary  School,  34,  35,  36. 

Massachusetts 

Boston:  Plan  of  cooking  room  for  elementary  schools,  485. 

Plan  of  physics  laboratories,  360. 

Wentworth  Institute,  184,  185,  186,  187. 

Fitchburg:  Crocker  Field,  15,  16,  17. 

Lawrence:  Oliver  School  (assembly  hall),  339. 

New  Bedford  : Vocational  School,  182. 

Northampton:  Smith  Agricultural  School,  196,  199. 

Taunton:  Taunton  High  School,  666,  667,  668,  669,  670,  671,  672. 

Worcester:  Boys’  Trade  School,  172,  173. 

Michigan 

Pontiac:  High  School,  227  (gymnasium);  656,  657,  658. 

Minnesota 

Minneapolis:  New  High  School  (chemistry  group),  381. 

William  Hood  Dunwoody  Institute,  178,  179,  180. 

Rochester:  High  School  (library),  292. 

Missouri 

Kansas  City : Jane  Hayes  Gate  Institute,  194. 

Lathrop  School  of  Mechanical  Trades,  177. 

Kirkwood:  Grammar  School,  106,  107. 

St.  Louis,  Ashland  School,  105. 

Bryan  Mullanphy  Elementary  School,  20,  21,  22,  23,  24;  285,  286  (kindergarten). 

Clark  Elementary  and  Soldan  High  School,  19. 

David  Ranken  Jr.  School  of  Mechanical  Trades,  174. 

Glasgow  School,  104. 

Grover  Cleveland  High  School,  141,  142,  143,  144,  145,  146;  331,  332,  349,  361,  382,  394,  395,  407,  421, 
422,  494,  505,  516  (interior  views). 

Laclede  Elementary  School,  86,  87  ; 287  (kindergarten) 

Nevada 

Elko:  Elko  County  High  School,  653,  654,  655. 

New  Hampshire 

Atlantic  Heights:  Schoolhouse,  617,  618. 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  BY  LOCATION  OF  SCHOOLS 


xix 


New  Jersey 

Bayonne:  Vocational  School,  183. 

Newark:  Cleveland  School  (kindergarten),  290. 

Lafayette  School,  32,  33. 

Ridge  School,  600,  601. 

South  Side  High  School,  133,  134,  135,  136,  137;  340  (assembly  hall). 

State  Normal  (detail  of  doorway),  599. 

Vocational  School,  190,  191,  192. 

Trenton:  Junior  High  School,  112,  113,  114,  115,  116,  1 1 7 , 1x8;  229  (gymnasium);  333  (assembly  hall);  452 
(shop) ; 498  (cooking  room) . 

New  Mexico 

Albuquerque : Electrical  equipment  in  University  of  New  Mexico,  493. 

New  York 

Brooklyn:  Boys’  High  School  (library),  300. 

Girls’  High  School  (library),  301,  302. 

Pratt  Institute  (laboratories),  367,  368,  370,  371,  373. 

Public  School  No.  29  (interior  views),  259,  314,  4x0,  480. 

Buffalo : Hutchinson  Central  High  School,  298,  299  (library) ; 304  (museum  cases). 

New  York:  Regis  High  School,  690,  691,  692,  693,  694,  695,  696. 

Teachers  College,  Columbia  University  (laundry  laboratory),  504. 

Ohio 

Cleveland  : Addison  Elementary  School,  638,  639,  640. 

Almira  School,  641,  642,  643,  644. 

Empire  School,  645,  646,  647,  648. 

Cincinnati : Guilford  School,  624,  625,  626. 

Lafayette  Bloom  School,  622,  623. 

Westwood  Public  School,  627,  628,  629,  630. 

Greenfield:  Edward  Lee  McLean  High  School,  230  (gymnasium);  317  (front  entrance  vestibule),  649,  650, 
651,  652. 

Hamilton:  High  School,  680,  681,  682,  683,  684,  685. 

Toledo:  Lincoln  School  (kindergarten),  285;  590,  591,  592,  593. 

Mott  School,  613,  614,  615,  616. 

Oregon 

Astoria:  Central  Grammar  School,  609,  610,  611,  612. 

Portland : Benson  Polytechnic  High  School,  434,  448,  449,  455,  458  (shops) ; 528,  529,  530,  532,  533,  535,  536 
(boiler  and  fan  rooms). 

Fernwoocl  Grammar  School,  620,  621. 

Franklin  High  School,  537,  538  (boiler  room) ; 547  (toilet  room). 

Lincoln  High  School,  152,  153,  154,  155,  156. 

New  Couch  School  (fan  installation),  539,  540. 

Pennsylvania 

Pittsburgh : Schcnley  High  School  (interior  views) ; 296,  313,  315,  334,  383,  391,  492,  501  ; 663,  664,  665. 
Williamson:  Free  School  of  Mechanical  Trades,  176. 

West  Virginia 

Parkersburg:  High  School  314  (assembly  hall) ; 686,  687,  688,  689. 

Wisconsin 

Fond  du  Lac  : Edward  S.  Bragg  School,  100,  101 ; 337  (assembly  hall  gymnasium). 

Milwaukee:  Boys’  Technical  High  School,  181. 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


CHAPTER  I 

SITES  AND  GROUNDS 

By  John  J.  Donovan,  B.S.,  Architect,  A.I.A. 

General  Plan  of  School  Sites.  Zone  Planning.  Characteristics  of  Good  School  Sites.  Size  of  School  Sites.  The  Elementary 
School  Play  Areas.  The  Junior  High  School  Play  Areas.  High  School  Sites.  Location  of  the  Building.  Surfacing  of  Playgrounds, 
(i)  Oil  Macadam.  (2)  Asphalt  Surfacing  on  Rock.  (3)  Asphalt  Surfacing  on  Concrete.  Fencing  of  Grounds.  Wider  Use  of  School 
Grounds.  Play  Yard  Accommodations. 


The  arts,  the  architecture,  the  literature,  and  the 
laws  of  a nation  reflect  the  culture  and  intelligence  of 
its  people  at  every  period  of  its  history.  In  this  day 
and  age,  however,  the  selection  of  school  sites  is  a fair 
indication  of  the  wisdom  and  farsightedness  of  the  repre- 
sentatives of  our  people  and  of  the  people  themselves, 
so  important  has  such  selection  become. 

The  school  building  has  its  limitations,  but  the  site 
has  none.  As  a school  site  it  may  be  abandoned  on 
account  of  changes  in  residential  or  industrial  condi- 
tions. But  if  it  is  well  chosen  for  the  intrinsic  values 
a school  site  should  have,  it  will  always  be  valuable 
either  to  the  school  department  as  school  grounds,  or 
to  the  municipality  as  public  playgrounds. 

While  the  vision  of  the  people  as  a whole  has  been 
slower  than  the  growth  of  the  school  and  the  activities 
surrounding  it,  nurturing  that  vision  by  constructive 
suggestion  is  probably  better  than  railing  about  the 
errors  of  the  past.  Patriotism  and  civic  interest,  now 
so  brilliant,  will  do  much  to  dispel  shortsightedness  and 
the  lack  of  understanding  of  the  great  problem  of  good 
citizenship,  which  is  founded  on  education  and  the 
associations  and  activities  allied  with  education.  The 
great  war  has  strengthened  many  of  the  frailties  of 
humanity  and  awakened  the  nation  to  the  necessity  of 
health  and  physical  vigor  as  well  as  of  scientific  intel- 
lectual development.  For  the  health  of  the  mind  seldom 
rises  above  the  health  of  the  body,  and  a healthful, 
vigorous  body  is  the  foundation  for  a sound,  vigorous 
mind.  They  are  parallel,  and  the  rounding  out  of  both 
should  be  simultaneous.  Therefore,  when  discussing  a 
school  plant,  either  of  one  or  of  many  schools,  visions 
of  children  and  adults  at  play  and  recreation  should 
be  uppermost  in  mind.  Playgrounds  are  as  important 


a part  of  the  equipment  of  an  educational  plant  as-  the 
buildings. 

The  large  percentage  of  rejected  young  men  of  draft 
age  who  failed  to  qualify  as  physically  ht  for  the  army 
or  the  navy  has  demonstrated  the  necessity  of  super- 
vision of  play  and  physical  training  for  both  boys  and 
young  men.  Also  the  demands  of  the  new  vocations 
thrust  upon  girls  and  women  make  it  mandatory  that 
they  too  shall  have  an  equal  opportunity  to  prepare 
themselves  physically  to  meet  life’s  duties  with  confi- 
dence. The  great  possibilities  before  the  nation  rest 
entirely  upon  the  opportunities  for  universal  physical 
and  intellectual  education,  not  upon  the  development 
of  a few  prodigies.  The  war  has  taught  many  lessons, 
but  none  more  thoroughly  than  that  of  the  necessity  of 
physical  fitness. 

General  Plan  of  School  Sites.  — Before  discussing 
the  selection  of  a particular  site,  it  would  be  wise  to 
look  at  the  larger  problem  of  selecting  many  sites,  and 
of  following  some  definite  plan  in  building  up  a plant 
of  many  separate  units.  The  procrastinating  and  hap- 
hazard custom,  so  common  to  nearly  all  communities, 
of  waiting  until  congestion  forces  action  for  enlarging 
or  extending  the  existing  plant,  works  to  disadvantage, 
because,  when  steps  are  taken,  they  must  of  necessity 
be  hasty  and  often  ill-advised.  The  consequence  is 
that  the  cost  of  grounds  is  greater  than  it  need  be  if 
sites  were  obtained  with  definite  regularity  according 
to  a carefully  prepared  plan  that  has  flexibility  as  one 
of  its  chief  assets.  Where  necessary,  present  laws 
should  be  revised  or  new  laws  drawn  to  enable  boards 
of  education  to  purchase  and  dispose  of  land  quickly 
and  with  the  least  inconvenience.  The  present  laws 
are  probably  ample  for  the  purchase  of  land ; they 


2 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


should  be  revised  to  permit  of  the  disposal  of  land  easily. 
They  would  then  permit  the  buying  of  land  from  five  to 
eight  years,  or  longer,  in  advance  of  the  existing  need, 
and  would  enable  school  boards  to  retain  it  for  school 
purposes  or  dispose  of  it  as  the  later  prevailing  condi- 
tions warranted.  Without  going  into  detail  here,  there 
are  sufficient  ways  and  means  to  safeguard  against  fraudu- 
lent and  incompetent  selections.  Such  selections,  even 
at  their  worst,  could  hardly  equal  the  economic  waste 
of  the  prevailing  methods. 


Fig.  i. 

This  leads  up  to  planning  for  sites,  and  what  kind  of 
property  a school  board  should  select  for  school  grounds. 
First  of  all,  the  map  of  the  city  should  be  plotted  geo- 
graphically according  to  zones  based  on  the  census  of 
elementary,  intermediate,  and  high  school  pupils.  If 
the  elementary,  intermediate,  and  senior  high  school 
plan  is  adopted  as  the  educational  system  of  the  city, 
it  will  make  the  general  planning  easier,  reduce  the  cost 
of  housing  per  pupil,  and  give  greater  facilities  for 


immediate  relief  in  times  of  congestion.  Keeping  in 
mind,  however,  the  school  population  as  the  basis  to 
work  upon,  the  intermediate  schools  of  the  seventh, 
eighth,  and  ninth  grades  should  be  the  centers  of  circles 
having  radii  of  one  to  one  and  one-quarter  miles;  the 
perimeters  of  these  circles  should  be  approximately  the 
line  of  location  of  the  outer  boundary  of  the  elementary 
school  zone.  In  turn,  the  elementary  schools  should 
be  spaced  within  the  intermediate  school  areas  not 
farther  apart  than  one  mile.  (See  Figures  i and  ia.) 

In  other  words,  their  location  should  be  the 
centers  of  circles  whose  radii  are  one-half  to 
three-quarters  of  a mile,  the  proximity  de- 
pending entirely  upon  the  population.  Chil- 
dren below  the  sixth  grade  (n  years  of  age) 
should  not  be  compelled  to  walk  farther  to 
school  than  one-half  to  three-quarters  of  a 
mile.  Special  attention  should  be  given  to 
conditions  such  as  railroad  crossings,  high- 
ways much  used  by  automobiles,  and  active 
city  streets.  Good  planning  will  save  many 
a mother  unnecessary  worry  for  the  safety 
of  her  child  and  often  will  save  the  child’s 
life. 

Centers  for  high  school  zones  are  not  as 
much  restricted  in  regard  to  distances  apart 
as  are  those  of  the  intermediate  and  elemen- 
tary schools,  for  the  reason  that  the  students 
attending  the  high  school  are  more  mature, 
and  many  of  them  arrive  by  means  of  bicycles, 
automobiles,  or  the  street  cars.  Moreover, 
high  school  sites  must  be  of  such  large  acreage 
that  size  and  cost  are  important  factors,  and 
it  is  very  often  the  case  that  suitable  sites 
cannot  be  found  within  a mile  or  more  of 
the  center  of  a high  school  zone.  However, 
they  are  a part  of  the  general  plan,  and  the 
difficulty  of  obtaining  such  desirable  sites 
emphasizes  all  the  more  the  necessity  of 
planning  in  advance. 

Zone  Planning.  — Zone  planning  for  school 
grounds  is  simply  another  phase  of  modern 
city  planning  whereby  the  economic  saving 
of  the  city  may  be  increased  through  elimina- 
tion of  waste  in  both  the  erection  of  school  buildings 
and  the  buying  and  development  of  school  sites. 

For  instance,  zone  planning  would  prevent  the  need- 
less duplication  of  a number  of  departments  in  the  ele- 
mentary and  intermediate  schools.  Whenever  an  ele- 
mentary school  attempts  to  maintain  the  full  number 
of  grades,  that  is  from  one  to  eight,  it  is  necessary  to  pro- 
vide a complete  plant  containing  a large  assembly  hall, 
sewing  and  cooking  rooms,  manual  training  rooms, 


5 CALI,  lit  MIUS 

I HI,  5 MALI  CIICUS  1ND1CATI,  A1UA  fitST  SITLVI.P  iY  iLUUNTAHY  SCHOOLS  JIAMI.TI.lt  I"lj  MILLS 
THI,  illOKLN  • .......  JUHJOJI  HIGH  SCHOOLS  - Z - 

THI,  LAHGI5T  • . - - - -HIGH  SCHOOLS  - A * 


SITES  AND  GROUNDS 


3 


Map  Showing  the  Distribution  of  Present  Schools.  Proposed  Additions,  and  Proposed  New  Schools 

Fig.  i a. 


4 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


extensive  sheltered  playrooms,  a large  administration 
suite,  and  other  rooms  and  spaces  accessory  to  class- 
rooms and  needed  in  a school  of  this  kind.  These  are 
necessary  almost  entirely  on  account  of  the  older  pupils 
in  the  school,  say  from  the  sixth  to  the  eighth  grade. 
Now  an  examination  of  the  enrollment  of  the  different 
grades  of  the  elementary  school  will  disclose  the  fact  that 
the  preponderance  of  attendance  is  in  the  lower  grades. 
The  result  becomes  something  that  no  wise  business 
man  would  tolerate,  — a large  and  expensive  part  of 
the  plant  in  use  only  part  time  by  a minority  of  the 
pupils  and  exactly  duplicated  in  every  one  of  the  other 
elementary  schools. 

It  is  this  economic  waste  of  duplication  that  the  method 
of  zone  planning  would  eliminate.  The  upper  grades 
in  the  elementary  school  of  the  present  system,  from 
the  seventh  to  the  eighth  inclusive,  and  the  first  grade 
of  the  high  school,  would  be  concentrated  in  one  centrally 
located  intermediate  school  which  would  contain  com- 
plete departmental  equipment  for  the  pupils  of  these 
grades.  This  organization  would  at  once  relieve  the 
elementary  schools  within  its  zone  of  the  further  necessity 
for  such  extensive  equipment.  It  is  safe  to  say  that 
one  such  intermediate  school,  accommodating  1200 
pupils,  would  provide  for  about  500  graduates  yearly 
from  the  near-by  elementary  schools  whose  combined 
enrollment  would  be  from  3500  to  4000  pupils.  Nor 
would  this  method  prevent  the  construction  of  any  of  the 
above-mentioned  departments  in  the  elementary  schools 
wherever  they  could  be  so  adjusted  to  the  needs  of  the 
pupils  below  the  seventh  grade  that  they  would  be  in 
constant  and  profitable  use  during  the  school  day.1 
This  plan  would  further  enable  school  boards  to  prac- 
tice economy  in  securing  an  adequate  site  for  each  kind 
of  school.  While  it  is  true  that  the  enrollment  of  some 
elementary  schools  may  be  larger  than  that  of  the  inter- 
mediate schools,  nevertheless  the  former  require  smaller 
areas  for  playgrounds  than  the  latter,  just  as  the  inter- 
mediate school  requires  less  space  than  the  high  school. 
This  difference  is  due  to  the  different  kinds  of  recreation 
required  by  the  pupils  of  the  respective  schools.  When 
the  development  of  any  school  district  is  planned  for  in 
advance,  and  the  general  school  scheme  is  carefully 
plotted,  desirable  sites  can  be  purchased  with  much 
more  economy  than  later  when  the  pressure  of  increasing 
population  makes  their  purchase  necessary  wherever 
they  may  be  had  and  at  whatever  price  may  be  asked. 
It  is  true  that  under  present  conditions  school  boards  may 
hesitate  about  buying  land  in  advance,  for  fear  that  it 
may  never  be  used.  This  situation,  as  has  been  said 
before,  can  be  changed  by  the  enactment  of  laws  that  will 


permit  the  disposal  of  school  land  whenever  such  dis- 
posal will  be  advantageous  to  the  community. 

The  above  recommendations  for  zone  planning  of 
school  sites  would  necessarily  be  modified  wrhen  consid- 
ering the  housing  of  educational  plants  in  industrial 
sections  of  the  school  district,  or  in  sections  of  a city 
densely  populated  by  foreign-born  residents.  Every 
large  city  is  confronted  with  this  special  educational 
problem  as  well  as  the  housing  problem  in  such  districts. 
Whatever  educational  methods  are  adopted  they  must, 
of  necessity,  be  flexible  so  that  modifications  may  be 
easily  and  quickly  made,  in  order  that  the  school  may 
retain  the  interest  of  not  only  the  pupil  but  the  parents 
as  well.  Very  often  in  these  districts,  the  fifth  and 
sixth  grades  are  the  termination  of  education  for  a 
great  many  pupils,  who  then  leave  school  to  seek  em- 
ployment. Consequently,  promoting  such  pupils  to  an 
intermediate  school  in  another  section  of  the  district, 
even  though  it  is  near  by,  would  in  the  greater  number 
of  cases  be  equivalent  to  ending  their  school  attendance. 
In  view  of  this  fact  it  is  the  business  of  the  school  to  pro- 
vide a type  of  education  for  these  students  which  would 
be  attractive  enough  to  hold  them  beyond  the  sixth 
grade.  This  type  should  consist  of  instruction  in 
household  arts,  industrial  arts,  and  physical  education 
for  the  pupils  in  addition  to  the  usual  elementary  studies, 
and  some  form  of  instruction  for  adults  that  will  bring 
the  parents  into  closer  contact  with  the  school.  This 
departmental  work  or  vocational  education  should 
begin  as  early  as  possible  in  these  schools  and  extend  to 
and  include  the  ninth  grade.  The  vocational  training 
should  be  thorough,  and  the  teachers  should  be  not 
only  able  leaders  in  this  special  work  but  should  be  in 
hearty  sympathy  with  the  pupils  and  the  parents, 
without  any  show  of  patronizing  cant.  If  the  effort  to 
further  Americanization  of  foreigners  is  to  succeed, 
its  strongest  impetus  must  come  from  the  school ; for 
it  is  by  giving  to  these  people  the  belief  that  the  school 
is  especially  for  their  use  and  for  their  social,  educational, 
and  industrial  development  that  the  effort  can  succeed. 

The  solution  of  this  problem  cannot  be  prescribed  by 
any  long-distance  methods  but  only  by  close  contact 
with  these  people  and  in  accord  with  them.  Conse- 
quently, such  divisions  of  the  general  zone  planning 
should  be  treated  differently  from  the  general  planning 
for  residential  sections  ; but  they  should  be  incorporated 
into  the  plan  as  a whole. 

Characteristics  of  Good  School  Sites.  - Before  dis- 
cussing the  matter  of  size,  let  us  consider  the  character 
of  sites  appropriate  to  school  buildings.  As  a first  step 
it  would  be  good  practice  to  call  in  a reputable  health 


1 This  does  not  take  into  consideration  the  Gary  system,  which  in  its  curriculum  and  conduct  of  studies  is  different  from  the  general  elementary 
school  system  in  practice  throughout  the  country. 


3S' 


SITES  AND  GROUNDS 


5 


• 3 AT  3 ALA  COUIIT- 


DOULLf,  HOMZOHTA1,  BAILS 


HOHI ZOU  TAL,  LADDUb- 


•HAND  BALL  COUILT  * 


0^5'  '[O'  15  y 25'  3d 

S CAL £, ■ 

Fig.  2, 


•TE.HN1S  C0UL1- 


6 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


officer  to  pass  judgment  upon  the  sanitation  of  all  sites. 
This  may  seem  extreme,  but  surveys  of  schools  and  the 
records  of  unhealthful  conditions  found  surrounding 
some  selections  of  even  recent  date  prompt  the  belief 
that  the  advice  of  a health  officer  is  needed.  Low, 
swampy,  boggy  land  should  be  avoided.  On  the  other 
hand,  hill  sites  are  of  little  or  no  value,  for  no  games  can 
be  played  on  a hillside.  The  additional  expense  for 
grading  will  probably  make  the  hill  site  the  most  expen- 
sive in  the  end,  regardless  of  its  first  cost.  Land  suitable 
for  school  sites  should  be  nearly  level  with  even  gradients 
sloping  down  toward  the  property  lines.  This  state- 
ment applies  for  all  schools,  although  there  are  times 
when  certain  changes  in  the  topography  of  the  lot  would 
offer  an  opportunity  for  natural  stadiums  adaptable  for 
large  athletic  fields.  In  these  cases  the  vision  and 
training  of  a good  planner  will  be  required,  not  only  to 
discover,  but  to  execute.  Many  a splendid  opportunity 
in  the  selection  of  school  sites  has  gone  begging  because 
of  lack  of  vision. 

Sites-  along  railroad  tracks  should  be  rejected  on 
account  of  danger  and  noises.  Also,  sites  on  streets 
having  car  lines  should  be  carefully  studied  with  refer- 
ence to  the  location  of  the  buildings  and  their  proximity 
to  the  street.  If  the  site  is  large  enough  to  permit  placing 
the  building  at  such  distance  from  the  car  lines  that 
the  noise  will  not  be  disturbing,  and  if  the  resulting  loca- 
tion of  the  building  does  not  destroy  the  grounds  for 
play  and  athletic  games,  such  sites  may  not  be  objec- 
tionable. Even  then,  however,  there  may  be  cause  for 
doubt. 

Locations  adjacent  to  factories,  boiler  shops,  stables, 
fire  hazards,  hospitals,  fire-engine  houses,  jails,  or  any 
such  buildings  should  never  be  purchased.  Further- 
more, local  ordinances  should  prevent  any  such  build- 
ings from  being  erected  after  a school  site  has  once  been 
purchased  and  built  upon.  Before  any  site  is  selected 
for  school  purposes,  a careful  survey  should  be  made  of 
the  actual  conditions  of  the  land,  of  its  possibilities  for 
development  as  a school  site  and  playground,  and  of 
the  buildings  and  their  uses  within  1500  feet  of  the 
proposed  site.  If  this  is  done  by  disinterested  persons, 
and  their  findings  recorded,  there  will  be  very  few 
objectionable  school  sites  purchased  by  school  depart- 
ments. That  this  may  be  done  thoroughly,  a printed 
questionnaire  or  form  including  all  objectionable  and 
all  favorable  features  should  be  given  to  the  committee 
on  sites.  Also  a topographical  drawing  or  survey  show- 
ing the  grades  and  lot  lines,  prepared  by  a reputable 
engineer,  should  be  required  of  every  owner  desiring  to 
sell  land  for  school  property,  or  should  be  made  at  the 


school  board’s  expense  before  the  transaction  is  closed. 
Such  a survey  may  not  always  be  necessary,  but  it 
costs  so  little  and  is  generally  of  such  use  that  it  is  worth 
while. 

Size  of  School  Sites.  — The  question  of  the  size  of 
school  grounds  should  be  approached  from  the  practical 
as  well  as  from  the  ideal  viewpoint.  It  would  bankrupt 
any  city  if  all  the  school  sites  were  of  such  large  acreage 
as  to  permit  running  tracks,  football  fields,  etc.  More- 
over, school  sites  within  such  highly  developed  zones 
as  interior  city  blocks  are  so  costly  that  if  schools  must 
be  placed  within  such  zones,  it  is  often  necessary  to 
limit  the  school  site  to  a single  block,  or  even  less.  City 
blocks  are  usually  of  such  dimensions  as  2oo'X30o'. 
25°'X3oo,)  or  2oo/X4oo';  an  acre  contains  43,560 
square  feet ; therefore,  the  block  of  the  first  dimensions 
would  contain  1.38  acres,  the  second  1.7  acres,  and  the 
third  1.84  acres.  None  of  these  lots,  after  allowing 
sufficient  room  for  the  building  and  certain  reservations 
for  the  future  growth  of  the  school,  will  leave  space 
enough  for  a baseball  field  of  regulation  size.  They 
will,  however,  provide  ground  space  for  tennis,  hand- 
ball, basket  ball,  volley  ball,  indoor  baseball,  and  play 
space  for  the  smaller  children.  Consequently,  as  far 
as  possible,  such  sites  should  be  limited  to  elementary 
schools.  This  does  not  mean,  however,  that  all  elemen- 
tary school  sites  should  be  restricted  in  area  to  city 
blocks.  On  the  contrary,  elementary  school  sites 
should  contain  from  2-g-  to  3 acres  as  a minimum,  and 
decidedly  so  if  the  school  is  to  house  more  than  500 
pupils.  This  area  will  become  more  and  more  manda- 
tory, as  many  states  already  require  physical  education 
as  part  of  the  school  curriculum.  According  to  the 
recommendation  of  the  National  Education  Association, 
of  272  square  feet  per  child  for  play,  recreation,  and 
gardening,  it  is  evident  that  an  area  of  three  acres  is 
not  too  large  for  an  elementary  school  site. 

A review  of  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Henry  S.  Curtis,1 
former  Secretary  of  the  Playground  Association  of 
America,  seems  at  first  sight  to  indicate  a smaller  allot- 
ment of  space.  “ Curtis’s  estimate  for  elementary 
school  buildings  calls  for  two  acres.  Organized  games 
— baseball,  indoor  baseball,  volley  ball,  tennis,  basket 
ball  — call  for  i^g-  acres,  leaving  acre  for  general, 
unorganized  play,  running  track,  and  pool.  Curtis’s 
estimate  on  the  basis  of  two  acres  for  684  pupils  is  equiva- 
lent to  127  square  feet  per  pupil  for  elementary  schools." 
Since  nothing  is  said  about  the  space  to  be  occupied  by 
the  building  itself,  evidently  the  article  is  dealing  with 
play  space  only.  This  fact  will  then  account  for  the 
difference  between  the  figure  of  272  square  feet  per 


1 Report  of  the  Comm'ssion  on  the  Reorganization  of  Secondary  Education  appointed  by  the  National  Educat'on  Association.  Published  by 
the  Federal  Bureau  of  Education  lVBulletin  1917,  No.  50. 


SITES  AND  GROUNDS 


7 


HUG  BY  FOOTBALL  FlLLD  B10AD  JUMP 


Fig.  3. 


HIGH  JUMP  PIT  5 HOT  PUT 
CUICLL 


8 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


pupil  demanded  by  the  National  Education  Association 
and  the  figure  of  127  square  feet  given  by  Mr.  Curtis. 
The  former  is  an  allowance  of  space  of  about  is'XiS', 
and  the  latter  about  io'Xi3'  per  pupil.  These  dimen- 
sions are  quoted  to  enable  school  boards  to  see  how  men 
familiar  with  recreation  activities  are  attacking  the  prob- 
lem of  preserving  and  developing  the  health  and  physical 
fitness  of  school  children. 

The  Elementary  School  Play  Areas.  — The  following 
equipment  and  areas  are  recommended  by  the  writer 
for  elementary  school  playgrounds  and  are  separate 
from  the  baseball  field.  (See  Figure  2.) 


Boys'  Yard, 

One  basket  ball  court  50' X 70'  ....  3,500  square  feet 

One  tennis  court  50' Xioo'  (court  proper 

is  36' X 78') overall  5,000  “ 

Two  volley  ball  courts,  each  25' X50' 

Two  handball  courts,  each  2o'X36' 

Allowance  around  courts  about  . . 

Space  for  gymnasium  apparatus  . . 

General  play  space  at  least  . . . 


Girls’  Yard. 

One  basket  ball  court  50'  X 70' 


2,500 

1,440 

4.000 

5.000 
20,000 
41,440 


3,500  square  feet 


One  tennis  court  50'  X ioo'  .... 

5,000 

Two  volley  ball  courts,  each  25'  X5o'  . 

2,500 

One  handball  court  20'  X361  .... 

720 

Allowance  for  space  around  courts  . . 

4,000 

Gymnasium  apparatus 

5,000 

Dancing  pavilion  30' X6o' 

1,800 

General  play  space 

. 10,000 

32,520 

Small  Children’s  Space. 

Sand  box 
Swings 
See-saws 
Slides 

about  5000  square  feet. 

3- 


The  above  requires  a total  area  of  about  78,960  square  feet,  or 
about  1.7  acres. 


The  Junior  High  School  Play  Areas.  — The  junior 

high  school  site  is  quite  another  matter,  and  as  this 
school  should  be  the  general  center  of  community 
interest,  it  follows  that  the  grounds  should  have  the  same 
relation  to  outdoor  activity  as  the  building  has  as  a place 
for  meetings  of  citizens  vitally  interested  in  civic  affairs. 
Many  are  of  the  opinion  that  it  is  an  economic  waste 
to  provide  especially  designed  rooms  for  public  club- 
rooms  in  every  school,  because  they  are  used  so  infre- 
quently and  by  so  few  that  the  expense  is  needless,  and 
the  money  could  be  more  wisely  spent  in  providing 
additional  classrooms  for  instruction  of  children  for 
whom  the  school  is  built.  On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be 
recommended  most  heartily  that  such  provisions  be 
afforded  in  schools  centered  like  the  intermediate  school. 
A mile  or  a little  farther  is  not  too  far  for  a man  or 
woman  to  travel  to  attend  community  affairs.  The 


larger  the  district,  the  larger  the  number  likely  to 
attend,  and  the  greater  the  number,  the  more  likely 
will  better  understanding  and  judgment  prevail.  All 
schools  should  be  free  for  use  by  the  people  and  at 
their  pleasure,  but  only  in  central  schools  should  special 
provisions  be  made,  such  as  clubrooms  and  especially 
large  playgrounds. 

The  junior  high  school  grounds  should  be  the  com- 
bination of  the  municipal  and  school  playground,  and 
consequently  should  be  large  enough  to  permit  at  least 
two  baseball  games  to  be  played  at  the  same  time,  and 
to  provide  for  other  games  as  well.  The  three-acre  tract 
for  the  elementary  school  will  permit  of  one  baseball  field 
of  regulation  size,  and  this  will  also  provide  space  for  the 
play  of  the  smaller  children,  besides  providing  tennis 
and  other  courts  for  adults.  However,  the  opportunity 
for  community  development  will  be  found  in  the  junior 
high  school  and  its  grounds. 

The  following  is  a good  example  of  the  area  required 
for  such  a school  site : 

(1)  The  athletic  field  should  include  a quarter  mile 
running  track.  The  space  within  the  oval  will  provide 
for  two  baseball  diamonds,  or  one  football  field.  High 
jump,  broad  jump,  and  pole  vault  pits  can  be  placed 
inside  this  inclosure.  The  area  required  for  this  is 
about  four  and  one-half  acres.  (See  Figure  3.) 

(2)  Four  tennis  courts,  each  6o'Xi2c/,  should  be  pro- 
vided and  will  require  an  area  of  28,800  square  feet.  To 
this  should  be  added  about  10%  for  approaches.  There- 
fore, the  allowance  for  tennis  is  about  § of  an  acre. 

(3)  One  swimming  pool  about  3o'X75r  (for  the  pool 
only)  with  dressing  rooms  for  about  75  men  and  50 
women.  This  will  require  about  \ of  an  acre.  It  is  quite 
unlikely  that  a swimming  pool  would  be  provided  in  the 
grounds  or  buildings  of  every  intermediate  school.  But 
a city  having  such  schools  and  public  playgrounds 
should  have  at  least  one  swimming  pool  for  every 
25,000  in  population. 

(4)  In  addition  to  the  above  there  should  be  three 
smaller  divisions  of  the  grounds  as  follows  : 

(A)  Boys’  division,  containing  : 

2 Basket  ball  courts. 

2 Handball  courts,  each  2o'X36'. 

2 Volley  ball  courts. 

Space  for  gymnasium  apparatus,  about  5000  square 
feet.  All  of  which  will  require  about  16,500  square  feet 
or  about  Ao  of  an  acre. 

(B)  Girls’  division,  containing  : 

2 Girls’  basket  ball  courts. 

2 Handball  courts. 

2 Volley  ball  courts. 

Space  for  girls’  gymnasium  apparatus,  about  5000 
square  feet. 


SITES  AND  GROUNDS 


9 


Indoor  baseball  grounds  with  base  lines  40  feet  in 
length,  allowing  about  2000  square  feet. 

Dance  platform  and  provision  for  using  piano,  about 
2500  square  feet,  or  a total  of  about  20,440  square  feet, 
nearly  \ an  acre. 

(C)  Small  children’s  division  containing  : Sand  boxes, 
swings,  seesaws,  and  slides.  This  space  will  require 
about  8500  square  feet,  or  about  5 of  an  acre.  This 
section  should  be  isolated  from  the  rest  of  the  grounds 
and  sufficiently  removed  from  the  building  that  it  may 
be  opened  for  use  without  restriction  as  to  time  during 
the  day  by  the  very  small  children  accompanied  by 
their  mothers  or  nurses.  At  the  elementary  school, 
the  small  children’s  play  space  and  equipment  should 
be  arranged  close  to  the  building,  as  it  is  not  used  except 
at  recess  periods. 

The  plan  outlined  above,  without  taking  into  account 
the  building  area,  approaches,  lawns,  gardens,  etc., 
equals  about  7 acres ; so  it  is  safe  to  say  that  an  inter- 
mediate school  site  which  will  serve  as  a community 
center  will  require  at  least  10  acres,  which  space  is 
quite  in  keeping  with  the  recommendation  of  the 
National  Education  Association  of  272  square  feet  per 
pupil. 

In  order  that  adults,  intermediate  school  pupils,  and 
smaller  children  may  occupy  the  grounds  at  the  same 
time,  it  is  advisable  that  the  entire  site  be  properly 
planned,  setting  off  spaces  for  the  different  classifications 
of  play,  and  that  some  of  the  divisions  be  formed  by 
appropriate  wire  fences  or  hedges.  The  space  for  the 
boys  and  adults  requires  little  or  no  division.  The 
gardens,  however,  require  protection  from  the  outside 
and  from  the  play  space,  and  the  girls’  play  area  should 
be  separated  from  the  boys’  play  yard  and  field  by  a 
fence,  hedge,  or  terrace. 

As  in  the  planning  of  buildings,  there  is  every  oppor- 
tunity to  be  wasteful  in  the  planning  of  school  grounds ; 
therefore,  every  precaution  is  necessary  to  prevent 
useless  waste,  especially  in  overlapping  the  areas  for 
games.  It  is  greatly  desired  in  the  laying  out  of  the 
grounds  that  an  experienced  physical  director  collaborate 
with  the  architect  and  the  landscape  designer.  Such 
cooperation  of  experts  will  bring  about  the  planning 
of  grounds  adaptable  to  the  curriculum,  will  assure  the 
movement  of  the  school  to  and  from  the  grounds  between 
the  periods,  and  will  pave  the  way  for  utility  and  order 
in  the  general  treatment. 

High  School  Sites.  - — Sites  for  high  schools  should 
be  enlarged  to  about  double  the  size  of  those  for  inter- 
mediate school  grounds.  This  is  recommended  because 
high  school  grounds  should  have  the  character  of  the 
college  campus.  The  day  has  arrived  when  high  schools 
are  being  planned  as  groups  of  buildings,  not  more  than 


two  or  three  stories  high,  with  the  different  departments 
in  separate  buildings  connected  by  open  or  inclosed 
arcades  or  wings.  In  the  larger  cities,  due  to  cost  of 
land,  it  may  be  necessary  to  have  the  high  school  under 
one  roof  and  within  the  limits  of  a single  block.  This 
means  that  there  must  be  four  or  more  stories  to  the 
building.  But  the  trend  of  the  times  is  to  locate 
secondary  schools  in  sparsely  settled  sections  of  the 
cities  where  the  buildings  may  be  spread  out  and  their 
height  reduced.  This  is  desirable,  as  it  means  better 
lighting,  better  natural  ventilation,  fewer  fire  hazards, 
besides  reducing  the  exertion  of  stair-climbing  for  girls. 
High  schools  planned  in  this  manner  give  many  oppor- 
tunities for  pleasing  courts,  and  approaches,  at  the  same 
time  furnishing  to  the  plan  spaces  for  lawns,  shrubs,  trees, 
etc.,  which  in  this  manner  are  isolated  from  the  play- 
grounds and  preserved.  Properly  treated  school  fore- 
grounds and  courts  are  valuable  points  of  interest  in  com- 
munities. 

Cities  keeping  step  with  progress  in  education  are 
providing  high  school  sites  containing  twenty  to  twenty- 
five  acres.  Experimental  gardens  alone  will  require  from 
three  to  five  acres.  The  trade  and  industrial  shops  of 
the  industrial  arts  department  are  generally  planned  to 
occupy  separate  buildings  set  some  distance  from  other 
departments  which  require  quietness.  The  gymnasium, 
closely  allied  with  the  athletic  field,  should  also  be  in  a 
separate  building.  The  same  is  somewhat  true  of  the 
music  department  with  all  its  accompanying  noises. 
It  is  also  necessary  that  the  girls  should  have  a separate 
athletic  field  from  that  of  the  boys,  as  a great  deal  of  the 
physical  training,  now  compulsory,  will  be  done  in  the 
open  air.  Therefore,  in  order  to  meet  the  many  and 
diversified  requirements  of  secondary  education,  large 
areas  of  ground  for  high  schools  are  to-day  as  essential 
as  large  buildings. 

Location  of  the  Building.  Many  a well-planned 
school  has  been  made  almost  useless  by  misplacing  it 
on  the  site.  Care  should  be  taken  to  determine  the 
disturbances  surrounding  the  site,  as  has  been  pre- 
viously mentioned,  and  consideration  given  to  future 
possibilities  of  new  street  car  lines  passing  the  school 
long  after  it  is  built.  Likewise  the  fact  must  be  remem- 
bered that  small  factories,  garages,  and  other  shops 
may  locate  near  a proposed  school,  if  they  are  not  there 
already.  Consequently,  the  school  should  be  set  far 
enough  back  from  the  street  property  lines  to  insure 
quietness  for  study  at  all  times.  Aside  from  the  con- 
sideration of  noises,  it  is  a good  plan  to  have  plenty  of 
space  between  the  exits  and  the  street,  so  that  on  leav- 
ing school  the  children  will  have  sufficient  time  to  over- 
come the  excitement  and  haste  which  usually  follow 
dismissal.  Many  accidents  can  be  attributed  to  having 


IO 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


the  school  too  close  to  avenues  and  streets,  always 
dangerous  to  heedless  youngsters. 

If  advantage  is  to  be  taken  of  the  best  orientation 
for  the  school  and  the  classrooms,  the  location  of  the 
building  is  a very  important  factor.  For  instance,  a 
rectangular  plan,  which  is  usually  the  most  economical, 
adapts  itself  well  to  grounds  having  an  east  or  west 
frontage  when  east  and  west  light  is  desirable.  Other 
forms  of  floor  plans  necessitated  by  conditions  are  often 
dependent  upon  the  orientation  of  the  lot  for  economy 
in  cost  and  efficiency  in  administration. 

School  children  like  to  play  or  to  congregate  close  to 
the  building  just  before  school  opens  and  during  recess 
periods ; therefore,  these  features  of  child  life  and  habits 
should  influence  many  points  about  the  plan  and  the 
location  of  the  building.  The  entrances  used  mostly  by 
the  pupils  and  the  play  spaces  near  the  building  are  the 
centers  where  the  children  gather.  In  consequence  of 
this  the  building  should  be  located  so  that  these  spots, 
as  far  as  possible,  may  receive  the  early  morning  sunshine 
for  warmth  and  health.  Every  precaution  should  be 
taken  to  protect  the  health  of  children,  and  there  are  no 
more  economical  means  than  that  of  good  planning  and 
arrangement  of  buildings  used  by  children  if  the  authori- 
ties are  familiar  with  the  child’s  natural  habits. 

The  question  of  placing  the  large  play  yard  or  athletic 
field  between  the  school  and  the  street,  or,  as  is  generally 
the  case,  placing  the  building  so  that  the  athletic  field 
is  to  the  rear,  is  a matter  which  can  be  decided  only  after 
a thorough  study  has  been  made  of  the  local  conditions. 
The  former  plan  with  small  grounds  and  a wide  approach 
to  the  main  entrance  is  a definite  way  to  divide  the 
grounds  for  the  boys  and  for  the  girls  and  is  one  method 
of  preventing  noises  from  the  street  reaching  the  class- 
rooms. The  plan  of  having  the  play  yard  at  the  rear 
or  side  makes  the  school  more  accessible  to  the  pupils 
and  especially  to  the  public.  There  cannot  be  any 
definite  rules  governing  this  question,  as  it  is  a matter 
of  knowledge  of  the  problem  and  a complete  study  of 
the  conditions  surrounding  the  site,  as  well  as  of 
taking  into  account  the  orientation  of  the  grounds  and 
building. 

Surfacing  of  Playgrounds.  — It  is  only  within  recent 
years  that  the  school  play  yard  has  received  much  atten- 
tion to  make  it  fit  for  children  to  play  upon.  Of  all 
parts  of  the  plant  to  be  left  unfinished,  the  play  yard, 
with  its  hollows,  rubbish,  brickbats,  and  rough  surfaces 
has  been  woefully  neglected.  Usually  the  entire  appro- 
priation is  spent  in  purchasing  the  site  and  building, 
and  seldom,  if  ever,  is  there  any  provision  in  the  budget 
for  surfacing  of  grounds  or  for  planting.  Happily  the 
awakening  has  brought  about  play  yards  that  are  de- 
lightful for  children  to  play  upon,  and  order  and  care 


have  replaced  the  shiftless,  slovenly  appearing  school 
playground. 

For  ordinary  purposes,  two  types  of  surfaces  are 
needed  for  a school  yard : 

(A)  General  play  surface  — namely,  that  type  of 
surface  which  is  adaptable  for  the  large  play  area.  This 
should  be  a surface  that  is  not  so  hard  as  to  cause 
injuries  to  children  when  falling,  or  so  soft  as  to  hinder 
them  in  free  running  games.  Most  of  the  large  athletic 
games  are  played  on  a surface  of  this  type,  such  as  base- 
ball, football,  soccer,  hockey,  etc.  The  best  surface 
for  games  of  this  sort  is  lawn,  but  where  expense  is  a 
large  item,  lawns  are  impracticable.  A light  sandy  soil, 
when  properly  watered  and  rolled,  will  make  a good 
surface.  A sandy  loam  of  a mixture  of  two-thirds  loam 
and  one-third  sand,  which  will  pack  slightly,  is  probably 
the  most  practical.  The  particles  of  sand  act  as  fine 
separators  to  the  loam  and  keep  the  surface  porous  and 
prevent  it  from  getting  hard.  This  surfacing  should  be 
watered  frequently  to  stay  the  dust  during  the  summer, 
and  lightly  raked  or  brushed  after  freezing  has  set  in 
to  keep  it  soft  for  football. 

(B)  The  court  surface,  which  is  used  for  court  games 
where  a hard,  level  surface  is  required  to  give  the  ball 
an  accurate  bounce.  This  type  of  surface  is  needed  in 
such  games  as  basket  ball,  tennis,  and  handball.  If 
the  surface  is  compact  as  described  under  (A),  a further 
treatment  with  asphaltic  oil  and  crushed  rock  screenings 
ranging  in  size  from  dust  to  and  thoroughly  rolled 
until  the  oil  is  completely  absorbed  will  make  a fair 
surface  for  these  games.  This,  however,  will  never  be 
very  satisfactory  and  has  little  permanency.  The 
better  and  most  lasting  surfaces  for  courts,  and  for  areas 
within  ioo  feet  of  the  school  building,  are  oil  macadam, 
asphalt  on  a crushed  rock  bed,  or  asphalt  on  a concrete 
slab. 

The  following  is  a description  of  the  method  of  apply- 
ing these  three  surfaces : 

Oil  Macadam.  — After  the  surface  has  been  brought 
to  the  proper  levels  for  drainage  and  grades,  it  should 
be  rolled  with  a five  ton  roller  until  the  subsurface  is 
smooth  and  even.  Over  this  surface  should  be  spread  a 
layer  of  clean  crushed  rock  3"  deep,  ranging  in  size  from 
f"  to  . This  layer  should  then  be  rolled  and  covered 
with  a light  layer  of  crushed  rock  dust  or  screenings, 
varying  in  size  from  dust  to  and  rolled  until  the 
screenings  partly  fill  the  voids  between  the  rock.  Upon 
this  surface  should  be  spread  one-half  gallon  of  oil  to 
the  square  yard  of  surface.  Fine  screenings  should  then 
be  dusted  over  it,  and  the  entire  mass  rolled  until  com- 
pact and  hard.  Upon  this  a second  coat  of  oil  should  be 
spread  to  the  extent  of  J gallon  to  the  square  yard  of  sur- 
face, this  again  covered  with  rock  dust  until  all  the  free 


SITES  AND  GROUNDS 


ii 


oil  is  absorbed,  and  then  rolled  thoroughly  until  the 
surface  is  smooth  and  compact.  During  the  final  rolling, 
rock  dust  should  be  sprinkled  wherever  oil  is  forced  to 
the  surface  by  the  roller.  The  total  depth  when  finished 
should  be  three  inches.  This  pavement  at  normal  times 
should  cost  about  4!  cents  per  square  foot.  It  is  kept 
in  repair  by  oiling,  dusting,  and  rolling  the  spots  showing 
wear. 

All  oil  should  be  delivered  at  the  point  required  for 
sprinkling  at  a temperature  of  not  less  than  250  degrees 
Fahrenheit  and  should  contain  not  less  than  90  per  cent 
of  asphalt,  having,  at  a temperature  of  77  degrees 
Fahrenheit,  a penetration  of  80,  District  of  Columbia 
Standard.  There  are  other  requirements  and  tests  for 
the  oil  to  meet,  but  the  above  is  sufficient  for  the  purpose 
of  describing  how  -to  construct  these  surfaces. 

Asphalt  Surfacing  on  Rock.  — This  classification  is  a 
more  permanent  method  of  treating  school  play  yards 
and  is  less  expensive  to  maintain.  After  the  subsurface 
has  been  graded  to  the  correct  levels,  a 3"  layer  of 
crushed  rock,  ranging  in  size  from  f"  to  i\" , should  be 
spread.  This  surface  should  be  carefully  covered  with 
rock  screenings  so  that  the  voids  are  partially  filled,  but 
not  entirely  so,  and  the  entire  surface  thoroughly  rolled. 
On  top  of  this  an  asphalt  wearing  surface,  one  inch  in 
thickness,  should  be  laid  and  thoroughly  rolled  with  a 
roller  weighing  not  more  than  five  tons,  care  being 
exercised  at  all  times  to  secure  a smooth  and  uniform 
surface.  The  final  depth  of  this  surfacing  should  be 
four  inches.  Under  normal  conditions,  this  pavement 
costs  approximately  14!  cents  per  square  foot. 

Asphalt  Surfacing  on  Concrete.  — This  is  by  far  the 
best  wearing  surface  for  tennis  and  other  courts  and  is 
the  most  permanent.  It  differs  from  asphalt  on  rock 
only  in  the  substitution  of  concrete,  at  least  3"  thick, 
for  the  crushed  rock.  It  costs  approximately  18  cents 
a square  foot. 

In  all  surfacing  care  should  be  taken  to  grade  the  sub- 
surface so  that  the  finished  work  will  be  of  the  required 
thickness  and  at  the  same  time  shed  water  without  form- 
ing gullies.  This  can  be  accomplished  by  installing 
catch  basins  and  drains  and  sloping  the  ground  to  them 
with  easy  gradients.  This  will  preserve  the  surfacing, 
avoid  hollow  spots  for  puddles,  and  enable  the  grounds 
to  dry  quickly. 

Brick  and  cement  pavements  should  be  used  only  for 
walks.  The  former  is  too  dangerous,  and  soon  wears 
out  the  shoes  and  tears  the  clothing  of  the  children,  and 
like  the  latter,  having  no  resilience  or  “ give  ” to  the 
pressure  of  the  feet,  is  very  tiring.  When  used  for  walks 
these  pavements  should  be  laid  flush  with  the  play  yard. 

Fencing  of  Grounds.  — ■ The  play  yard  fence  is  the 
part  of  the  equipment  most  difficult  to  justify  on  paper, 


and  yet  it  is  the  most  essential  in  practice.  In  addition 
to  the  protection  of  children  from  the  danger  of  street 
traffic,  and  the  aid  it  affords  in  the  enforcement  of  rules 
and  regulations,  it  gives  a spirit  of  individuality  to  the 
play  yard.  Inside  the  playground  fence  exist  a certain 
code  of  ethics  and  form  of  procedure  that  differ  from 
those  of  the  street  or  vacant  lot.  This  feeling  can  be 
made  strong  enough  to  become  an  incentive  to  good 
conduct.  Fences  might  be  well  covered  with  climbers, 
and  add  not  only  beauty  to  the  grounds,  but  protect 
girls  from  the  gaze  of  idle  passers-by.  When  covered 
with  vines,  they  serve  well  as  a low  base  or  screen  for 
electric  light  poles  with  which  to  illuminate  the  play 
yard  at  night  for  the  use  of  the  grounds  by  the  working 
boys  and  girls  of  the  community  and  the  older  adults. 
The  poles,  placed  along  the  fence,  present  a less  hideous 
appearance,  and  fewer  are  needed  within  the  grounds. 
The  better  treatment  of  fencing  school  grounds  is  to 
inclose  the  play  yard  , and  rear  only,  and  to  leave  the 
front  of  the  site  and  approaches  to  the  building  unfenced, 
as  such  treatment  gives  a more  inviting  impression  to 
the  public  and  to  the  student.  The  result  will  be  that 
the  school  will  operate  in  closer  touch  with  the  com- 
munity. 

Wider  Use  of  School  Grounds.  — Communities  are 
awake  to  the  possibilities  of  having  their  school  yards 
used  at  night  and  on  holidays  by  adults  for  games  under 
skilled  supervision.  Modern  illuminating  engineering 
has  advanced  so  that  tennis,  basket  ball,  volley  ball,  and 
indoor  baseball  may  be  played  outdoors  at  night  as  well 
as  within  an  armory  or  an  inclosed  arena.  Both  the 
school  and  the  grounds  are  coming  into  active  and  inten- 
sive use,  and  the  people  are  quick  to  observe  the  dif- 
ference between  well-planned  and  well-equipped  grounds 
and  those  of  the  haphazard  and  indifferently  kept  school 
play  yards  that  are  of  little  or  no  use.  The  character 
of  a community  is  improved  by  good  playgrounds.  New 
laws  eliminating  vicious  rendezvous  also  make  it  obliga- 
tory that  the  working  boys  and  girls  have  every  oppor- 
tunity to  participate  in  games  on  well-kept  grounds 
amidst  pleasant  surroundings.  When  once  completed, 
such  grounds  cost  little  to  maintain,  and  the  returns  to 
good  citizenship  and  good  health  out-measure  all  initial 
cost.  Many  good  playgrounds,  open  wide  for  inten- 
sive use,  will  cut  down  the  financial  burden  in  maintain- 
ing jails  and  hospitals,  and  the  attendance  within  them. 

Play  Yard  Accommodations.  — In  planning  the  build- 
ing, the  school  toilet  rooms  for  both  sexes  should  be 
located  so  as  to  be  accessible  to  the  play  space,  in  order 
to  save  duplication  in  the  plumbing.  However,  adults 
should  never  be  permitted  to  use  the  children’s  toilets, 
nor  should  the  children  be  permitted  to  use  the  toilets 
assigned  to  the  older  people.  Each  should  have  separate 


-S  T TLLE.T- 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


1 2 


JOHN  J.  DONOVAN  1 

aM 

JOHN  O/LLU  HOWAUD  J 

ATinpT 

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S C A L,  L,  \\ 

SITES  AND  GROUNDS 


i3 


•GHOUP  PLAN  OF  THL  OAKLAND  TECHNICAL  HIGH  SCHOOL  • OAKLAND  - CALIF- 

JOHN  J.  DOFOVAN  AILCH1T£,  CT  • 

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I.NTI1LE,  SITE,  CONTAINS  ABOUT  14.66  ACJl2,S 

Fig.  5. 


14 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


toilet  and  dressing  rooms.  The  same  is  true  of  shower 
rooms.  Carelessness  in  regard  to  this  may  lead  to  a 
serious  infection  of  an  innocent  child,  a thing  which  can 
be  easily  avoided.  Near  the  dressing  rooms  should 
be  a small  rest  room  where  a first-aid  dispensary  could  be 
stationed  to  treat  injuries  occurring  on  the  playgrounds. 
A storeroom  about  i2'X2o'  is  essential  for  the  storage  of 
supplies  and  parts  of  apparatus.  These  rooms  should 
be  placed  adjacent  to  the  field  and  so  arranged  that 
access  to  them  may  be  had  without  entering  the  re- 
mainder of  the  school  building.  The  school  therefore 
will  serve  as  a field  house  and  save  the  expense  and  space 
that  would  be  required  for  an  additional  building. 

Figure  4 is  the  actual  layout  or  plan  of  the  Emerson 
School  site,  Oakland,  California,  and  includes  about 
4.3  acres.  This  playground  is  supervised  by  the  Munici- 
pal Recreation  Department.  The  following  is  a de- 
scription of  the  apparatus  indicated  by  the  numbers 
and  letters  on  the  diagram : 

1.  Girls’  Sandbox.  The  dimensions  of  this  are 
1X5X12  feet.  It  is  equipped  with  a shelf  around  the 
top,  which  serves  either  as  a seat  or  a molding  table. 
It  is  filled  with  a coarse  grade  of  sand,  which  will  not 
become  dusty  in  dry  weather  or  muddy  when  moistened. 


2.  Girls’  Slide.  This  is  a medium-sized  slide, 
equipped  with  a landing-pit  filled  with  clean  sand. 

3.  Girls’  Gymnasium  Frame,  which  consists  of  a 
set  of  six  traveling  rings.  This  particular  unit  has  been 
found  most  satisfactory  for  girls. 

4.  Girls’  Volley-Ball  Court,  which  has  4X4  inch 
posts  set  in  sockets,  so  that  they  may  be  easily  removed. 

5.  Girls’  Basket-Ball  Court,  — posts  set  in  sockets. 
(Numbers  4 and  5 are  convertible  into  tennis  courts 
during  seasons  when  basket  ball  is  not  played.) 

6.  Double  Handball  Courts,  one  side  for  girls,  and 
the  other  for  boys.  This  consists  of  plain  handball 
backstops,  twenty  feet  wide,  twelve  feet  high,  with  a 
six-foot  wire  extension. 

7.  Boys’  Basket-Ball  Court  — posts  set  in  sockets. 

8.  Boys’  Volley-Ball  Court  — posts  set  in  sockets. 
(Numbers  7 and  8 are  convertible  into  tennis  courts.) 

9.  Boys’  Gymnasium  Frame.  Unit  selected  for 
boys’  gymnasium  frame  is  one  horizontal  bar,  one  climb- 
ing-pole, one  climbing-ladder,  two  sets  of  flying  rings. 

10.  High  Slide  for  Boys,  equipped  with  landing-pit 
filled  with  sand. 

11.  Soccer  Posts,  made  of  6X6  inch  posts.  Size  of 
field  is  reduced  to  50X80  yards,  which  has  proved  satis- 


PROPOSED  ; NEW  * HIGH -SCHOOL  * FOR.’  SANTA-  BARBARA  * CALIF 


Fig.  6. 


SITES  AND  GROUNDS 


i5 


Fig.  7. 


Messrs.  Pertcins,  Fellows  & Hamilton,  Arcnuects. 
Athletic  Field,  New  Trier  Township  High  School,  Kenilworth,  III. 


factory  for  school  playground  purposes.  Hockey  is 
played  on  this  field. 

12.  Sandbox  for  Boys,  equipped  as  number  1. 

13.  Jumping-pit,  filled  with  shavings. 

14.  Wire  Cage  Backstop  for  baseball. 

15.  Open  Pergola  Porch,  covered  with  canvas  in  the 
summer  time,  which  affords  a place  for  small  children 
to  hold  club  meetings  and  enjoy  diversified  play. 


Area  marked  X is  an  oil  macadam  composition.  It 
makes  an  excellent  surface  for  court  games. 

Surface  marked  Y is  covered  with  crushed-rock  dust. 
It  makes  a good  baseball  field,  but  is  a little  too  hard 
for  football,  — sandy  loam  would  be  better. 

Figure  5 shows  the  group  plan  of  the  Technical  High 
School,  Oakland,  California.  This  plot  includes  14.85 
acres. 


Messrs.  Olmsted  Bros.  — Landscape  Architects. 

Fig.  8. 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


£ ni  ^ 4<;%j 

■ 

■ 

■ ' ■ 


Fig.  io. — Field  House,  Crocker  Field,  Fitchburg,  Massachusetts. 


Messrs.  Olmsted  Bros.,  Landscape  Architects. 


Fig.  g.  — Crocker  Field,  Fitchburg,  Massachusetts. 


Messrs.  Olmsted  Bros.,  Landscape  Architects. 


SITES  AND  GROUNDS 


i7 


Messrs.  Olmsted  Bros.,  Landscape  Architects. 


Fig.  11  a.  — Crocker  Field,  Fitchburg,  Massachusetts. 


CHAPTER  II 


ARCHITECTURE,  PLANNING,  AND  CONSTRUCTION 

By  John  J.  Donovan,  B.S.,  Architect , A. I. A. 

The  Motive  of  American  School  Architecture.  Formation  of  the  Plan.  Correlation  of  Departments.  Planning  the  School  of 
the  Future.  The  Exterior  Composition.  Standardization.  Legislation.  Construction.  Materials.  Inspection.  The  Architect 
and  His  Service. 


Motive  of  American  School  Architecture.  — There 
is  nothing  more  impressive  or  hopeful  in  American 
democracy  than  the  devotion  of  the  people  to  education. 
Nor  is  this  devotion  confined  to  those  who  have  enjoyed 
its  enrichments.  Even  in  the  humblest  homes  un- 
lettered parents  will  be  found  to  have  a fixed  desire  for 
the  educational  welfare  of  their  children.  Sacrifices  in 
personal  comforts  of  all  but  the  means  of  mere  existence 
are  made  in  order  that  the  family  may  have  the  opportu- 
nity of  receiving  not  simply  the  fundamentals  of  learning, 
but  the  training  of  the  university  as  well.  And  the 
devotion  of  the  wealthy  is  no  less  impressive.  For  the 
great  progress  of  education  is  due  in  large  measure  to 
the  interest  in  education  shown  by  men  and  women  of 
affluence.  Universities,  colleges,  academies,  and  often 
the  public  schools  could  not  have  fulfilled  the  educa- 
tional wants  of  the  nation,  had  it  not  been  for  the  many 
magnificent  endowments,  for  the  promotion  of  learn- 
ing and  the  development  of  character,  placed  at  the  dis- 
posal of  education- by  these  public-spirited  people. 

Education  is  the  common  meeting-ground  for  all 
classes,  creeds,  and  races,  where  the  small  bothersome 
misunderstandings  of  life  vanish ; and  nowhere  is  this 
more  evident  than  in  American  school  life.  The  greatest 
tribute  of  justice  that  can  be  paid  to  the  nation  is  that 
its  laws  first  demand  that  its  youth  shall  receive  the 
fundamentals  of  education,  and  then  it  presents  the 
widest  opportunities  for  its  humblest  citizen  and  resident 
to  proceed  in  acquiring  unlimited  learning. 

With  such  a foundation,  it  is  no  wonder  that  the 
architecture  of  American  schools  and  institutions  of 
learning  has  advanced  more  rapidly  than  that  of  any 
other  field  of  the  profession.  Unconsciously  the  spirit 
has  been  to  represent  truly  this  national  devotion  to 
education  in  the  architecture  of  public  schools.  If 
progress  in  education  is  observed  from  the  time  when 
it  was  dispensed  within  the  small  box-like  building,  with 
its  poorly  lighted  and  badly  ventilated  rooms,  to  its 


present  expanded  and  still  expanding  status,  as  carried 
on  within  the  modern  complex  structure  completely 
equipped  and  embracing  all  facilities  for  education, 
health,  and  safety,  it  will  be  seen  that  architecture  has 
kept  abreast  with  each  succeeding  step  of  the  educational 
program,  in  which  the  course  of  studies  has  become 
more  and  more  extended  to  meet  the  requirements  of 
the  industrial,  commercial,  and  social  life  of  the  nation. 

Notwithstanding  this  expansion  of  the  curriculum  and 
the  consequent  complexity  of  the  building  and  equip- 
ment, it  is  gratifying  to  note  that  the  architecture  of 
the  school  has  remained  simple  and  direct.  This  is  truly 
a hopeful  sign.  For  as  the  nation  advances  in  its  devel- 
opment and  maintains  its  virility,  the  demands  for  edu- 
cation will  always  outstrip  the  supply.  And  the  burden 
of  taxation  so  willingly  borne  as  a responsibility  to 
posterity  and  good  citizenship  is  that  much  lightened 
when  the  merit  of  the  architecture  is  based  on  good 
planning,  beauty  of  form,  and  dignity  of  proportion. 
Ornamental  embellishments  serve  no  purpose.  They 
do  not  represent  the  character  of  the  school  or  of  the 
people,  and  happily  their  use  is  rare  in  American  school 
architecture.  Just  how  much  credit  for  this  is  due  to 
the  influence  of  the  work  of  Wheelwright.  Ittner,  Snyder. 
Perkins,  Hussander,  Guilbert,  Betelle,  Packard,  and  to 
the  innumerable  unheard-of  men  who  have  contributed 
isolated  examples,  and  to  the  influence  of  the  broad- 
minded, alert,  and  discerning  leaders  of  education,  is 
difficult  to  measure  at  this  time.  But  it  is  recorded 
in  their  examples  of  school  architecture  that  these  men. 
by  their  serious  study  of  the  problem  and  their  good 
sense  for  simplicity  in  composition,  have  led  the  way 
in  school  architecture  toward  possibilities  which  have 
clearly  exemplified  the  people’s  devotion  to  education 
and  their  appreciation  for  simple,  substantial  structures. 

Formation  of  the  Plan.  — The  proper  understanding 
of  the  school  problem  might  be  said  to  have  passed  its 
first  stages.  While  what  has  been  accomplished  in  the 


ARCHITECTURE , PLANNING,  AND  CONSTRUCTION 


19 


Clark  Elementary  and  Soldan  High  School,  St.  Louis,  Missouri. 


20 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Fig.  13.  — Bryan  Mullanphy  Elementary  School,  Front  View,  St.  Louis,  Missouri. 


mt.  wm.  u.  luner,  Arcnuea 


last  two  decades  has  been  remarkable,  it  will  be  greatly 
surpassed  in  the  future.  With  a comprehensive  knowl- 
edge of  the  pedagogical  organization  being  more  gen- 
erally acquired  by  the  architectural  profession,  the 
prospect  is  bright  for  good  planning  of  school  buildings. 
There  is  an  axiom  in  the  science  of  building  that  a good 
plan  should  produce  a good  exterior.  This,  of  course, 
is  subject  to  the  limitations  of  training,  skill,  taste,  and 
competence  of  the  architect.  But  it  is  none  the  less  true 
that  the  plan  must  be  of  primary  importance.  The 
correlation  of  rooms  within  each  department  and  the 
correlation  of  departments  within  the  school  is  all-im- 
portant if  the  school  is  to  permit  of  being  well  adminis- 
tered. In  factory  planning,  the  essential  factor  is  the 
routing  of  material  along  the  most  direct  and  economical 
channels.  In  school  planning,  the  routing  of  the  human 
material  is  the  essential.  Rooms  which  can  serve  more 
than  one  purpose  should  be  planned  to  do  so.  For  it  is 
by  such  practices  of  economical  planning  rather  than  by 
the  use  of  cheap  materials  that  real  economy  can  be 
accomplished. 

Within  the  last  decade  there  has  been  a strong  tendency 
to  link  the  school  and  the  community  together  by  pro- 
viding separate  rooms  for  community  purposes,  such 


as  clubrooms,  small  libraries,  etc.  This  movement  is 
accomplishing  its  purpose,  for  out  of  it  is  growing  a valu- 
able connection,  namely,  the  continuation  school.  The 
close  relation  between  the  school  and  the  community 
must  be  fostered  if  education  is  to  prosper ; but  instead 
of  devoting  valuable  space  in  the  building  for  occasional 
use,  rooms  such  as  the  teachers’  rest  room,  the  library, 
the  assembly  hall,  or  the  music  room  should  be  the  meet- 
ing places  of  the  community  clubs. 

Every  facility  should  be  made  for  educational  work, 
and  every  dollar  spent  should  have  its  worth  expressed 
in  the  educational,  hygienic,  and  structural  features  of 
the  building.  When  it  is  considered  that  even  with  the 
strictest  economy  in  planning  only  fifty  per  cent  of  the 
total  floor  area  can  be  used  for  instruction  while  the 
other  fifty  per  cent  is  used  for  corridors,  stairways, 
entrances, ' and  rooms  and  areas  related  to  instruction 
rooms,  it  is  evident  that  judgment  must  be  exercised 
in  giving  up  space  for  other  than  that  for  direct  instruc- 
tion. This,  however,  should  not  prejudice  the  reader 
against  such  rooms  as  assembly  halls,  swimming-pools, 
playrooms,  etc.,  for  these  are  just  as  essential  to  the 
development  of  the  child  and  the  community  as  the 
classrooms  themselves.  The  school  of  the  future  will 


ARCHITECTURE , PLANNING,  AND  CONSTRUCTION 


21 


not  be  complete  without  them ; but  their  location  with 
relation  to  each  other  should  be  planned  to  avoid  dupli- 
cation of  equipment  and  plant.  For  instance,  the 
toilets,  showers,  dressing-rooms,  etc.,  for  the  play-yard 
activities  should  also  serve  for  the  swimming-pool,  the 
gymnasium,  and  the  indoor  playrooms.  The  dressing- 
rooms  for  the  assembly-hall  stage  should  be  planned 
for  use  by  the  music  department  for  private  instrumental 
instruction.  In  fact,  all  the  rooms  throughout  the  school 
should  be  considered  as  having  possibilities  for  extended 
use  into  school  activities  beyond  their  primary  purpose. 

The  plant  and  equipment 
of  the  day  school  must  be 
fitted  and  adapted  to  the 
work  of  the  continuation 
school,  so  that  rotation  of 
students  may  be  accom- 
plished without  friction  or 
waste  of  time  or  energy.  In 
many  cities  the  continua- 
tion school  periods  begin 
at  i : oo  p.M.  and  extend 
to  io : oo  p.m.  It  is  not 
unlikely  that  the  hours  of 
work  for  this  branch  of 
school  education  may  ex- 
tend from  7 : 30  a.m.  to 
xo  : 00  p.m.  Students  en- 
rolled in  the  continuation 
school  enter  and  leave  the 
building  at  all  hours,  con- 
sequently, the  plant  should 
be  as  flexible  as  the  or- 
ganization in  meeting  the 
requirements. 

Correlation  of  Depart- 
ments. — The  various  de- 
partments of  the  school  are 
treated  in  separate  chap- 
ters because  of  the  im- 
portance of  having  correct  and  definite  data  embracing 
their  organization,  planning,  and  equipment.  Their 
correlation  only  will  be  discussed  here. 

It  will  be  found  advantageous  if  the  commercial  de- 
partment is  placed  near  the  administration  offices,  as 
they  have  much  in  common.  The  shops  should  be 
isolated  from  the  study  and  recitation  rooms,  on  account 
of  the  noises  attendant  to  their  operation.  The  drawing 
department  should  be  near  the  shops,  as  all  advanced 
shopwork  should  be  performed  from  working  drawings. 
If  these  two  departments  are  adjacent,  convenience  will 
result.  Possibilities  for  wide  expansion  should  always 
be  made  feasible  in  planning  for  shops.  The  household 


arts  and  the  science  departments  should  also  be  near 
each  other;  particularly  should  the  chemistry  labora- 
tories be  available  for  use  by  the  students  in  cooking. 
The  chemistry  of  foods  is  a part  of  the  curriculum  of 
household  arts  in  modern  high  schools.  The  academic 
department  and  the  library  are  almost  a unity,  and 
wherever  located,  possibilities  for  expansion  and  easy 
growth  should  be  considered  from  every  angle.  For,  as 
enrollment  increases,  this  department  is  the  first  to  feel 
congestion.  Locating  the  assembly  hall,  the  gymnasium, 
the  swimming-pool,  the  showers,  and  the  play-yard 

accommodations  should 
have  reference  to  free  ac- 
cessibility by  the  public. 
These  divisions  of  the  school 
plant  should  be  arranged  so 
that  if  found  desirable  or 
necessary,  the  remainder  of 
the  school  may  be  closed 
off.  As  a general  rule,  the 
heating  plant  should  be 
closely  connected  with  the 
shops  and  apart  from  the 
main  building.  This  will 
serve  a double  purpose  in 
providing  certain  instruc- 
tion to  the  student  in  me- 
chanical installations  and 
at  the  same  time  increase 
the  safety  of  the  building 
and  its  occupants. 

Planning  the  School  of 
the  Future.  — The  school 
of  the  future,  having  the 
last  decade  of  progress  in 
education  for  its  founda- 
tion, will  have  to  be  pro- 
portionate in  plant  and 
equipment  to  meet  the 
needs  of  each  community 
for  the  great  post-war  period  of  education.  The 
physical  and  scientific  requirements  of  the  World  War 
(1914-19x8)  have  precipitated  a feeling  for  an  intense 
and  constructive  movemeixt  for  greater  diffusion  of  edu- 
cational training  in  the  professional,  social,  industrial, 
and  commercial  fields  of  eixdeavor.  Business,  industry, 
agriculture,  and  the  other  arts  of  life  are  no  longer  inde- 
pendent of  the  school.  Nor  is  the  school  an  isolated 
institution,  occupying  a definitely  limited  period  in  the 
life  of  the  individual.  That  belief  now  lies  in  the  back- 
ground of  the  history  of  both  education  and  industry. 
Research  and  applied  science  have  received  an  impetus 
never  before  experienced  or  equaled,  an  impetus  which 


Fig.  14.  — Bryan  Mullanphy  Elementary  School,  St.  Louis, 
Missouri. 


22 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


gives  to  these  two  important  branches  of  education  a 
higher  standing  of  importance. 

It  is  also  through  the  school  that  the  more  complete 
nationalizing  of  the  immigrant  and  his  children  will  be 
brought  about.  This  movement  is  well  under  way  at 
the  present  time,  having  received  its  impulse  from  the 
spirit  of  patriotism  for  America  so  magnificently  exem- 
plified by  the  foreign-born  citizens  during  the  war.  A 
tremendous  effort  towards  national  homogeneity  and 
common  interest  is  bound  to  result  from  it.  This  will 
directly  benefit  education  and  the  state.  Readjustment 


rooms  used  for  the  study  of  English  and  literature. 
Attempts,  sometimes  partly  successful,  have  been  made 
to  give  these  rooms  a character  of  early  English  Tudor 
architecture.  These  sporadic  efforts  have  had  their 
limitations  and  difficulties  on  account  of  the  fenestration 
necessitated  by  the  modern  requirements  for  good  natural 
lighting.  Except  for  the  development  of  the  library 
and  the  arrangement  of  the  dividing  partitions  so  that 
floor  areas  of  rooms  may  be  easily  altered  to  expedite 
flexibility  in  administration,  this  department  of  the  school 
plant  is  likely  to  be  subject  to  very  few  modifications 


(ST.  LOUJ4>,  MO. 
V-'B.ITTNZ.IL,  AtCHlTECr 


Fig.  is. 


of  the  school  plan  necessarily  will  follow.  Just  where 
and  how  is  problematical  for  the  moment,  but  most 
likely  the  greatest  development  will  take  place  in  the 
household,  industrial,  and  commercial  departments  of 
the  school  plant. 

The  academic  department,  which  teaches  the  studies 
of  mathematics,  languages,  English,  history,  civics,  and 
geography,  — the  subjects  of  culture  and  the  foundation 
for  all  other  forms  of  education,  — has  stood  the  test  of 
time  without  much  change  in  the  physical  requirements 
of  its  rooms  beyond  enlargements  of  area  and  improve- 
ment of  the  hygienic  conditions.  However,  certain 
refinements  have  already  taken  place  in  the  design  of 


other  than  providing  sufficient  well-lighted,  healthful 
rooms  for  study  and  recitation. 

The  departments  teaching  the  sciences,  industrial 
arts,  drawing,  household  arts,  and  commercial  studies 
are  most  subject  to  change  in  their  curricula,  plant,  and 
equipment.  And  to  meet  the  changes,  it  is  necessary  for 
the  school  to  draw  from  the  ranks  of  industry,  able  leaders 
to  assist  in  the  planning  and  instruction.  No  longer  will 
it  do  tc  assign  vacant  rooms  and  simply  designate  them 
as  shops  or  laboratories.  Each  room,  before  the  draw- 
ings have  passed  beyond  the  preliminary  stages,  must 
have  its  equipment  carefully  shown,  properly  located, 
and  tested  in  the  abstract  for  efficiency  and  adequacy. 


ARCHITECTURE,  PLANNING,  AND  CONSTRUCTION 


23 


Attention  should  be  called  to  what  all  this  means  in 
the  planning  and  architecture  of  the  school  of  the  future. 
Undoubtedly,  the  high  school  will  take  on  the  aspect 
and  character  of  the  university,  and  function  for  the 
community  as  the  university  now  functions  for  the  state. 
Instead  of  many  small  and  distinctly  exclusive  high 
schools,  such  as  the  classical,  the  commercial,  the  techni- 
cal, the  vocational,  etc.,  etc.,  the  people  and  their  rep- 
resentatives, boards  of  education,  will  see  the  light  of 
wisdom  and  group  all  these  separate  schools  under  one, 
two  or  three  plants,  according  to  the  size  of  the  district 


This  requires  a thorough  knowledge  of  the  school  and  a 
vision  of  the  future.  The  greatest  waste  is  to  build  so 
that  additions  cannot  be  made  and  that  plants  must  as 
a result  be  abandoned  after  thirty  or  forty  years  of  use. 
Bond  issues  extend  to  almost  that  time,  and  it  is  un- 
fortunate if  the  plant  has  to  be  discarded  shortly  after 
payment  of  the  last  installment. 

The  problems  surrounding  the  planning  and  archi- 
tecture of  the  elementary  and  intermediate,  or  junior 
high  school,  are  no  less  important  than  those  of  the 
inclusive  high  school,  although  not  so  complex  or  numer- 


or  city.  This  will  make  for  economy  in  cost  of  manage- 
ment, housing,  and  maintenance,  and  will  broaden  the 
scope  of  the  educational  staff.  Likewise,  it  will  prove 
attractive  to  able  men  and  women  engaged  in  teaching 
to  strive  for  greater  leadership  and  high  social  standing 
in  the  community.  In  the  long  run,  it  will  be  found  less 
expensive  and  more  advantageous  to  have  one  large 
plant  rather  than  several  small  ones.  In  well-developed 
cities  the  high  school,  costing  as  much  as  a million  and  a 
half  dollars  and  even  more,  will  in  the  very  near  future 
be  not  uncommon.  Valuable  service  will  be  rendered 
if  all  school  plants  are  planned  for  unrestricted  growth. 


ous.  But  it  is  in  the  serious  thought  and  study  of 
these  two  plants  that  rests  the  hope  of  the  nation. 
Indifference  to  the  planning,  sanitation,  heating,  and 
ventilation  for  these  fundamental  education  buildings 
has  given  way  to  the  purpose  of  having  them  adequately 
designed  to  meet  their  needs.  It  is  expected  they  will 
be  charmingly  simple  in  their  architecture  and  inviting 
in  their  appearance  and  surroundings.  Just  as  their 
curricula  are  the  foundations  for  higher  education,  so, 
too,  is  their  architecture  the  foundation  for  greater 
development  of  American  school  architecture.  Of  late, 
in  certain  sections  of  the  country,  there  has  been  a tend- 


24 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


ency  to  develop  a compact,  fixed  plan  which  has  been 
influenced  by  desires  for  economy.  Desirable  orienta- 
tion and  natural  ventilation  of  rooms  and  corridors  have 
necessarily  been  sacrificed  in  many  instances  in  favor  of 
compactness.  Children  of  the  age  attending  these 
schools  require  the  most  favorable  hygienic  conditions 
in  order  that  their  physical  assets  may  be  conserved 
to  the  fullest  degree. 


The  Exterior  Composition.  — However  good  the  plan 
of  a school  may  be,  or  whatever  the  excellence  of  its 
capability  for  administration  and  instruction,  unless 
it  is  accompanied  by  a pleasing  composition  of  the 
exterior,  it  will  soon  lose  its  prestige  and  be  forgotten. 
One  of  the  important  functions  of  school  architecture 
is  to  sell  education  to  the  public.  This  is  accomplished 
by  making  attractive  that  side  of  education  which  the 


- £LGOND  FLOOR-  PLAN"  - 

«5cale.  of  Fe.e.t 

5 O 5 /O  /S  20  25  JO  JS  50 


Fig.  17. 


BRYAN  AVULLAN  PHY  SCHOOL 

AT.  UOUIA, 

WABlTTnEjE-,  .ARCHITECT 


The  writer  is  of  the  opinion  that  the  open  type  of  plan 
of  the  one-,  two-,  or  three-story  buildings  is  most  condu- 
cive to  good  health,  and  that  economies  of  space  obtained 
in  the  compact  scheme  may  be  offset  in  the  cost  of  con- 
struction of  the  open  type.  Certainly  more  sunshine 
is  possible  with  the  latter  type  of  plan.  But  rather 
than  prejudice  the  minds  of  those  responsible  for  the 
erection  of  schools,  it  should  be  clearly  understood  that 
each  problem  is  distinct  and  separate  in  itself ; and  its 
plan  and  construction  should  be  based  on  the  conditions 
governing  its  study. 


public  see  most.  So  much  has  been  written  and  said 
about  the  educational  value  of  good  architecture  to  the 
community,  that  it  is  needless  to  repeat  here  what  has 
been  so  thoroughly  propagated  to  influence  civic  interest 
for  good  public  buildings.  But  appropriately  something 
may  be  mentioned  about  the  educational  value  to  chil- 
dren and  students  of  housing  them  in  buildings  having 
merit  in  form,  proportion,  and  good  taste  both  without 
and  within. 

Much  effort  is  made  within  the  school  to  teach  chil- 
dren to  draw  accurately  and  freely,  to  paint  with  oils 


ARCHITECTURE,  PLANNING,  AND  CONSTRUCTION 


25 


Messrs.  John  J.  Donovan  and  John  Galen  Howard,  Associate  Architects. 


Fig.  18.  — Emerson  Elementary  School,  Oakland,  California. 


Messrs.  John  J . Donovan  and  John  Galen  Howard,  Associate  Architects. 

Fig.  19.  — Emerson  Elementary  School,  Oakland,  California. 


26 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


and  water-colors,  to  comprehend  proportion  of  areas 
and  figures,  to  understand  the  history  of  art  and  civiliza- 
tion, and  to  master  other  subjects  which  lead  to  the 
realms  of  art.  The  motive  prompting  this  work  is  not 
that  a livelihood  will  be  made  from  such  brief  training, 
but  that  the  child  will  be  trained  to  have  a sense  of  appre- 
ciation for  the  beautiful  which  he  may  express  in  other 
forms  of  life’s  activities.  Therefore,  is  not  this  appre- 
ciation greatly  enhanced  and  fostered  if  the  building 
and  its  appointments  are  executed  so  that  the  mind,  at 


forced  to  work  in  mills  and  factories  at  an  early  age  and 
by  children  having  to  attend  schools  whose  architecture 
paralleled  that  of  the  jail  or  the  factory.  How  often 
has  the  boy  of  sound  mind  wished  dire  happenings  to 
the  school,  which  meant  nothing  more  to  him  than  a 
place  of  confinement  and  restriction ! Much  of  this  ill- 
will  is  traceable  to  the  forbidding  impression  of  the 
school  building,  with  its  uninviting  exterior  and  its 
dark  and  poorly  ventilated  corridors  and  rooms.  Hap- 
pily the  renaissance  in  school  architecture  which  has 


its  impress:onistic  age,  may  have  good  examples  con- 
stantly before  it?  Set  a child  to  draw  a picture  of  a 
house,  and  immediately  he  will  attempt  to  reproduce  his 
impression  of  his  own  home,  showing  that  he  has  been 
influenced  entirely  by  his  environment. 

Prisons  and  jails  are  built  to  express  severity  and  con- 
finement. To  see  nothing  else  but  their  heavy,  crude 
walls  and  buildings  is  a punishment  almost  equal  to  the 
restrictions  of  freedom  within  them ; and  the  mental 
depression  caused  by  the  severity  of  their  architecture 
has  its  own  discouraging  influence.  A similar  influence 
has  been  felt  by  the  child  whom  circumstances  have 


taken  place  during  the  last  ten  years  has  modified 
this  feeling  of  the  child  towards  the  school.  The  pro- 
vision of  better  facilities 'for  play  has  had  much  to  do  in 
changing  the  child’s  attitude ; but  the  charm  of  simple, 
pleasing  architectural  forms,  together  with  grounds 
graced  with  appropriate  foliage  and  lawns,  has  had  its 
influential  effect  upon  the  adult  as  well  as  upon  the 
pupil. 

The  efforts  of  those  interested  in  child  welfare  and  in 
the  future  of  the  nation  are  directed  towards  extending 
and  prolonging  the  period  of  early  education.  If  this 
movement  is  to  be  successful  and  profitable  to  the  state. 


ARCHITECTURE,  PLANNING,  AND  CONSTRUCTION 


27 


Fig.  21.  — 


Messrs.  John  J.  Donovan  ana  John  Oaten  Howum , siotucuuc  a/uiucus. 

Emerson  Elementary  School,  Oakland,  California. 


it  must  meet  with  the  fullest  cooperation  on  the  part 
of  the  child,  whose  voluntary  attendance  is  worth  more 
than  his  coming  through  fear  of  the  law.  And  to  enlist 
this  cooperation,  it  is  fundamental  that  the  school  in 
its  appearance  shall  be  attractive  to  the  child. 

This  can  be  brought  about  in  no  better  way  than  by 
erecting  simple,  pleasing  architectural  buildings  at  the 
very  beginning  for  the  elementary  schools.  Here  the 
small  child  receives  his  first  impression  of  the  school  and 
the  world,  an  impression  not  subject  to  early  change, 
as  he  is  likely  to  attend  the  same  school  for  a number 
of  years.  Consequently,  the  child  should  be  the  motive 
for  the  architecture  of  this  grade  of  school  buildings, 
and  not  some  time-honored  example  of  a great  period 
of  development  in  architecture.  The  composition 
should  reflect  the  spirit,  quietness,  and  refinement  of  a 
good  home.  A transition  takes  place  in  his  life  as  soon 
as  the  child  first  attends  school,  and  that  transition 
should  be  accompanied  with  delightful  discoveries  of 
new  forms  and  environments  pleasing  to  the  senses. 
Until  recently  there  has  been  too  much  effort  to  show 
how  much  architecture  could  be  put  into  even  the 
simplest  of  problems.  Meaningless  domes,  bombastic 
use  of  the  orders,  wonderful  creations  of  the  monumental 
misapplied  to  the  unpretentious,  have  had  their  day  in 
the  development  of  American  school  architecture,  and 
it  is  to  be  hoped  they  are  never  to  return. 

The  word  “ classical,”  with  all  its  magic,  will  not 
influence  the  intelligent  layman  to  connect  modern 


school  design  with  that  meaningless  phrase  as  applied  to 
architecture.  It  is  effeminate  to  talk  of  styles  of  archi- 
tecture, and  slavish  to  force  their  forms  into  a well- 
organized  plan.  Each  problem  should  have  an  archi- 
tecture or  composition  of  its  own  in  keeping  with  the 
plan,  the  locality,  the  materials  accessible,  and  the  many 
other  factors  influential  in  its  study.  If  the  school  is 
first  viewed  as  a technical  problem  and  solved  in  plan 
from  this  standpoint,  then,  with  the  use  of  good  materials 
and  simplicity  as  the  main  motive,  there  will  be  no  ques- 
tion about  the  successful  progress  of  school  architecture. 
What  has  been  said  about  the  architecture  of  the  ele- 
mentary school  is  equally  applicable  to  the  architecture 
of  the  high  school.  Here,  however,  the  child  has  ad- 
vanced to  and  beyond  the  adolescent  age  when  its  mind 
is  most  confident  and  critical.  And  as  the  impressions 
of  the  elementary  school  should  be  influential  to  attract 
the  child  to  school  life,  so  too  should  the  high  school 
exert  influence  to  impress  upon  the  student  the  value 
of  dignity,  proportion,  and  good  taste.  As  the  child 
should  be  the  motive  for  the  architecture  of  the  earlier 
school,  likewise  the  student  should  be  the  motive  for  the 
architecture  of  the  advanced  school.  The  high  school 
is  the  last  seat  of  learning  to  be  attended  by  the  greater 
number  of  students  enrolled  within  it,  and,  if  for  no  other 
reason,  it  should  present  them  with  visions  of  accom- 
plishments in  life.  Pride  in  country  and  in  citizenship 
is  dependent  on  the  creative  power  of  the  people  as  well 
as  upon  the  laws  guaranteeing  liberty  and  social  possi- 


28 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Messrs.  John  J.  Donovan  and  John  Galen  Howard,  Associate  Architects. 

Fig.  22. — Emerson  Elementary  School,  Oakland,  California. 


bilities.  The  high-school  student  is  quick  to  perceive 
the  merits  of  this  creative  ability.  Therefore,  if  our 
schools  are  to  fulfill  their  functions,  their  outward  appear- 
ance should  have  the  character,  repose,  and  presenta- 
tion befitting  the  important  work  going  forward  within. 

Standardization.  - In  the  chapter  on  elementary 
schools,  it  has  been  pointed  out  that  standardization  is 
likely  to  lead  to  stagnation.  This  is  quite  true  unless 
standardization  is  applied  oidy  to  the  details  of  con- 
struction, which  may  be  standardized  without  restrict- 
ing the  general  development  of  the  administration  and 
instruction  within  the  school.  Educational  methods 
are  rapidly  changing,  and  will  change  just  as  long  as 
progress  is  made.  When  they  cease  to  change,  stagna- 
tion and  then  decadence  follow.  Consequently,  the 
building  should  be  constructed  to  permit  the  greatest 
flexibility  in  arrangement  of  rooms,  even  after  the  build- 
ing is  completed,  so  that  the  construction  will  always  be 
adaptable  for  modification  to  the  school  organization. 
In  a recent  report  to  the  New  York  City  Board  of  Edu- 
cation, on  Public  School  No.  29,  Mr.  C.  B.  J.  Snyder, 
Architect,  pointed  out  many  means  and  ways  towards 
standardization  of  the  architectural  details  within  the 
building,  for  instance  that  the  ventilating  ducts  enter 
the  classrooms  from  the  ceilings  of  the  corridors,  so  that 


dividing  partitions  may  be  changed  at  will.  He  also 
prepared  the  specifications  so  that  different  systems  of 
construction  and  materials,  equally  good,  may  be 
optional  with  the  contractors. 

Such  standardization  is  commendable,  but  whenever 
standardization  takes  the  form  of  limiting  freedom  in 
design  anil  composition,  or  the  endeavor  to  make  the 
community  fit  the  school  instead  of  vice  versa,  then  stand- 
ardization is  nothing  short  of  a prolonged  menace.  If 
the  aesthetic  and  educational  value  of  a well-designed 
exterior  is  to  be  disregarded  and  schools  are  to  be  erected 
like  so  many  factory  buildings,  then  standardization 
some  day  is  bound  to  reflect  on  its  followers.  Or  if  plans 
are  to  be  standardized,  and  fixed  forms  erected  repeatedly, 
then  progress  in  school  planning  will  cease.  However, 
duplication  of  types  at  a particular  period,  and  for  the 
same  grades  of  schools  operating  under  similar  condi- 
tions in  the  same  community,  is  not  at  all  unfavorable 
to  the  progress  of  school  architecture.  Such  standardi- 
zation should  be  handled  skillfully  and  only  after  the 
original  types  have  been  carefully  studied,  for  there  is 
likely  to  be  duplication  of  errors  as  well  as  of  good  fea- 
tures. Just  how  a community  would  appreciate  ten  or 
fifteen  schools  of  the  same  general  plan,  and  with  practi- 
cally the  same  exterior  appearance,  is  problematical  to 


ARCHITECTURE , PLANNING,  AND  CONSTRUCTION 


29 


the  writer.  A final  word  may  not  be  amiss  on  the  subject 
of  standardization  relative  to  its  adoption  when  applied 
to  buildings  as  a whole  ; the  orientation,  the  topography, 
the  size  of  the  different  sites,  the  enrollments,  and  the 
social  character  of  the  neighborhoods,  are  matters  which 
should  determine  the  feasibility  and  the  wisdom  of 
duplication  of  types  of  school  buildings. 

Legislation.  — The  time  has  arrived  when  there 
should  be  some  uniformity  in  the  school-building  codes 
of  all  the  states  of  the  Union.  That  this  may  be  accom- 
plished, a Federal  commission  should  be  created  which 
would  carefully  study,  first  the  problems  of  safety  and 
health,  and  then  the  details  of  efficiency  and  economy 
in  the  erection  of  school  buildings.  Reports  by  this 
commission  could  be  adopted  or  modified  to  suit  local 
conditions,  by  similar  commissions  or  bureaus  created  by 


each  state.  If  such  bureaus  were  permanent,  with  the 
proper  authority  to  enforce  the  laws  governing  safety 
requirements  and  health  regulations,  and  if  they  were 
equipped  with  a trained  personnel  cooperating  with  the 
educators  of  the  state  and  nation,  a great  and  sound 
progress  in  school  building  would  ensue.  Just  prior  to 
the  United  States’  entering  the  war,  the  nation  was 
spending  more  than  one  hundred  and  twenty-five 
millions  of  dollars  annually  for  the  building  of  public 
schools.  Of  this  vast  sum  a very  large  percentage  was 
spent  for  buildings  erected  in  states  having  few,  if  any, 
regulations  covering  the  subject;  and  some  of  it  was 
spent  in  states  having  codes  which  are  rightfully  con- 
sidered drastically  precautionary.  On  the  one  hand, 
haphazard  planning  has  followed,  while  on  the  other, 
an  unnecessarily  wasteful  expenditure  of  resources  has 
been  the  result,  without  any  particular  advantage  being 
gained. 


Empowered  to  pass  on  all  plans  and  specifications,  and 
free  to  make  recommendations,  bureaus  of  the  character 
suggested  would  do  much  towards  conserving  health  and 
wealth  and  preventing  the  erection  of  poor  buildings 
which  could  never  be  erected  under  proper  regulation. 
It  is  far  more  wasteful  to  plan  and  build  wrongly  than 
it  is  to  plan  correctly  with  too  large  a factor  of  safety, 
although  there  is  no  excuse  why  both  extremes  should 
not  be  obviated.  The  trend  of  the  times  is  to  expand 
along  broad  constructive  lines  and  to  conserve  in  all 
fields  of  resource  in  order  that  the  expansion  may  be  all 
the  more  effective. 

Possibilities  for  expansion  in  education  are  infinite, 
and  the  entire  nation  is  eager  to  cooperate  and  take  part, 
but  unless  it  is  intelligently  and  wisely  directed  and 
founded  on  the  purpose  to  conserve  human  and  material 


resources,  unfavorable  reactions  will  unquestionably 
follow. 

Construction.  — Under  this  heading  it  is  not  advisable 
to  attempt  more  than  a few  general  statements  regarding 
the  use  of  good  materials,  the  necessity  for  proper  inspec- 
tion of  the  construction,  the  selection  of  the  architect 
and  his  responsibility.  In  the  chapter  on  the  “ Cost  of 
School  Buildings  ” the  different  grades  of  construction 
are  classified,  as  it  was  found  necessary  to  define  clearly 
these  classifications,  since  the  cost  of  buildings  is  closely 
related  to  the  different  types  of  construction. 

Materials.  — The  distinction  between  economy  and 
cheapness,  as  applied  to  buildings,  warrants  a clear 
definition.  Economy  in  building  means  the  avoidance 
of  waste  in  the  design  of  the  construction  ; the  selection 
of  materials  which  will  withstand  the  ravages  of  time 
and  appropriately  express  the  architectural  design 
worthy  of  the  citizenship  it  represents ; and  the 


Fig.  23. 


30 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Fig.  24.  — Oak  Park  Elementary  School. 


ARCHITECTURE , PLANNING,  AND  CONSTRUCTION 


3i 


employment  of  the  highest  grade  of  workmanship,  fabri- 
cating the  materials  so  that  after  the  building  is  completed 
the  minimum  of  maintenance  charges  will  follow.  On 
the  other  hand,  cheapness  in  building  implies  the  use 
of  materials  and  workmanship  of  little  value,  and  means 
that,  for  the  time  being,  the  building  will  have  only  the 
appearance  of  substantiality.  Cheapness  also  means 
low  cost  of  construction  and  high  cost  of  maintenance. 
Cheaply  constructed  buildings  are  perpetual  liabilities, 
and  after  a short  time  are  worse  than  worthless  because 
of  the  cost  of  maintenance. 

The  “ catch-penny  ” phrase  of  building  inexpensively 
means  nothing  more  than  the  substitution  of  cheap, 
temporary  materials  for  those  of  permanency  and 
character.  Unfortunately,  attempts  are  made  to  be- 
guile the  layman  into  believing  that  long  experience 
in  the  trade  of  handling  cheap  materials  and  erecting 


temporary  commercial  buildings  has  brought  about  an 
adeptness  akin  to  cleverness  in  the  use  of  cheap  materials. 
But  it  is  a known  fact  that  workmen  will  not  take  the 
same  interest  in  their  work  when  using  cheap  materials 
as  when  applying  good.  The  same  is  true  of  the  public’s 
appreciation  of  the  school  buildings  erected  by  public 
funds.  Nothing  can  be  more  harmful  to  the  success  of 
education  than  that  people  should  feel  general  distrust 
and  dissatisfaction  in  the  character  and  quality  of 
the  construction  of  school  plants.  Furthermore,  there 
is  a nobility  of  character  and  a sense  of  security  in  the 
use  of  permanent  materials  which  temporary  or  cheap 
materials  cannot  express. 

Inspection.  — Every  school  building  costing  more  than 
$20,000  should  have  a competent  building  inspector 
appointed  either  by  the  architect  or  the  board  of  educa- 
tion, and  his  salary  should  be  paid  directly  by  the  board. 
He  should  represent  both  the  board  of  education  and 
the  architect,  and  it  is  generally  better  if  he  is  recom- 


mended to  the  board  for  employment  or  dismissal  by  the 
architect,  as  the  latter  can  then  be  responsible  for  the 
proper  conduct  of  the  work.  The  expense  of  such  in- 
spection is  justified  in  every  instance  and  is  an  obligation 
on  the  part  of  the  board  as  a protection  to  the  city  or 
district.  Very  often,  to  drive  a good  bargain  with  the 
architect,  boards  of  education  will  attempt  to  impose 
this  expense  upon  him.  Invariably  the  result  is  the  em- 
ployment of  an  inexperienced  man  who  is  willing  to  serve 
for  a compensation  far  below  the  value  of  the  services  to 
be  rendered,  and  in  consequence  the  board,  the  architect, 
and  the  contractors  are  all  involved  in  disputes  and  mis- 
understandings. There  is  no  other  expenditure  con- 
nected with  the  construction  of  the  building  more  im- 
portant than  that  allowed  for  the  proper  and  constant 
supervision  of  the  work  as  it  progresses.  A competent 
man  will  not  only  see  that  the  work  is  executed  according 


to  the  plans  and  specifications,  thereby  guaranteeing 
full  value  of  materials  and  workmanship,  but  he  will 
anticipate  errors  and  wastes  and  often  save  the  board 
many  times  the  amount  of  his  salary. 

The  reliable  American  contractor  is  about  as  fine  a citi- 
zen as  any  with  whom  the  nation  can  be  blessed.  The 
opposite  is  true  of  the  unreliable,  and  inasmuch  as  public 
work  is  generally  subject  to  the  freest  competition,  the 
successful  bidders  are  unfortunately  not  always  the  most 
reliable.  An  unscrupulous  contractor  can  easily  cause  a 
loss  of  more  than  several  times  the  cost  of  competent  in- 
spection. After  more  than  twenty-two  years  of  experience 
in  building  operations,  the  writer  is  convinced  that  it 
would  be  far  better  to  have  the  funds  plundered  directly 
to  any  extent,  than  to  have  the  building  cheated  to  the 
same  amount  in  the  quality  or  quantity  of  the  materials. 
In  the  former  case  there  is  every  opportunity  for  just 
retribution  to  reach  the  embezzler,  but  in  the  latter  the 
safety  of  the  occupants  is  involved.  In  both  instances, 


32 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Fig.  26. — Lafayette  School,  Newark,  N.  J. 
Elevation 


Messrs.  Guilbert  and  Betelle,  Architects. 


the  community  is  the  loser.  This  may  be  avoided  by 
safeguarding  the  conditions  leading  up  to  the  wrong- 
doing. Briefly,  a few  points  to  observe  in  building 
inspection  are  as  follows  : 

Excavation.  — See  that  the  proper  levels  and  grades 
are  maintained.  All  top  soil  should  be  placed  convenient 
for  rehandling.  Trees  for  future  use  should  be  protected. 

Concrete  Work.  — Each  batch  of  concrete  should  be 
accurately  measured  and  properly  placed,  tamped,  and 
protected.  All  reenforcement  should  be  bent  correctly 
and  rightly  placed.  If  the  structure  is  economically 
designed,  the  sizes  and  locations  of  the  steel  rods  and 
mesh  should  be  carefully  inspected  in  every  column, 
girder,  beam,  slab,  and  wall.  The  safety  of  the  occu- 
pants is  dependent  upon  the  inspection  as  well  as  the 
design.  All  finished  concrete  and  cement  work  should 
be  kept  in  a moistened  condition  for  a period  of  two 
weeks,  except  during  freezing  weather. 

Steel.  — All  work  should  be  plumbed  after  erection, 
and  all  connections  riveted  tightly.  Loose  rivets  should 
be  rejected,  and  bolted  work  should  be  avoided  as  far 
as  possible.  Unless  the  steel  is  inclosed  in  concrete 


it  should  receive  two  good  coats  of  paint : (a)  a shop  coat, 
and  ( b ) a field  coat,  of  contrasting  color  applied  after 
all  riveting  and  other  steel  work  is  completed. 

Masonry.  — All  brick  joints  should  be  solidly  filled 
with  mortar  properly  gauged  and  the  bricks  should  be  in 
a partly  saturated  condition  when  laid. 

Carpentry.  — Inspection  of  this  branch  requires  a 
wide  experience.  Selection  of  the  lumber  is  important. 
Following  up  the  nailing,  placing  of  the  grounds  for  the 
finish,  judging  the  quality  and  character  of  the  finish, 
inspection  of  the  workmanship  of  the  latter,  the  laying 
of  the  floors,  and  the  checking  of  multitudinous  details 
is  a responsibility  that  can  be  executed  only  by  a 
thoroughly  competent  man. 

Plastering.  — - First  of  all,  the  lathing  should  be  closely 
inspected.  Then  the  mixture  and  application  of  the 
mortar  is  very  important  if  the  finished  building  is  to  be 
creditable  to  all  concerned  in  the  project.  All  exposed 
corners  should  have  galvanized  metal  corner  beads,  and 
all  angles  and  wall  surfaces  should  be  plumb  and  true. 
The  thickness  and  finish  of  the  mortar  and  number  of 
coats  should  be  clearly  specified  and  carefully  checked. 


ARCHITECTURE , PLANNING , AND  CONSTRUCTION 


33 


Painting.  — The  material  should  be  checked  as  it 
arrives  on  the  job,  and  adulteration  should  never  be 
permitted.  Large  quantities  of  gasoline  or  naphtha  on 
the  premises  are  a sure  sign  of  danger  ahead.  Each 
coat  should  be  identified  by  some  mark,  and  all  rubbing 
of  surfaces  should  be  constantly  followed. 

Hardware.  — Only  standard  makes  should  be  specified, 
as  special  hardware  and  renewals  are  unnecessarily 
expensive.  However,  it  should  be  of  good  quality, 
as  it  is  subject  to  much 
usage.  Brass  or  bronze 
should  be  the  metals 
used  for  all  exposed 
exterior  work.  Very 
often  sherardized  steel, 
brass  plated,  makes  a 
good  substitute  for  in- 
terior hardware  finish. 

If  brass  or  bronze  is 
specified,  a steel  mag- 
net is  a good  aid  to 
inspection  of  the  make 
of  the  material. 

Glass.  — The  thick- 
ness and  quality  of  the 
glass  are  the  principal 
points  to  follow  in  this 
branch.  Only  the  bet- 
ter grades  should  be 
used  below  a height  of 
eight  feet.  Above  that, 
it  is  permissible  to  allow 
the  use  of  the  less  per- 
fect material. 

Blackboards  are  fully 
covered  in  the  chapter 
on  “ Classrooms,”  and 
heating,  ventilation, 
plumbing,  and  electri- 
cal work,  are  also 
treated  in  separate 
chapters,  because  of 

the  importance  of  the  engineering  required  for  these 
branches  of  the  special  work. 

The  above  notations  are  only  a few  of  the  many 
factors  involved  in  the  erection  of  a school  building,  and 
are  submitted  for  the  benefit  of  the  school  superintendent, 
who  may  be  called  upon  at  times  to  assume  the  responsi- 
bility of  acting  as  the  board’s  representative  on  the  work. 

The  Architect  and  His  Service.  — Selecting  the 
architect  is  very  often  made  a difficult  task,  although 
it  should  be  a very  simple  matter.  To  be  sure,  the 
authority  of  choosing  is  accompanied  with  its  sense  of 


responsibility,  but  if  any  member  of  a board  of  educa- 
tion had  a legal  case  at  hand,  he  would  not  hesitate  very 
long  in  choosing  an  attorney  skilled  in  conducting  cases 
similar  to  his  own.  Furthermore,  if  a member  of  his 
family  required  the  attention  of  a physician  it  would 
not  require  much  deliberation  to  select  a man  in  whom 
he  had  the  utmost  confidence.  Boards  of  education  are 
applying  these  same  principles  in  selecting  their  architects. 
The  architect  of  experience  and  standing  in  this  field 

of  the  profession  is 
aware  of  the  futility  of 
entering  competitions, 
and  unless  the  office  is 
equipped  for  such  com- 
petitive work,  and 
makes  a practice  of  en- 
tering competitions  of 
every  nature,  it  is  found 
to  be  an  expensive  gam- 
ble. An  occasional 
competition,  however, 
is  often  a good  tonic 
for  any  office,  as  it  dis- 
closes the  cobwebs  and 
raises  the  standards  of 
what  might  be  termed 
academic  design.  How- 
ever, every  competition 
requires  a carefully 
prepared  program,  re- 
sulting from  the  study 
of  the  problem  by  an 
architect  acting  as  ad- 
viser,--one  who  under- 
stands the  school  and 
its  functions,  and  can 
clearly  state  the  re- 
quirements and  give 
the  proper  correlation 
of  rooms  and  depart- 
ments. Then  it  is  ab- 
solutely necessary  that 
the  judges  be  men  of  recognized,  unquestionable  standing 
in  the  profession,  and  chosen  for  this  purpose  by  ballot 
cast  by  the  competitors.  Furthermore,  no  competition 
requiring  the  submission  of  drawings  should  be  held 
until  its  program  and  conduct  has  received  the  approval 
of  the  local  chapter  of  the  American  Institute  of  Archi- 
tects. The  writer  is  fully  aware  that  this  is  often 
contrary  to  the  wishes  of  the  average  board  of  edu- 
cation favorable  to  competitions.  Nevertheless,  and 
with  every  regard  for  the  integrity  and  honesty  of  the 
members  of  such  boards,  it  is  impossible  to  conduct 


Messrs.  Gutlbert  and  Bctelle,  Architects. 

Fig.  27.  — Lafayette  School,  Newark 
Main  Entrance 


34 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Fig.  28.- 


Messrs.  Perkins,  Fellows  and  Hamilton,  Architects. 

■ Skokie  Elementary  School,  Winnetka,  Illinois. 


an  honest  and  fair  competition  otherwise.  Moreover, 
architects  capable  of  rendering  the  required  service  will 
not  enter  competitions  conducted  on  any  other  lines,  as 
experience  has  demonstrated  that  they  result  in  nothing 
but  dissatisfaction  and  unsatisfactory  service.  Boards 
of  education,  too,  have  found  that  competitions  are  un- 
profitable, and  realize  that  the  problem  requires  special 
study,  which  can  be  more  satisfactorily  followed  if  they 
and  their  representatives  cooperate  with  the  architect 
from  the  very  beginning  of  the  undertaking. 

The  practice  of  architecture  is  a business  as  well  as  a 
profession.  It  requires  a thorough  knowledge  of  the 
different  building  crafts,  and  a capability  to  execute  the 
financial  expenditures  of  the  client  to  such  a degree  of 
precision  that  wastes  and  losses  are  avoided.  It  first 
involves  a training  in  the  theory  of  architectural  design 
and  engineering,  and  then  an  extended  experience  in  the 
practice  of  building  management  and  the  application  of 
sound  business  principles.  From  this,  it  is  evident  that 
in  the  selection  of  an  architect  the  board  should  choose 
the  man  whose  work  pleases  or  satisfies  them  and  in 
whom  they  can  repose  confidence. 

The  building  costs  one  hundred  per  cent  of  the  con- 
tract price.  The  architect’s  fee  is  six  per  cent  of  that 
cost,  which  is  less  than  one-sixteenth  of  the  total  cost 
of  the  building.  If  proper  value  is  rendered  in  service, 
it  is  not  possible  to  measure  it  either  by  figures  or  terms. 
For  the  value  continues  indefinitely.  Conversely,  im- 
proper service  bears  with  it  a just  retribution  in  the  loss 
of  confidence  and  repute,  unescapable  and  as  unending 
as  the  life  of  the  man  or  the  building.  There  should 


be  no  division  of  the  architect’s  responsibilities.  Not 
only  should  he  be  responsible  for  the  execution  of  the 
drawings  and  specifications  of  which  he  is  the  author, 
but  in  order  to  protect  the  interests  of  his  client  to  the 
fullest  extent  of  his  capability,  he  should  have  undivided 
authority  as  to  the  conduct  of  the  work.  Division  of 
responsibility  follows  division  of  authority,  which  opens 
the  way  for  irregularities  and  inferior  values  in  the  per- 
formance of  work.  In  return  for  the  board’s  confidence, 
the  architect  should  take  every  measure  to  solve  the  prob- 
lem in  the  interest  of  the  client  and  for  the  successful 
advancement  of  education.  This  means  rendering  the 
best  available  engineering  service  as  well  as  competent 
architectural  service. 

The  trend  of  the  times  indicates  a mutually  happy, 
confidential  relation  between  the  educational  and 
architectural  professions,  and  between  the  latter  and 
boards  of  education  who  represent  the  public  at 
large.  Occasionally,  paltry  politics  or  misguided  per- 
sonal friendships  on  the  part  of  those  advisory  to  boards 
of  education  in  building  programs  will  counteract  pro- 
gression in  the  development  of  the  problem  and  halt 
solution  of  the  many  intricacies  which  go  to  make  up  the 
whole.  It  requires  years  of  practice  and  association 
for  the  architect  to  anticipate  the  pedagogical  require- 
ments and  correlate  them  with  the  physical  or  archi- 
tectural possibilities  so  that  the  building  squares  with 
the.  organization  of  the  school  and  vice  versa.  The 
best  evidence  of  this  correlation  is  shown  in  the  splendid 
character  of  most  of  the  modern  American  school  archi- 
tecture. 


ARCHITECTURE , PLANNING , AND  CONSTRUCTION 


35 


SKOKIE.  PUS L1C  SCHOOL  BUILDING  • 

• WINNE.TKA  • • ILLINOIS  • 

• PECRKIMS  FELLOWS  AND  HAMILTON  - ARCHITECTS  • 

• CHICAGO  ILLINOIS 


Fig.  29. 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


36 


Messrs.  Peniits,  Fellows  and  Hamilton,  ArcnUecls 

Fig.  30.  — Skokie  Elementary  School,  Winnetka,  Illinois. 


Fig.  31. 


N Claremont  As. 


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ARCHITECTURE , PLANNING , CONSTRUCTION 


41 


Messrs.  Perkins,  Fellows  and  Hamilton,  Architects. 


Fig.  36.  — - New  Trier  Township  High  School,  Kenilworth,  Illinois. 


Allison  ana  Aulson,  Architects. 


Fig.  36  a.  Santa  Monica  High  School,  Elliot  Memorial  Entrance  Gate.  From  Fremont  Avenue  on  South  Side  of  Grounds, 

Los  Angeles. 


Mr.  John  J.  Donovan,  Architect.  Mr.  Henry  Hornboslel.  Consulting  Architect . 


44 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Mr.  John  J.  Donovan,  Architect.  Mr.  Henry  Hornbostel,  Consulting  Architect. 

Fig.  39.  — Oakland  Technical  High  School,  Oakland,  California. 


Mr.  John  J.  Donovan,  Architect.  Mr.  Henry  Horribostd,  Consulting  Architect. 

Fig.  40.  — First  Floor  Plan  — Oakland  Technical  High  School,  Oakland,  California. 


ARCHITECTURE , PLANNING,  AND  CONSTRUCTION 


45 


Fig.  42.  — Oakland  Technical  High  School,  Oakland,  California. 


46 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Mr.  John  J.  Donovan,  Architect.  Mr.  Henry  Hornboste*,  Consulting  Architect. 

Fig.  43.  — Oakland  Technical  High  School,  Oakland,  California. 


Mr.  John  J.  Donoian,  Architect.  Mr.  Henry  Hornboslel , Consulting  Architect 

Fig.  44.  — Oakland  Technical  High  School,  Oakland,  California. 


Tig.  45.  Oakland  Technical  High  School,  Oakland,  California. 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


A4 


w 4 


Fig.  46.  — Oakland  Technical  High  School,  Oakland,  California. 


Page  49  Fig.  47.  — Oakland  Technical  High  School,  Oakland,  California. 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Mr.  Wm.  B.  IUuer,  Architect. 


Page  51  Fig.  49.  — Central  High  School,  Washington,  D.C. 


52 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Fig.  so.  — Central  High  School,  Washington,  D.C. 


Fig.  51.  — Central  High  School,  Washington,  D.C.  Fig.  52.  — Central  High  School,  Washington,  D.C. 


54 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Central  High  School,  Washington,  !).('. 


Page  55  Fig.  54.  — Central  High  School,  Washington,  D.C. 


56 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


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Fig.  55. 


ARCHITECTURE , PLANNING , 4A7£>  CONSTRUCTION 


57 


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Fig.  56. 


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SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


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ARCHITECTURE , PLANNING , ^4A7D  CONSTRUCTION 


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SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


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Fig.  59. 


CHAPTER  III 


LANDSCAPE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  GROUNDS 

By  Howard  Gilkey,  B.S.,  Landscape  Architect 

Beauty  in  School  Grounds.  The  Out-of-doors  Part  of  the  School.  The  Relation  of  Architecture  and  Planting.  The  Harmony 
of  Lines,  Color,  and  Texture  in  Plant  Composition.  Indigenous  Plants.  The  Use  of  Exotics.  The  Real  Basis  of  Plant  Selection. 
The  Proper  Use  of  Flowers.  The  Border  Plantation.  The  Value  of  Landscape  Architecture. 


Beauty  in  School  Grounds.  — - A man  feels  more  the 
master  of  his  fate  when  well  clothed  than  in  rags. 
It  is  equally  true  that  a child  will  aspire  to  nobler 
aims  in  contact  with  beautiful  surroundings.  It  is 
important  then  that  the  community  should  foster  a 
love  of  beauty,  as  it  makes  for  better  citizenship. 
To  merely  solve  the  practical  requirements  of  living 
does  not  give  evidence  of  as  high  a state  of  civiliza- 
tion as  to  set  about  the  solution  in  a beautiful  way. 
The  school  as  the  training  house  of  the  people  must 
take  this  truth  into  consideration.  It  is  no  longer  satis- 
factory that  the  school  and  its  grounds  and  buildings 
be  adequate  for  instruction  purposes;  they  should  be 
beautiful  as  well.  We  must  not  tolerate  conditions 
formerly  prevailing  when  the  school  building  reared 
itself  on  a dusty,  treeless  expanse  of  earth.  For  the 
child  who  comes  from  a home  equally  unattractive, 
such  a place  offers  nothing  that  will  satisfy  the  innate 
longing  for  the  beautiful,  — an  instinct  modern  civiliza- 
tion must  find  the  means  to  develop.  With  such  develop- 
ment a long  step  in  advance  toward  the  eradication  of 
unwholesome  living  conditions  will  have  been  made. 

The  Out-of-doors  Part  of  the  School.  — It  is  no 
longer  believed  that  the  school  is  confined  to  the 
four  walls  of  the  building.  Certain  activities  of  the 
child  are  housed  within  walls ; others  are  “ housed  ” 
out-of-doors.  The  architecture  of  the  school  building, 
through  daily  inspiration,  develops  good  taste  in  the 
child.  Pictures  on  the  wall,  copies  of  the  Masters, 
stimulate  aesthetic  appreciation.  Similarly  the  pupils 
become  familiar  with  the  best  in  every  sphere  of  human 
thought  and  endeavor.  In  the  modern  school  this 
application  of  good  principle  does  not  confine  itself 
to  the  building ; it  is  continued  into  the  school  grounds, 
where  it  endeavors  to  provide  the  best  environment 
for  the  activities  that  are  to  take  place  outside  the 
building  itself.  Open-air  activities  are  both  recreational 


and  vocational.  They  increase  in  number  and  com- 
plexity with  the  growth  of  the  child,  requiring  more 
and  more  space  and  involving  greater  expense.  To 
provide  an  economical  arrangement  of  the  areas  re- 
quired by  these  activities,  the  unity  and  order  of  which 
becomes  a source  of  beauty  to  be  enhanced  by  judicious 
planting,  is  the  function  of  good  design  applied  to  school 
grounds. 

Grounds  surrounding  school  buildings  have  been  too 
small,  with  every  available  inch  of  space  used  for  play. 
There  has  not  been  room  for  the  planting  of  trees  and 
grass.  It  should  not  be  inferred  that  any  part  of  the 
child’s  enjoyment  is  to  be  sacrificed  for  the  mere  sake 
of  making  playgrounds  attractive.  Playgrounds  are 
primarily  for  children,  and  secondarily  for  the  growth 
of  plants.  But  as  the  physical  development  of  the  child 
requires  conditions  hygienically  correct,  in  like  manner 
his  unfolding  mind  needs  an  environment  of  order  and 
beauty.  To  provide  this,  more  land  must  be  secured, 
as  the  play-space  should  not  be  restricted. 

Play  and  planting  will  not  mix.  Hence  the  first  im- 
portant thing  in  the  general  plan  is  to  separate  the 
grounds  into  their  several  space  units.  These  will 
consist  roughly  of  areas  where  (x)  play  is  the  controlling 
element,  where  (2)  planting  for  aesthetic  purposes  is 
the  leading  factor,  and  where  (3)  the  ground  is  devoted 
to  school  gardens  whose  function  is  purely  educational. 
It  is  with  the  second  of  these  that  our  discussion  will  be 
largely  concerned. 

The  Relation  of  Architecture  and  Planting.  — The 

choice  adjustment  of  architectural  and  horticultural 
elements  produces  a composition  most  nearly  approach- 
ing absolute  beauty.  “From  the  intimate  union  of 
art  and  nature,  of  architecture  and  the  landscape, 
will  be  born  the  best  gardening  compositions,  which 
time,  purifying  public  taste,  now  promises  to  us.” 1 
It  is  in  his  treatment  of  the  main  fagade  of  the 


1 Edouard  Andre. 
61 


62 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


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LANDSCAPE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  GROUNDS 


63 


building  that  the  architect  has  the  opportunity  to 
give  expression  to  the  aesthetic  ideals  born  of  his  pro- 
fession. But  this  is  only  part  of  the  complete  com- 
position ; it  is  fitting  that  the  charm  of  the  structure 
should  be  enhanced  by  complementary  planting.  The 
building  and  the  grounds  form  a complementary  relation- 
ship in  the  larger  unity.  Architecture  is  rigid ; planting 
is  yielding.  Architecture  furnishes  the  high  light  and 
the  deep  shadow,  while  planting  supplies  the  half  tones. 
The  austere  quality  of  the  building  art  requires  the  added 
softness  of  foliage. 

It  is  in  this  complementary  part  that  the  artistic 
sympathy  for  values  created  by  the  architect  should 
be  considered  by  the  landscape  designer.  It  is  not 
merely  a matter  of  planting  shrubbery  about  a building 
in  order  to  cover  bare  spaces  of  soil.  Even  worse  than 
the  unfortunately  common  practice  of  placing  a well- 
designed  work  of  architecture  in  the  center  of  a bare  lot, 
is  the  injudicious  development  of  an  overplanted  and 
unsympathetically  studied  scheme.  The  appearance  of 
an  imposing  building  can  be  completely  ruined  by  planta- 
tions, indiscriminately  placed  about  the  structure.  On 
the  other  hand,  no  amount  of  carefully  studied  tree 
grouping  can  give  charm  to  an  inherently  ugly  building. 
It  is  best  to  efface  it.  One  of  the  greatest  delights  that 
comes  to  a landscape  architect  is  the  creation  of  a com- 
position dominated  by  a masterly  work  of  architecture. 

The  public  has  gradually  awakened  to  the  necessity 
of  good  architecture  for  school  buildings.  Progressively, 
then,  we  may  expect  an  increased  interest  in  the  land- 
scape development  of  the  grounds  about  these  buildings, 
for,  as  Lord  Bacon  said,  “ A man  shall  ever  see  that  when 
ages  grow  to  civility  and  elegancy,  men  come  to  build 
stately  sooner  than  to  garden  finely,  as  if  gardening  were 
the  greater  perfection.” 

Perhaps  there  is  no  greater  opportunity  of  producing 
that  “ pleasing  contrast  in  the  juxtaposition  of  art  and 
nature  ” than  in  the  treatment  of  the  front  approach 
of  a school.  The  modern  school  building  particularly 
lends  itself  to  the  graces  of  the  landscape.  Necessity 
demands  that  simplicity  prevail  and  that  small  expense 
be  lavished  upon  details  of  finishing  except  on  principal 
entrances  where  money  can  be  well  spent.  Often  broad 
expanses  of  bare  walls,  including  the  ends  of  whole 
wings,  are  necessary  to  secure  the  requisite  unilateral 
lighting  for  the  classrooms,  and  often  the  base  of  the 
building  is  left  unrelieved  by  moldings.  All  these  con- 
ditions permit  of  planting  close  to  the  walls;  in  fact, 
they  require  it.  The  architectural  errors  then  cease 
to  be  an  obtrusion  thrust  into  the  heart  of  nature,  but 
are  tied  to  nature  by  transitional  lines. 

The  Harmony  of  Lines,  Color,  and  Texture  in  Plant 
Composition,  — - The  accomplishment  of  that  transition 


becomes  the  chief  role  of  the  landscape  architect.  A 
graphic  illustration  of  the  principle  is  that  of  a right  angle 
with  a curved  bracket  joining  the  two  legs.  At  its  ends 
the  curve  conforms  more  and  more  to  the  respective 
straight  lines  which  it  connects.  In  much  the  same 
manner  the  lines  of  the  shrubbery  should  merge  into 
the  lines  of  the  architecture.  At  a distance  remote 
from  the  structure,  the  planting  should  be,  as  near  as  we 
can  comprehend  it,  that  of  nature,  soft,  undulating, 
harmonious.  As  it  approaches  the  building  it  becomes 
more  servile  to  the  lines,  masses,  and  color  of  the  archi- 
tecture. In  this  way,  contrasting  vertical  lines  are  with 
greater  frequency  introduced,  breaking  the  undulating 
silhouette  of  shrubbery. 

Besides  the  prominent  verticalities  which  break  the 
skyline  already  referred  to,  fully  as  important  are  the 
phases  of  color  and  texture  composition.  A bold  mass 
of  color  misplaced  draws  the  attention  powerfully  from 
the  true  center  of  interest,  which  should  be  some  feature 
of  the  building.  Properly  placed,  the  same  mass  of  color 
may  tend  to  fix  the  attention  upon  the  main  objective. 

Often  it  happens  that  the  finished  building  does  not 
fully  satisfy  the  color  sense  of  the  architect.  This  is 
particularly  true  with  brick  buildings,  where  the  final 
effect  varies  from  a state  of  harshness  to  one  of  lifeless- 
ness. By  the  introduction  in  the  first  case  of  foliage 
color  tending  to  harmonize  with  the  brick  color,  and  in 
the  second  case  of  foliage  color  tending  to  be  comple- 
mentary to  the  brick  color,  the  general  tone  may  be 
softened  or  heightened  as  desired.  A building  of  rich 
color,  whether  of  brick,  terra  cotta,  sgraffito,  or  of  colored 
plaster,  will  require  much  restraint  of  foliage  color, 
while  a simple  gray  plastered  surface  may  be  the  canvas 
upon  which  to  display  a vast  amount  of  color  in  vines, 
trees,  and  shrubs.  A simple  structure  of  no  particular 
individuality  may  well  be  smothered  in  soft  masses  of 
vegetation  and  color.  It  will  be  readily  seen  that  the 
use  of  color  about  a structure  of  considerable  dignity 
is  a matter  of  no  small  consideration. 

Harmony  of  texture  is  most  easily  obtained  but 
seldom  seen.  Simply  stated,  plants  of  harmonious 
texture  have  leaves  of  the  same  general  shape  and  size. 
The  landscape  designer  is  able  to  select  many  unrelated 
plants  and  secure  a simple  harmony  by  planting  to- 
gether those  which  have  a uniform  texture,  progressing 
in  a sequential  manner  to  other  forms  of  coarser  or  finer 
quality.  The  tasteful  introduction  of  contrasts  follows 
the  same  general  procedure.  In  this  way  an  occasional 
bold  spot  of  foliage  may  be  relieved  against  the  back- 
ground of  a finer-textured  mass,  thus  introducing  more 
spirit  into  the  planting  design  as  the  dominating  archi- 
tectural motive  is  approached.  A stronger  composi- 
tion will  by  this  means  be  produced. 


64 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Fig.  6i. 


o />$  cA  u?  ) c/  r/i 


When  this  arrangement  is  accomplished  it  will  be 
apparent  that  to  secure  the  finest  effect  there  should  be 
ample  opportunity  provided  for  viewing  the  entire 
fagade  in  a comprehensive  manner.  This  is  a justifiable 
reason  for  setting  the  building  back  as  much  as  a hun- 
dred feet  from  the  street.  But  in  addition  to  this  is  the 
necessity  for  quiet  and  seclusion  for  the  classroom,  in  a 
location  remote  from  the  noises  of  the  street.  Hand  in 
hand  are  the  practical  and  aesthetic  requirements ; and 
solving  one  is  to  make  the  solution  of  the  other  possible. 

After  securing  a pleasing  composition  of  building 
lines  and  base  planting,  the  effect  should  not  be  lessened 
by  introducing  distracting  foreground  detail.  From 
the  street  to  the  base  plantation  there  ought  to  be  a 
simple  stretch  of  grass,  except  where  necessary  walks 
must  be  introduced.  The  serenity  of  the  lawn  should 
not  be  disturbed  by  scattering  over  its  surface  irregular 
groups,  specimen  trees,  and  those  delights  of  the  gardener, 
carpet  beds  in  vulgar  patterns.  Occasionally  a few  trees 
will  be  required  for  shade,  but  it  is  better  to  forego  this 
pleasing  feature  than  to  overplant.  Above  all,  the 
gardener  should  not  be  permitted  to  indulge  in  ring-a- 
round-a-rosy  beds,  encircling  every  tree  in  the  lawn: 
After  the  first  few  years  the  grass  can  grow  as  in  nature, 
right  up  to  the  trunk  of  the  tree.  Shrubs  may  be  grown 
on  the  lawn,  but  not  scattered  over  its  surface.  Utility 
is  the  main  consideration.  Shrubs  should  be  planted 
to  prevent  cutting  corners,  and  at  the  same  time  to 
soften  the  junction  of  conflicting  path  lines.  Little 
of  this  sort  of  planting  will  need  to  be  done  if  the  system 
of  walks  has  been  carefully  studied. 


Few  flowers  should  be  introduced  in  front  of  the 
building.  It  is  not  that  they  invite  vandalism,  for  if 
they  do,  something  is  fundamentally  wrong  with  the 
community,  a condition  which  should  be  rectified  if 
possible.  The  plants  commonly  called  flowers,  i.e.,  the 
annuals  requiring  yearly  renewal  by  sowing  fresh  seed, 
and  the  perennials  whose  tops  die  down  but  whose 
roots  persist  from  year  to  year,  are  frequently  moved, 
an  operation  which  often  results  in  discordant  clashes 
of  color,  and  which  may  provide  false  accents,  nullifying 
the  preconceived  climax  of  effect.  Since  color  is  the 
most  noticeable  quality  of  plant  growth,  its  scheme 
should  be  carefully  studied  and  executed  in  permanent 
shrubs  rather  than  in  perishable  flowers.  There  are 
many  varieties  of  shrubs  which  are  rich  in  color  of  flower, 
fruit,  leaf,  and  even  of  twig. 

The  plant  materials  to  be  used  in  the  landscape 
gardening  of  the  school  grounds  should  be  mainly  trees, 
shrubs,  and  vines.  After  becoming  once  established 
they  require  little  care,  a fact  which  makes  the  upkeep 
more  certain  of  success.  Often  the  janitor  without 
previous  experience  has  to  add  the  gardening  to  his 
already  long  list  of  accomplishments.  Therefore  we 
should  use  materials  which  wall  require  the  least  amount 
of  attention.  It  is  a fact  that  without  adequate  main- 
tenance the  best-laid  plans  will  result  in  nothing  worth 
while.  It  should  be  the  purpose  of  good  planting  design 
to  place  the  least  burden  upon  future  caretakers,  thus 
insuring  the  success  of  the  scheme. 

Indigenous  Plants.  — Much  disappointment  will  be 
avoided  by  using  native  material.  This  alone  is  a 


LANDSCAPE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  GROUNDS 


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66 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


sufficient  reason  for  the  insistence  upon  the  choice  of 
indigenous  plants.  “ What  is  fair,  must  be  fit,”  applies 
here,  for  the  wild  things  growing  in  the  neighborhood 
are  ready  for  all  the  whims  of  weather.  They  will 
be  harmonious  as  well.  It  seems  within  the  limits 
of  generalization,  that  a given  locality  tends  to  pro- 
duce vegetable  forms  which  are  harmonious,  their 
harmony  probably  resulting  from  mutually  similar 


processes  of  adaptation  to  meet  the  common  environ- 
ment. Not  only  should  native  plants  be  used  be- 
cause they  are  harmonious  and  fit,  but  they  should 
be  fostered  from  motives  of  local  pride.  Every  child 
should  know  the  principal  trees,  shrubs,  vines,  and 
flowers  of  the  locality.  Acquaintance  with  them  can 
best  be  obtained  through  daily  association.  In  a Cali- 
fornia school-ground  we  should  expect  to  find  the  red- 
wood, the  giant  Sequoia,  the  oak,  the  ma- 
drone,  the  incense  cedar,  the  silver  fir,  the 
bay  tree,  the  various  pines,  the  big-leaf 
maple,  the  Christmas  berry,  the  wild  lilac, 
the  carpenteria,  the  wild  cherry,  and  wild 
coffee.  In  the  Northwest,  in  addition  to 
the  members  of  the  pine  family  already 
mentioned,  we  would  look  for  many  splendid 
conifers,  such  as  the  Lawson  cypress  and 
Douglas  fir,  with  a profusion  of  rhododen- 
drons, azaleas,  huckleberry,  and  salal. 

While  native  trees  and  shrubs  should 
form  an  important  part  of  the  plant  ma- 
terial for  school  landscape  work,  any  outside 
materials  which  associate  well  should  be 
used.  Indeed,  the  landscape  designer  would 
be  seriously  handicapped  if  he  were  forced 
to  use  the  limited  number  of  forms  found  in 
some  places.  Plants  partake  obviously  of 
the  artificiality  of  their  new  positions,  and 
often  the  wild  straggling  habit  of  much 
native  growth  will  not  be  desired.  Then, 
too,  there  is  educational  value  in  a greater 
assortment.  Without  becoming  a veritable 
botanical  garden,  the  school  plantations 
should  be  varied  for  the  simple  purpose  of 
providing  material  for  instruction. 

The  Use  of  Exotics.  — After  a certain 
priority  right  has  been  given  to  the  native 
plants,  many  from  remoter  regions  whose 
climatic  conditions  are  similar  should  be 
used,  insuring  hardihood  and  a certain  de- 
gree of  harmony.  As  an  instance  of  this, 
it  may  be  stated  that  in  the  interior  valleys 
of  California,  where  the  summers  are  hot 
and  dry,  the  winters  wet,  and  very  heavy 
frosts  common,  one  finds,  beside  native 
plants,  many  species  from  southern  Europe, 
North  Africa,  Asia  Minor,  Interior  China. 
Northern  Japan,  and  Southern  Australia. 

The  Real  Basis  of  Plant  Selection.  — 
Whatever  the  choice  of  plants,  then  let 
them  be  selected  for  their  adaptation  to  the 
soil  and  the  climate,  their  ability  to  stand 
rough  usage  and  neglect,  their  appearance 


Fig.  63. 


LANDSCAPE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  GROUNDS 


of  being  at  home  in  their  appointed  positions  and 
affording  a degree  of  variety  for  educational  interest 
consonant  with  harmony  of  color  and  texture. 

The  numerous  changes  in  plant  life  render  the  problem 
of  design  intricate.  Every  day  of  the  year  some  new 
blossom  is  out ; some  new  leaf  unfolds ; some  mature 
one  turns  color,  finally  dropping  off  and  exposing  new 
lines  of  bare  branches ; some  new  cluster  of  berries 
grows  warmer  in  tone  and  at  length  blazes  into  full 
richness  of  hue.  The  solution  is  not  alone  that  of  pro- 
ducing new  interests  throughout  the  year,  but  that  of 
providing  a tasteful  arrangement  of  a series  of  composi- 
tions of  texture  and  color,  each  merging  insensibly  into 
the  next.  At  successive  periods  it  will  be  apple  blossom 
time,  lilac  time,  the  season  for  wild  roses,  clematis, 
plumbago,  autumn  leaves,  and  then  berry  season.  At 


these  periods  there  should  be  bold  masses  of  the  dominant 
color  with  lesser  touches  of  more  or  less  complemen- 
tary hues  to  set  them  off.  When  soft  pastel  shades  are 
used,  the  result  may  chance  to  be  pleasing  whatever 
the  mixture.  Certainly  the  inconsistencies  will  not  be 
so  glaring.  It  is  in  the  use  of  the  bright  reds  and  yel- 
lows where  taste  and  experience  are  necessary.  Avoid 
magenta,  a color  which  seems  to  clash  with  the  usual 
hues  of  the  landscape. 

Of  the  seasons  of  the  year,  spring  and  summer  will  in 
variety  of  blossom  take  care  of  themselves ; it  is  the  fall 
and  winter  season  that  must  have  their  share  of  enliven- 
ment.  Where  autumn  leaves  are  a conspicuous  native 
charm,  their  brilliant  hues  can  be  made  to  tell  as  accents 
against  more  neutral  backgrounds.  A single  poplar 
or  a small  group  will  gleam  in  soft  yellow  against  a 
background  of  dull  green  pines.  After  the  leaves  have 
fallen,  the  same  poplar  will  exhibit  a graceful  tracery 
of  branches,  adding  the  quality  of  etched  lines,  which 


67 

may  be  just  the  touch  needed  to  relieve  a scene  made 
heavy  by  monotonous  masses. 

The  study  of  deciduous  trees  and  shrubs  and  their 
composition  value  is  too  often  slighted.  The  material 
at  our  command  embraces  the  beech,  the  wild  buckeye, 
the  red-twigged  dogwood,  the  yellow-barked  willows,  the 
sycamore,  and  the  lovely  white  birch. 

For  the  charm  of  pure  rich  color  the  berries  supply 
the  one  element  at  the  landscape  architect’s  command 
comparable  to  the  painter’s  primary  palette.  For  many 
months  they  “ stay  put  ” in  solid  masses,  at  a time  of 
year  when  the  school  is  most  active  and  the  sky  is  dullest 
overhead.  Californians  may  plant  Christmas  berry 
(the  native  toyon),  pyracanthas,  cotoneasters,  moun- 
tain ashes,  hawthorns,  many  of  which  are  hardy  in 
the  East,  where  one  must  piece  out  jwith  high-bush 


cranberry,  holly,  and  rose  hips.  But  wherever  one  finds 
them  they  are  most  gorgeous  and  most  welcome.  On 
the  other  hand  the  planting  of  berried  shrubs  can  be 
very  much  overdone.  The  groups  should  not  be  too 
large  and  should  not  be  placed  without  a greater  mass 
of  neutral  foliage  or  a dull  wall  as  a background.  The 
masses  must  be  well-shaped  and  not  mere  blots  of  loud 
color.  In  front  of  a symmetrical  building  they  should 
be  arranged  with  the  idea  of  balance  continuously  in 
mind. 

Proper  Use  of  Flowers.  — Little  has  been  said  about 
flowers.  Aside  from  the  restricted  use  of  a clump 
of  irises  here  and  there,  pentstemons,  foxgloves,  or 
a clump  of  hollyhocks  in  a corner,  the  place  for  the 
flowers  is  in  the  students’  gardens.  Roses  may  be 
introduced,  forming  part  of  the  shrub  masses,  varie- 
ties with  good  foliage,  such  as  the  Irish  Elegance, 
Cherokee,  and  Madame  Cecille  Brunner.  Most  roses, 
however,  require  too  much  pruning,  spraying,  and 


68 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Fig.  65. 


LANDSCAPE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SCHOOL  GROUNDS 


69 


other  bothersome  care.  Where  space  is  limited, 
climbers  are  the  main  resource,  needing  little  room  but 
a place  in  which  to  root.  Many  a roughcast  building 
requires  the  soft  lace-work  of  Boston  ivy  to  relieve  its 
severity.  Pergolas  and  fences  are  made  for  roses, 
wistarias,  clematis,  trumpet  vines,  honeysuckle,  and 
jessamine.  Here  they  may  run  rampant,  but  on  the 
buildings  the  sense  of  structure  should  not  be  obliterated 
by  a complete  covering  of  vine  growth. 

The  Border  Plantation.  — In  the  consideration  of  the 
school  front,  every  effort  has  been  made  to  produce 
something  beautiful,  to  stimulate  the  child’s  mind 
to  acts  worthy  of  his  environment.  It  is  a part  of 
the  grounds  which  he  must  cherish  and  protect. 
The  careful  mother  does  not  allow  her  child  to 
enter  the  drawing-room  with  muddy  feet  or  to  romp 
there  with  the  dog.  So_we  will  inclose  the  play- 
ground. Let  us  do  this  by  means  of  a fence,  strong 
and  permanent.  Usually  no  great  expense  need  be  lav- 
ished upon  mere  ornament,  for  the  fence  should  be 
screened  from  outside  view,  with  foliage.  Let  the 
fence  be  set  back  some  six  to  twelve  feet  from  the  prop- 
erty line  to  allow  for  a border  of  shrub  plantation.  Es- 
pecially necessary  is  this  along  the  street  fronts.  There 
are  many  valid  reasons  for  such  a screen.  All  play- 
ground authorities  agree  that  the  fence  permits  of  better 
supervision  and  protection  of  property.  From  the 
outside-r-s-point  of  view  the  expanse  of  bare  ground  of 
the  playground  field  is  not  very  pleasing,  nor  does  it 
tend  to  raise  property  values  in  a choice  residence  sec- 
tion. By  providing  for  the  ornamental  frame  out- 


side the  fence,  the  school  presents  to  the  public  an 
entirely  attractive  appearance. 

From  the  inside  point  of  view,  the  border  of  plant- 
ing does  much  to  produce  the  effect  of  group  solidarity. 
A little  domain  is  hereby  set  aside  for  single-minded  en- 
joyment of  play.  Without  self-consciousness  the  boy 
or  girl  may  exercise  in  hygienic  attire.  Besides  this, 
the  scene  of  play  activity  is  redeemed  from  its  severity 
of  setting  by  the  beauty  of  the  encircling  foliage.  Where 
space  is  limited  the  border  can  be  restricted  to  a narrow 
strip  providing  enough  room  for  vines  or  for  a single 
hedge  outside  the  fence.  This  is  of  course  not  so  fine 
as  the  broader  treatment.  The  fence  should  return 
at  a point  usually  in  line  with  the  main  rear  wall  of  the 
building.  The  border  planting  then  merges  easily 
into  the  front  parking. 

The  Value  of  Landscape  Architecture.  — The  school 
of  the  future  will  no  longer  tolerate  the  shortcomings 
of  the  past.  A realization  of  the  value  of  beauty 
has  developed  in  modern  education.  The  mass  of 
the  people  is  already  alive  to  the  value  of  beauty  in 
school  buildings,  and  it  will  not  be  long  before  the 
larger  unity  of  architecture  and  grounds  is  understood 
by  all.  The  landscape  architect  will  become  a neces- 
sary associate  to  the  architect.  Each  will  have  ap- 
preciation of  the  work  of  the  other. 

By  this  valuable  cooperation  there  will  result  a har- 
monizing of  color,  line,  and  texture,  and  with  such  a 
well-considered  environment  the  child  will  be  developed 
along  these  physical  and  mental  lines,  that  will  so  satis- 
factorily affect  his  growth  and  development. 


CHAPTER  IV 


COST  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


By  John  J.  Donovan,  B.S.,  Architect,  A. I. A. 

Costs  of  School  Buildings.  Requirements  for  a Low  Elementary  School.  Requirements  for  a High  Elementary  School.  Re- 
quirements for  Junior  High  and  Pre-Vocational  School.  Data  for  a General  or  Inclusive  High  School.  Methods  of  Computing 
Costs.  Cost  Per  Classroom.  Cost  Per  Pupil.  Cost  Per  Square  Foot  of  Floor  Area.  Cost  Per  Cubic  Foot.  Cubic  Contents.  Types 
of  Construction.  Class  A.  Class  B.  Class  C.  Class  D.  Class  E or  Frame  Construction.  Classification  of  Heating  and  Ventila- 
tion. Grades.  Sanitary  Installations.  Electrical  Installations.  Classification  of  the  Educational  Grades.  The  Elementary 
School.  The  Junior  High  School.  The  High  School. 

Table  No.  i,  Approximate  Costs  per  Cubic  Foot  for  Class  A,  B,  and  C Buildings.  Table  No.  2,  Approximate  Costs  Per  Cubic  Foot 
of  Different  Grades  of  School  Buildings.  Table  No.  3,  Approximate  Costs  Per  Cubic  Foot  for  Different  Grades  of  Heating  and  Ventilat- 
ing Systems.  Table  No.  4,  Approximate  Costs  Per  Cubic  Foot  for  Plumbing  and  Electrical  Installations. 

Cost  of  Equipment.  Cost  Data  for  a Proposed  High  School.  Comparative  Costs  and  Records. 

Table  No.  A,  Form  of  Record.  Table  No.  B,  Subdivision  of  Costs  of  Contracts. 

Static  Capacity.  Static  Capacity  of  Building.  American  Institute  of  Architects’  Classification  of  School  Buildings  and  Construction. 


Costs  of  School  Buildings.  — There  are  two  distinct 
purposes  in  seeking  to  determine  the  costs  of  school 
buildings : one  to  enable  boards  of  education  to  provide 
with  some  degree  of  accuracy  sufficient  funds  for  the 
erection  and  equipment  of  new  buildings,  and  the  other 
to  determine,  by  comparison  with  the  costs  of  similar 
structures  before  the  board  has  obligated  itself  by  con- 
tracts, the  economy  to  be  exercised  in  the  planning  and 
construction  of  the  proposed  work.  The  former  is  es- 
sential to  good  business  management,  and  the  latter 
is  a necessary  precaution  against  extravagance. 

There  have  been  more  disappointments,  misunder- 
standings, and  loss  of  confidence  through  injudicious 
expenditure  of  money  for  the  building  of  schools  than 
in  all  other  transactions  by  boards  of  education.  This 
condition  is  largely  due  more  to  the  indefinite  methods 
employed  at  the  early  stages  of  the  undertakings  than 
to  any  other  cause.  It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  elected 
members  of  boards  of  education  should  know  how  to 
unravel  and  classify  the  maze  of  details  related  to 
this  work,  as  they  are  usually  of  the  laity  and  therefore 
unacquainted  with  the  vast  educational  and  building 
minutiae  which  go  to  make  up  the  whole. 

However,  since  they  are  morally,  socially,  and  po- 
litically responsible  for  providing  and  expending  the 
funds,  it  is  all-essential  that  they  have  prepared  for  them 
definite  data  setting  forth  the  necessary  contents  of  the 
building,  the  character  of  the  construction,  the  grade 
of  the  sanitation,  the  system  of  heating  and  ventilation, 
and  the  facts  relating  to  the  other  building  appoint- 


ments before  establishing  the  budget  for  the  proposed 
structure.  This  requires  close  collaboration  among 
members  of  the  board,  its  officers  and  the  architect. 

The  following  lists  of  requirements  for  the  low  and 
high  elementary,  the  junior  high,  and  the  senior  or 
regular  high  schools  are  offered  as  indicative  of  the 
necessity  of  having  a definite  scheme  prepared  before 
attempting  to  compute  the  costs  of  a school  building. 
Deductions  or  additions  may  be  made  to  suit  the  par- 
ticular problem  of  each  community. 


REQUIREMENTS  FOR  A LOW  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL. 
GRADE  I TO  VI  INCLUSIVE 

1 . Principal. 

(a)  Office — telephone  and  programs  systems,  fire  alarm. 

( b ) Toilet. 

(c)  Storage  space. 

(. d ) Library  for  text  books. 

2.  Teachers. 

(a)  Rest  room,  "i  , . , 

...  T , 1 combmed. 

(0)  Lunch  room,  j 

(c)  Kitchen. 

(< d ) Toilet. 

(e)  Wardrobes  or  closets. 

3.  Medical  Department. 

(a)  Emergency  room. 

(b)  Toilet. 

4.  Mechanical  Department. 

(a)  Boiler  room  (isolated). 

(b)  Fan  room. 

(c)  Work  and  repair  room. 

(1 d ) Incinerator. 

(e)  Janitor’s  closet  on  each  floor. 

Note:  The  above  rooms  should  be  of  fireproof  construction. 


70 


COST  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


7i 


5.  Pupils'  Service. 

(a)  Bicycle  rooms. 

(, b ) Toilet  rooms  (on  each  floor) 

( c ) Playrooms,  boys  and  girls. 

(d)  Showers,  boys  and  girls. 

6.  Department  of  Instruction. 

(a)  Classrooms  — • wardrobes. 

( b ) Kindergarten  — wardrobes  and  toilets. 

(c)  Drawing  room  for  V and  VI  grades. 

7.  Assembly  Hall.  (Seating  60  per  cent  of  the  school  capacity.) 

(a)  Stage  — dressing  rooms. 

(. b ) Moving  picture  booth. 

REQUIREMENTS  FOR  A HIGH  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 
GRADES  I TO  VIII  INCLUSIVE 

1 . Principal  Suite. 

(a)  Public  office,  waiting  room. 

(b)  Private  office. 

(c)  Toilet. 

(d)  Storage. 

( e ) Telephones  — program  system  — fire  alarm. 

2.  Library.  For  text  books  and  about  1000  reference  and  fiction 

books. 

3.  Teachers'  Suite. 

(a)  Rest  room. 

(b)  Lunch  room,  kitchenette. 

(c)  Toilets. 

(d)  Wardrobes. 

4.  Medical  Department. 

(i a ) Emergency  room. 

( b ) Examination  rooms. 

(c)  Toilet  rooms. 

(d)  Girls’  rest  room. 

5.  Mechanical  Department. 

(а)  Boiler  room  (isolated). 

(б)  Fan  rooms. 

(c)  Work  and  repair  room. 
id)  Storage  room. 

(e)  Incinerator. 

(/)  Janitor’s  room  on  each  floor. 

6.  Pupils'  Service. 

(a)  Bicycle  rooms. 

( b ) Toilet  rooms  (on  each  floor). 

(c)  Playrooms  (boys  and  girls). 

(. d ) Swimming  (possible). 

(e)  Showers  (boys  and  girls). 

(/)  Dressing  rooms. 

(g)  Athletic-field  rooms. 

7.  Gymnasium. 

(a)  Dressing  rooms  J If  there  is  a swimming  pool  one  set  will 

( b ) Showers  / do  for  both  pool  and  gymnasium. 

(c)  Instructor’s  room. 

(d)  Examination  rooms. 

(e)  Apparatus  room. 

8.  Department  of  Instruction. 

(a)  Classrooms  — wardrobes. 

(. b ) Kindergarten — wardrobes. 

9.  Home  Economics. 

(a)  Cooking  room. 

( b ) Dining  room. 

(c)  Pantry. 

( d ) Sewing  room. 


(e)  Fitting  room. 

(J)  Locker  room,  supplies. 

10.  Manual  Training. 

{a)  Bench  room. 

( b ) Lumber  room. 

(c)  Finishing  room. 

( d ) Painting  room  (fireproof). 

(e)  Small  fireproof  room  for  storage  of  painting  materials. 

1 1 . Drawing. 

(a)  Freehand. 

( b ) Mechanical. 

12.  Music. 

(a)  Choral  room. 

( b ) Small  practice  rooms  (dressing  rooms  off  stage  serve  well) . 

(c)  Office  for  storage  of  instruments,  music  sheets,  books, 

etc. 

13.  Assembly  Hall. 

(a)  Main  room  to  seat  about  60  per  cent  of  the  school  capacity. 
{b)  Stage  — with  dressing  rooms. 

(c)  Moving  picture  booth. 

14.  Science  Department. 

(a)  Laboratory  for  general  science. 

(■ b ) Storeroom. 

(c)  Germinating  room. 

15.  Commercial. 

(a)  Bookkeeping. 

( b ) Commercial  geography. 

REQUIREMENTS  FOR  JUNIOR  HIGH  AND  PRE-VOCA- 
TIONAL  SCHOOL,  ACCOMMODATING  1200  STUDENTS 

Administration  : 

1 . Principal. 

(а)  Public  office. 

(б)  Private  office — telephone  program  system,  fire  alarm. 

(c)  Storage  space. 

(d)  Toilet  room. 

(e)  Vault  for  school  records. 

2.  Large  Storage  Room: 

(a)  Books. 

( b ) Charts. 

(c)  School  supplies. 

3.  Medical  Department. 

(a)  Emergency  room. 

(b)  Examination  rooms. 

(c)  Toilet. 

4.  Teachers'  Accommodations. 

(a)  Teachers’  room  (men)  lockers. 

(b)  Toilet  room. 

(c)  Teachers’  room  (women). 

(d)  Wardrobe  closets. 

(e)  Toilet  room. 

(f)  Lunch  room. 

(g)  Kitchenette. 

5.  Mechanical  Department. 

(a)  Boiler  room  (isolated). 

(b)  Fan  rooms  and  plenum  chambers. 

(c)  Fresh  air  intakes. 

( d ) Possibly  air  washer,  generally  not  needed  (depending  on 

location  of  building) . 

(e)  Switchboard  room. 

(J)  Work  and  repair  room. 

(g)  Storage  room. 


[ Fireproof 
construction. 


72 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


(h)  Incinerator. 

(• i ) Janitor’s  closet  on  each  floor. 

Note : The  above  should  be  of  fireproof  construction. 

6.  Pupils’  Service. 

(a)  Bicycle  rooms,  boys  and  girls. 

( b ) Locker  rooms,  off  corridors,  boys  and  girls. 

(c)  Toilet  rooms,  on  each  floor,  boys  and  girls. 

7.  Department  of  Instruction. 

Two  study  rooms  to  accommodate  \ to  f of  student  body. 
Library : Close  to  study  rooms. 

(a)  Art  alcoves  and  exhibition  room. 

8.  Classrooms. 

16  to  20  major  period  classrooms  depending  on  school  enroll- 
ment and  judgment  of  the  superintendent. 

Plan  of  building  should  be  so  designed  that  this  department 
may  be  increased,  as  occasion  or  conditions  warrant, 
without  destroying  the  symmetry  of  the  general  plan. 

Size  of  classrooms  should  be  determined  by  the  superintendent 
of  schools,  that  is,  the  maximum  capacity.  Would  recom- 
mend that  classrooms  for  Junior  High  School  do  not 
exceed  35  seats. 

Certain  rooms  should  be  designed  for  emergency  of  45 
seats. 

9.  Commercial  Department. 

(a)  Bookkeeping  room. 

(&)  Small  banking  space  at  end  of  bookkeeping  room. 

(c)  Typewriting  space. 

(d)  Office  and  storage  rooms. 

10.  Home  Economics. 

(a)  Two  domestic  science  rooms  (cooking  rooms). 

( b ) Pantry  and  storage  rooms. 

(c)  Small  dining  room  (for  training  in  service). 

(1 d ) Lockers. 

(e)  Domestic  arts  (sewing  and  dressmaking). 

(/)  Millinery  room. 

(g)  Design  and  drawing  room. 

( living  room, 

(h)  Housekeeping  suite  \ dining  room, 

i kitchen,  small  laundry,  toilet. 

This  might  well  be  a small  inexpensive  cottage  near 
school. 

The  living  room  may  serve  as  Mothers’  Club  meeting 
room. 

11.  Industrial  Arts  Department. 

(1)  Mechanical  drawing  rooms. 

(2)  Free  hand  drawing  rooms. 

(3)  Manual  training  room  with  a small  amount  of  wood- 

working machinery,  such  as: 

(а)  A planer,  joiner,  hand-saw,  circular  saw,  and  grinder, 

and  about  24  benches. 

(б)  Also  one  additional  bench  room  of  24  benches. 

(c)  Lumber  room. 

(d)  Gluing  room  (small). 

(e)  Painting  and  finishing  room. 

(/)  Tool  room. 

(g)  Storage  room  for  finished  work. 

(4)  General  shop  for  some  machine  shop  work,  electrical 

work,  plumbing,  sheet  metal,  etc.  This  shop  should 
be  equipped  with  a little  of  everything,  so  that  the 
boy  may  feel  his  way  towards  the  work  leading  to  a 
vocation. 

(5)  Wash,  toilet,  and  locker  rooms  arranged  for  common  use 

by  students  in  both  shops. 


12.  Music  Department. 

(a)  Large  choral  room  treated  for  good  acoustics,  which  may 

be  used  for  orchestral  and  band  practice. 

( b ) The  supervisor  of  music  may  recommend  another  similar 

room  for  the  orchestra  and  band,  in  which  case  they 
could  be  so  placed  that  (a)  and  ( b ) may  be  combined. 

( c ) A few  small  practice  rooms. 

(d)  Office  and  space  for  storage  of  instruments,  music  sheets, 

books,  etc. 

(e)  The  choral  room  could  be  used  for  training  in  dramatics 

and  expression. 

(f)  A large  visual  instruction  room  (moving  pictures  and 

stereopticon) . 

13.  Assembly  Hall. 

{a)  Assembly  Hall  to  seat  10  per  cent  more  than  school 
. capacity  and  so  arranged  that  it  may  be  divided  into 
three  halls  by  use  of  roller  curtains.  (See  Assembly 
Hall  Plans  in  Chapter  on  Assembly  Halls.) 

(■ b ) Stage  adaptable  for  scenery,  possibly  a loft  and  gridiron. 

(c)  Moving  picture  equipment. 

(d)  Dressing  rooms. 

14.  Gymnasium. 

{a)  Gymnasium. 

( b ) Showers  • — boys  and  girls. 

(c)  Locker  rooms. 

(d)  Dressing  rooms,  toilets. 

(. e ) Apparatus  room. 

(/)  Instructors’  offices. 

(g)  Examination  rooms. 

1 5.  Science  Department. 

(a)  Three  general  science  laboratories. 

( b ) Germinating  rooms  (conservatory). 

(c)  Storeroom  (large)  with  cases  especially  designed. 

( d ) Work  and  repair  room,  not  very  large. 

Inasmuch  as  all  three  (7th,  8th,  and  9th)  grades  will  take  this 
course,  which  embraces  Physical  Geography,  Biology.  Physiology, 
Botany,  Elementary  Chemistry,  and  Elementary  Physics,  there 
should  be  at  least  three  and  possibly  four  main  General  Science 
Laboratories  with  the  attendant  accessory  rooms  as  listed  under 

(b),  (c),  and  (d). 

Note:  Extension  of  this  Department  should  be  determined  by 
the  superintendent  of  schools,  who  may  consider  it  advisable  to 
add  small  Chemistry  and  Physics  laboratories. 

DATA  FOR  A GENERAL  OR  INCLUSIVE  HIGH  SCHOOL 
ACCOMMODATING  1500  TO  2500  PUPILS 
Administration  : 

1.  Registrar’s  Office. 

(a)  Large  working  and  waiting  room. 

(b)  Vault  for  school  records. 

(c)  Storage  space. 

( d ) Wardrobe  closets. 

(e)  Program  system. 

(/)  Telephone  system. 

(g)  Teachers’  time  clocks. 

2.  Principal  (Day  School). 

(a)  Private  office. 

0 b ) Toilet. 

(c)  Storage  space. 

( d ) Consultation  room  (small). 

3.  (a)  Two  vice-principals’  offices,  private  j of  <drl's^ 

(b)  Waiting  rooms. 

(c)  Toilets. 


COST  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


73 


( d ) Storage  spaces. 

(e)  Girls’  rest  room  near  office  of  dean  of  girls. 

(J)  Toilets. 

4.  (a)  Principal  (evening  school). 

(. b ),  (c),  ( d ) same  as  vice-principal’s  suite. 

5.  Storage  space  (books,  charts,  documents,  general  school  sup- 

plies, vault). 

6.  Medical  Departments. 

(a)  Emergency  room. 

(b)  Examination  room. 

(c)  Waiting  rooms,  boys’  and  girls’. 

(. d ) Toilet  rooms. 

7.  Teachers'  Department. 

(a)  Teachers’  room  (men). 

( b ) Locker  room. 

(c)  Toilet  room. 

(d)  Teachers’  room  (women). 

(e)  Locker  room. 

(J)  Rest  room. 

(g)  Toilet  room. 

Note:  For  lunch  room  see  chapter  on  cafeteria. 

8.  Mechanical  Plant. 

(a)  Boiler  and  pump  room  (isolated  from  building). 

(. b ) Fan  rooms  and  plenum  chambers. 

(c)  Fresh  air  intakes. 

(d)  Air  washers  (depending  on  location  of  building) . 

(e)  Switchboard  room  (preferably  in  electrical  shop). 

(J)  Work  and  repair  room. 

(g)  Storage  room  (supplies). 

(Ji)  Incinerator. 

Note:  The  above  should  be  housed  in  fireproof  construc- 
tion, and  possibly  in  a separate  building  called 
“Power  Plant.” 

(i)  Janitor’s  closets  on  each  floor. 

9.  Pupils'  Service. 

(a)  Bicycle  rooms  or  space  (boys’  and  girls’-). 

.(b)  Locker  rooms  (boys’  and  girls’). 

(c)  Toilet  rooms  (boys’  and  girls’)  on  each  floor. 

(d)  Rooms  for  officers  of  school  government. 

(e)  Students  cooperative  book  store. 

10.  Cafeteria. 

(a)  Lunch  rooms  (boys’  and  girls’)  sealing  900  at  a time. 

( b ) Serving  space. 

(c)  Large  kitchen. 

(d)  Scullery  and  garbage  rooms. 

( e ) Storage  rooms  and  refrigerators. 

(/)  Toilets  for  help  (men  and  women). 

(g)  Wardrobe  for  help  (men  and  women). 

(h)  Separate  lunch  room  for  teachers. 

11.  Service  Department. 

(a)  General  help  room. 

(b)  Toilets. 

(c)  Supply  storage. 

12.  Assembly  Hall. 

(a)  Room  so  arranged  it  may  be  divided  into  three  halls. 

Floor  sloping.  Seats  fixed. 

( b ) Stage  with  gridiron. 

(c)  Dressing  rooms. 

(d)  Moving  picture  booth. 

(e)  Property  room. 

13.  Gymnasiums.  (Boys’  and  girls’.)  Near  athletic  field. 

(a)  Large  gymnasium,  divided  by  curtains  and  so  it  may  be 
thrown  into  one  or  two  rooms. 


(b)  Directors’  rooms  (men  and  women) . 

(c)  Dressing  rooms  and  locker  rooms. 

(d)  Examination  rooms. 

(e)  Shower  baths  (boys’  and  girls’) . 

(J)  Toilets  (boys’  and  girls’). 

(g)  Storage  for  equipment. 

(h)  Gallery  and  running  track. 

( i ) Swimming  pool. 

14.  Library. 

(a)  Large  reading  room  (capacity  for  10,000  to  20,000  books). 

(b)  Librarian  and  work  or  repair  room. 

(c)  Possibly  a stack  room. 

(d)  Seating  capacity  at  least  6 per  cent  of  the  enrollment. 

(e)  Lecture  and  museum  room. 

15.  Department  of  Instruction.  Academic. 

(a)  Class  or  recitation  rooms.  The  size  and  number  should 

be  determined  by  the  Superintendent  of  Schools,  but 
would  recommend  at  least  24  exclusive  of  classrooms 
in  other  departments. 

The  general  plan  should  be  so  drawn  that  extensions 
could  easily  be  added  without  destroying  the  symmetry 
of  the  scheme  and  so  that  the  future  classrooms  would 
be  adjacent  to  the  section  built  at  this  time. 

(b)  Three  study  halls,  each  approximately  30'  X6s',  seating 

about  i2o  students.  These  study  halls  should  be 
divided  in  two  by  means  of  folding  doors  or  rolling 
partitions  so  that  when  desired  they  could  be  converted 
into  classrooms. 

Commercial  Department 

16.  Bookkeeping. 

(a)  Three  or  four  classrooms  seating  36  each. 

(b)  Teachers’  office  connected  with  each  room. 

(c)  Storage  rooms. 

(d)  Arithmetic  classrooms. 

(e)  Law  and  commercial  geography  classroom. 

(/)  Room  for  banking  divided  into  saving,  school  banking, 
and  national  banking. 

(g)  One  classroom  for  penmanship. 

(h) .  Room  for  mechanical  accounting. 

17.  Shorthand  and  Typing. 

(a)  Three  or  four  rooms  for  typing. 

( b ) Three  rooms  for  shorthand. 

(c)  Room  for  duplicating  and  multigraphing. 

(d)  Offices  for  teachers. 

(1 e ) Storage  rooms. 

Science  Department 

18.  Chemistry. 

(a)  Three  chemistry  laboratories,  each  accommodating  24 

students. 

( b ) Offices  and  storage  rooms. 

(c)  Two  lecture  rooms,  seating  about  50  to  60. 

(d)  One  dark  room  (for  photography). 

(e)  Balance  room  (isolated). 

(J)  One  special  laboratory  (not  very  large)  fitted  for  special 
work  such  as  assaying  and  for  instructors’  special  work . 

19.  Other  Science  Laboratories. 

(a)  Biology  laboratory. 

(b)  Botany  laboratory. 

(c)  Conservatory  of  fairly  good  size. 

(d)  Physiology  laboratory. 

(e)  Physical  geography  and  map  room. 


74 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


(J)  General  science  laboratory. 

(g)  Lecture  room  seating  about  60. 

(h)  Office  for  each  instructor. 

(j)  Large  storeroom  for  each  laboratory. 

(j)  Preparation  rooms  for  instructors,  for  each  laboratory  or 

between  laboratories. 

(k)  Possibly  a general  museum  for  use  by  all  the  above 

laboratories. 

Note:  For  economy  (a),  ( b ),  and  ( d ) could  be  combined 
and  possibly  (e)  and  (/). 

20.  Physics. 

(a)  Two  large  physics  laboratories  (mechanics  and  electrical). 

(b)  One  lecture  room  seating  approximately  60. 

(c)  One  preparation  room  between  laboratories. 

( d ) Three  large  apparatus  storage  rooms. 

(e)  One  repair  room. 

(/)  One  office. 

(g)  One  wireless  telegraphy  room. 

(h)  One  advanced  physics  laboratory. 

Home  Economics 

21.  Cooking. 

(a)  Three  domestic  science  rooms  (cooking).  (One  elemen- 

tary and  two  advanced.) 

(b)  Pantries  and  storage  rooms  between. 

(c)  One  general  dining  room. 

(d)  Wardrobes  and  lockers  for  aprons  and  dresses. 

(e)  Two  offices. 

(/)  Classroom  or  demonstration  room. 

(g)  Hygiene. 

22.  Sewing. 

(a)  Two  dressmaking  rooms : fitting  rooms,  wardrobes,  locker 
rooms. 

(i b ) One  millinery  room. 

(c)  One  costume- designing  room. 

(d)  One  laundry,  fairly  large  room  with  apparatus  for  washing 

and  drying. 

(e)  One  exhibition  room. 

(/)  Storerooms  and  offices. 

23.  Homemaking  rooms. 

(a)  Living  or  dining  room  combined  or  separate  as  instructor 

would  direct. 

( b ) Kitchenette  and  pantry. 

(c)  Bedroom. 

(d)  Bath  and  toilet  room. 

This  could  very  well  be  a cottage  near  the  school  and  espe- 
cially designed  for  this  course. 

24.  Drawing  and  Art  Department. 

(a)  Two  large  freehand  drawing  rooms. 

( b ) Storage  rooms. 

(c)  Two  offices. 

(d)  Water  color  room. 

(e)  Storage  and  office. 

(/)  Four  mechanical  drawing  rooms. 

(g)  Offices  and  record  room. 

(Ji)  Clay  modeling  and  pottery  room  (small). 

(i)  Clay  storage  room.  m 

( j ) Small  room  for  finished  work. 

(k)  Exhibition  and  art  room  for  display  of  finished  work  of 

the  above  classes,  centrally  located,  also  for  hanging 
paintings  and  placing  sculpture. 

25.  Music  Department. 

(a)  Large  choral  room. 


( b ) Storeroom. 

(c)  Two  classrooms  for  the  study  of  harmony  and  history  of 

music. 

(d)  Large  room  for  orchestral  and  band  practice  and  should 

be  adjacent  to  the  choral  room  so  that  both  may  be 
joined  for  joint  practice  and  study.  Double  sound- 
proof doors  and  walls  between  these  rooms.  Both 
rooms  should  be  treated  so  that  the  acoustics  are 
favorable  for  the  work  within. 

( e ) Four  or  five  small  practice  rooms  for  instrumental  music. 
(/)  Arrangement  for  the  storage  of  instruments,  music 

stands,  music  sheets,  books,  etc. 

26.  Industrial  Arts.  Shops. 

(1)  Automobile  shop. 

(a)  Storage. 

(b)  Tool  room. 

(c)  Instructor’s  office  (small). 

(2)  Machine  shop. 

(a)  Storage  for  raw  material. 

( b ) Tool  room. 

(c)  Office. 

( d ) Storage  for  finished  work. 

(3)  Forge  shop. 

(a)  Blower  and  exhaust  room. 

(b)  Tool  room. 

(c)  Storage  for  raw  material. 

( d ) Storage  for  finished  work. 

(e)  Office. 

Note:  The  automobile,  machine,  and  forge  shops 
should  be  close  together,  as  there  is  a continuity 
in  their  work  and  there  may  be  a saving  in 
tools  and  equipment. 

(4)  Carpentry,  woodworking  machine,  cabinet,  and  pattern 

shops. 

(a)  Lumber  rooms. 

( b ) Tool  rooms. 

(c)  Gluing  rooms. 

(d)  Painting  and  finishing  rooms. 

(e)  Paint  cabinets,  fireproof. 

(/)  Storage  rooms  for  finished  work. 

(g)  Sawdust  and  shavings  extractor  room  and  tank. 

(5)  Electrical  shop  with  main  switchboard  controlling  entire 

plant. 

(a)  Store  and  supply  rooms. 

(b)  Office. 

(c)  Tool  room. 

(d)  Room  for  lighting  fixtures  in  finished  state  (walls 

and  ceiling). 

( e ) Apparatus  room. 

(6)  Plumbing,  sheet  metal,  and  masonry  shop. 

This  shop  should  be  higher  in  height  so  that  rough 
plumbing  may  be  carried  up  through  three  low  stories 
and  false  roof  in  order  that  the  work  may  be  practical. 

(a)  Large  storerooms  for  the  three  trades. 

(b)  Office. 

(7)  Foundry  with  a cupola. 

(a)  Pattern  storage  room. 

( b ) Coke,  iron,  and  brass  storeroom. 

(c)  Core  room  and  core  oven. 

(d)  Office. 

(8)  General  lecture  or  demonstration  room. 

(9)  Exhibition  room  for  the  best  work  of  students.  This 

will  stimulate  interest  in  the  work. 


COST  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


75 


(io)  There  should  be  wash  and  locker  rooms  between  every 
two  shops,  also  toilet  rooms  and  a shower  room  near 
the  foundry  and  close  to  the  forge,  automobile,  and 
machine  shop. 

(n)  Printing  plant. 

(a)  Editorial  room  (school  paper). 

(. b ) Office  for  instructor. 

( c ) Storage  rooms  for  supplies. 

27.  A swimming-pool  is  listed  as  a suggestion ; and  if  a Board 

deems  it  advisable  it  should  be  placed  near  the  gymnasium, 
so  that  the  one  set  of  showers,  dressing  and  locker  rooms 
for  each  of  the  sexes  could  very  well  be  used,  thereby 
economizing  in  plumbing  equipment  and  floor  space. 
Should  this  physical  education  feature  be  adopted  it  would 
be  advisable  for  the  department  to  install  its  own  water 
system. 

28.  It  might  be  advisable  for  a Board  to  install  an  electrical 

generating  system,  for  lighting  and  power,  as  high-pressure 
boilers  will  have  to  be  installed  in  any  event  for  heating. 
Also  a school  of  this  character  will  be  attended  by  evening 
or  continuation  students  during  the  entire  school  year. 
And  the  cost  of  maintenance  may  be  kept  at  a minimum. 

29.  Athletic  Field. 

(a)  One-fourth  of  a mile  track. 

( h ) Bleachers. 

(e)  Small  part  of  main  building  for  emergency  room,  apparatus, 
and  tools. 

Methods  of  Computing  Cost.  — Several  methods 
are  used  in  arriving  at  the  proposed  cost.  These  will 
be  discussed  in  the  order  of  their  merit  and  accuracy. 
More  often  than  otherwise  no  well-developed  method 
at  all  is  followed ; but  a lump  sum  is  arbitrarily  fixed 
upon  without  due  regard  to  its  adequacy  or  economy. 
After  its  adoption,  either  by  budget  or  bond  election, 
when  it  is  found  that  the  money  will  not  meet  the  re- 
quirements, the  necessity  of  having  an  intelligent  and 
reliable  preliminary  estimate  based  on  the  actual  needs 
is  usually  acutely  apparent. 

Cost  Per  Classroom.  — The  almost  obsolete  rule  of 
thumb  method  of  computing  tire  preliminary  estimate 
by  assuming  a unit  cost  per  classroom  based  on  the 
cost  per  classroom  of  some  other  school  building  is  no 
better  than  hazardous  guessing.  Seldom,  if  ever,  are 
the  actual  facts  known  that  ruled  the  requirements, 
contents,  construction,  prevailing  prices  of  labor  and 
material,  and  many  other  building  conditions  which 
governed  the  planning,  erection,  and  cost  of  the  previously 
erected  building  taken  as  a guide. 

The  site  has  much  to  do  with  the  cost  of  the  build- 
ing. A level  tract  of  firm  ground,  where  it  is  necessary 
to  carry  the  foundations  down  to  only  a reasonably 
safe  depth,  will  give  advantages  in  cost  per  classroom 
as  against  a sloping  site  which  necessitates  substructures 
or  extended  foundations  and  retaining  walls  before  the 
actual  building  can  be  started.  The  orientation  of  the 
lot,  since  it  means  a great  deal  to  the  orientation  of  the 


building  and  its  various  rooms,  will  affect  the  costs, 
as  will  the  size  and  number  of  the  rooms  used  for  in- 
struction together  with  their  related  rooms. 

The  differences  in  heating  and  ventilating  systems 
and  their  costs  are  as  varied  as  the  types  of  construc- 
tion of  buildings.  This  is  true  of  the  plumbing,  electri- 
cal work,  blackboards,  hardware,  finish,  etc.  Conse- 
quently, any  computation  based  on  a unit  cost  of 
classrooms  cannot  lead  to  accuracy,  as  there  are  so 
many  other  factors  entering  into  the  problem. 

Cost  Per  Pupil.  — For  the  same  reasons  the  cost 
per  pupil  is  not  sufficiently  definite  to  warrant  fixing  an 
estimate  by  which  to  build,  although  such  an  attempt 
is  one  step  better  than  trying  to  reach  an  estimate 
based  on  the  cost  per  classroom. 

An  example  will  help  to  make  these  conditions  clear. 
Let  us  assume  a proposed  school  that  at  completion 
will  provide  accommodations  for  x number  of  pupils, 
but  the  overhead  rooms  and  special  departments,  such 
as  administration  rooms,  assembly  hall,  toilet  rooms, 
boiler  and  fan  rooms,  domestic  science,  laboratories, 
etc.,  etc.,  are  of  the  minimum  size  and  yet  are  adequate 
to  provide  instruction  for  x + y pupils,  which  very 
likely  will  be  the  number  a year  or  two  after  the 
building  is  completed.  The  question  naturally  arises 
upon  which  number  of  pupils  shall  the  cost  be  based. 
If  based  on  x,  the  cost  per  pupil  must  be  higher  than 
if  figured  on  x + y,  and  yet  all  the  essentials  except 
the  additional  rooms  for  instruction  may  be  included 
in  the  original  scheme.  And  since  there  is  no  way  of 
striking  a prospective  average  upon  which  to  compute 
the  total  cost  on  a cost  per  pupil  basis  until  the  plant 
has  reached  its  final  growth,  it  is  unsafe  to  base  estimates 
from  this  standpoint,  although  it  is  well  to  have  such  a 
record  when  the  building  is  completed. 

Furthermore,  for  comparison,  this  method  is  not 
reliable  unless  all  the  facts  are  known,  for  one  school 
may  have  an  assembly  hall,  playrooms,  gymnasium, 
swimming-pool,  etc.,  while  another  may  have  some  of 
these  rooms  but  not  all  of  them,  and  they  may  be  of 
smaller  size  and  not  as  well  equipped ; or  again  they 
may  not  have  any  of  them.  Also  the  cost  per  pupil  in 
one  case  may  include  the  grading,  planting,  walks  and 
fences  of  the  grounds,  and  preparation  of  the  athletic 
field,  while  these  may  be  omitted  altogether  from  another. 
Consequently  the  cost  per  pupil  should  be  used  only  as 
a relative  check  after  other  and  more  definite  measures 
and  methods  have  been  taken  to  determine  the  cost. 

When  boards  of  education  or  architects  are  vying 
with  each  other  on  the  low  costs  of  school  buildings 
per  classroom  and  per  pupil,  it  is  reasonable  to  assume 
that  the  educational  facilities,  the  health  conditions, 
and  the  structural  permanency  of  the  building  and  its 


76 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


finish  are  being  curtailed  or  slighted  in  order  to  make  a 
political  or  professional  showing  on  the  credit  side  of  their 
ledger,  a result  which  never  atones  for  failure  to  do  full 
justice  to  the  problem. 

Cost  per  Square  Foot  of  Floor  Area.  — This  method 
in  estimating  the  cost  of  a proposed  building  is  not 
sufficiently  accurate,  as  it  does  not  involve  the  cubic 
contents  of  the  building.  For  instance,  the  school 
building  under  consideration  may  have  approximately 
the  same  floor  area  as  another  and  at  the  same  time 
may  have  greater  story  heights  and  a high  sloping  roof. 
This  difference  would  immediately  upset  and  make 
void  any  careful  calculation  of  the  proposed  or  com- 
parative cost.  Unit  cost  per  square  foot  is  of  very 
little  help,  and  should  be  only  obtained  for  the  addi- 
tional information  it  affords  in  tabulating  the  different 
unit  costs  of  the  structure. 

Cost  per  Cubic  Foot.  — Next  to  having  actual  esti- 
mates of  the  quantities  and  costs  of  materials  and  labor 
involved,  the  method  of  computing  the  cubic  contents 
of  the  building  and  establishing  a reasonable  unit  of  cost 
per  cubic  foot  is  undoubtedly  the  best.  Before  this 
cost  can  be  determined,  it  is  necessary  to  have  pre- 
liminary drawings  of  the  entire  plant,  which  drawings 
should  clearly  indicate  the  location  and  quantity  of 
fixed  equipment,  the  general  treatment  of  the  grounds, 
and  also  a definite  understanding  of  the  type  of  plan 
and  the  class  of  construction,  while  the  equipment 
and  furniture  will  not  be  considered  at  this  time,  al- 
though the  final  computation  will  necessarily  include 
these  items. 

Cubic  Contents.  — When  considering  the  different 
types  of  buildings  it  is  not  so  easy  to  define  just  what 
the  cubic  contents  should  include  so  as  to  have  a 
unanimity  of  opinion,  but  most  authorities  agree  on  the 
following  methods. 

For  buildings  more  than  one  story  in  height  the  cubic 
contents  should  be  the  summation  of  the  products 
of  the  following : 

The  area  of  the  ground  space  occupied  by  all  por- 
tions of  the  building  measured  to  its  outside  walls, 
multiplied  by  the  height  of  these  portions  measured  from 
a point  6"  below  the  top  of  the  lowest  floor  level  to  the 
average  roof  level.  This  shall- include  all  covered  or 
inclosed  stoops,  penthouses,  covered  steps  or  entrances, 
arcades,  chimneys  to  roof  levels,  etc.  Actual  cubage 
of  open  stoops,  steps,  walls,  and  floor  slabs  of  open  areas 
should  be  figured  solid.  Where  portions  of  the  build- 
ing are  built  to  different  heights,  each  portion  should 
be  taken  as  an  individual  unit  and  the  rule  as  above 
applied.  The  average  roof  level  is  intended  as  the  mean 
of  sloping  or  pitched  roofs,  and  the  top  of  flat  roofs. 


All  parapet  walls  should  be  figured  solid.  The  sum  total 
will  be  the  cubage  of  the  building. 

Whenever  unusual  conditions  prevail  requiring  rock 
excavation,  piling,  retaining  walls,  extraordinary  foun- 
dation work,  sheet-piling,  or  special  work  in  excess  of 
the  ordinary  foundation  work  required  for  a building 
on  a level  tract  of  firm  bearing  soil,  these  conditions 
should  be  taken  into  account  and  figured  separately 
from  the  normal  cubage.  They  are  usually  listed 
under  the  heading  of  abnormal  costs. 

With  one-story  buildings  having  no  basements,  ex- 
cept boiler-room  space,  and  the  main  floor  level  about 
two  or  three  feet  above  grade  level,  there  is  a great  di- 
versity of  opinion  as  to  the  method  to  be  employed. 
The  mooted  question  is  regarding  the  space  between 
the  floor  and  the  top  of  the  ground.  Having  built  a 
number  of  schools  of  this  type,  the  author  is  of  the 
opinion  that  the  most  reliable  method  is  to  figure  the 
foundations,  walls  and  piers  solid  to  the  under  side  of 
floor  construction,  and  then  add  the  cubic  contents  of 
the  remaining  part  of  the  building  as  in  the  two-  or 
three-story  structures.  To  include  the  space  under  the 
floor  the  same  as  that  above  it  is  misleading,  as  no  finish 
is  used  below  the  floor. 

Mr.  Edward  C.  Baldwin,  Secretary  Massachusetts 
State  Board  of  Education,  in  a very  able  paper  pre- 
sented before  the  National  Association  of  School  Ac- 
counting Officers  at  St.  Louis,  May  19,  1918,  recom- 
mended that  “ the  cubical  contents  of  the  building 
should  be  defined  to  mean  the  cubical  contents  of  the 
space  or  the  rooms  actually  used  or  available  for  school 
purposes,  such  for  example  as  classrooms,  coatrooms, 
assembly  halls,  corridors,  stairways,  playrooms,  offices, 
lunchrooms,  sanitaries,  storerooms,  engine  and  boiler 
rooms,  coal  rooms,  stack  rooms,  fan  rooms,  etc.,  but 
should  not  include  attic  spaces,  or  other  parts  of  a build- 
ing which  cannot  be  used  for  school  or  its  related  work.”  1 

This  is  an  admirable  suggestion  for  purposes  of  com- 
parison after  the  building  is  completed,  but  for  prelim- 
inary cost  purposes,  it  seems  to  the  author  as  though  it 
is  more  valuable  to  compute  the  cost  by  a unit  cost 
per  cubic  foot  multiplied  by  the  total  cubage  of  the 
building,  plus  the  cost  of  any  special  work. 

Types  of  Construction.  — After  having  the  educational 
requirements  established  and  recorded  by  the  pre- 
liminary drawings  and  the  cubage  obtained,  the  next 
step  should  be  to  determine  upon  the  unit  cost  per  cubic 
foot.  Before  doing  this  it  is  necessary  to  know  what 
type  of  construction  shall  be  adopted,  what  system  of 
heating  and  ventilation  is  to  be  installed,  and  the  quality 
and  finish  of  the  other  building  installations.  For  se- 
quence the  types  of  construction  should  be  classified 


American  School  Board  Journal,  1918. 


COST  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


77 


into  grades  adopted  by  the  building  laws  of  cities.  In 
some  cities  they  are  rated  numerically  as  Class  i,  2,  3, 
mill,  and  ordinary  frame  construction ; and  in  others 
they  are  rated  alphabetically  as  Class  A,  B,  C,  mill, 
ordinary  and  frame  construction.  For  purposes  herein 
they  will  be  graded  alphabetically. 

Class  A . — Class  A is  a building  built  with  a steel 
frame  supporting  all  walls,  floors,  and  roofs,  and  the 
structural  parts,  such  as  partitions,  exterior,  and  in- 
terior walls,  floors,  stairs,  etc.,  built  of  fire-resisting 
materials  except  that  the  finish  floors,  windows,  trim, 
and  doors  may  be  of  wood  construction.  Schools  not 
over  three  stories  high  would  not  necessarily  have  the 
exterior  walls  supported  by  the  steel  frame,  as  they 
could  with  safety  and  economy  be  self-supporting  and 
also  support  the  adjacent  floor  loads.  Buildings  of 
more  than  three  stories  in  height  and  built  within  the 
fire  limits,  in  order  to  comply  with  the  building  ordi- 
nances of  many  cities,  are  required  to  have  the  windows, 
trim,  and  doors  of  metal  or  metal  covered. 

Class  B.  — Buildings  of  this  class  are  built  with  the 
walls  of  masonry  or  concrete  supporting  the  adjacent 
floor  loads,  and  with  reenforced  concrete  columns  sup- 
porting the  interior  portions  of  the  floors ; the  floors, 
roofs,  and  structural  parts  of  reenforced  concrete,  ma- 
sonry, or  other  fireproof  construction.  Doors,  trim, 
windows,  and  floors  are  of  wood.  For  school  buildings, 
this  class  might  be  extended  so  that  interior  partitions 
between  rooms  for  defined  areas  (about  2500  square 
feet)  could  be  built  of  wood  studs  and  wood  lath  for  the 
acoustical  quality  these  materials  give  to  the  classrooms. 
The  partitions  inclosing  these  areas  and  the  corridor 
partitions  should  be  of  fireproof  materials. 

Class  C.  — For  schools,  this  class  of  buildings  should 
be  defined  as  having  the  exterior  walls  of  masonry  or 
reinforced  concrete ; the  corridor  floors  and  stairways 
of  reenforced  concrete,  supported  by  steel,  cast  iron,  or 
reenforced  concrete  columns ; the  remaining  floors  of 
wood  construction  ; the  interior  walls  of  wood  studs  and 
wood  lath,  except  the  corridor  walls,  which  should  be  of 
metal  lath  construction,  and  the  floors,  trim,  etc.,  etc.,  of 
wood.  It  should  be  noted  that  this  is  somewhat  differ- 
ently defined  from  that  of  the  usual  Class  C construction 
found  in  building  ordinances ; and  it  is  specially  men- 
tioned as  suggesting  a safe  middle  course  for  the  building 
of  schools,  when  classes  A and  B are  found  to  be  too  ex- 
pensive. This  type  is  favorable  for  school  buildings  out- 
side the  fire  limits  and  not  more  than  three  stories  high. 

Class  D.  — This  class  differs  from  Class  C only  in 
not  having  the  walls  and  floors  of  the  corridors  and  the 
stair  wells  of  fireproof  construction.  In  this  class  the 
wood  floors  may  be  supported  by  a steel  frame,  a con- 


crete frame,  a timber  frame  or  by  wood  studs.  The 
exterior  walls  are  of  masonry  construction.  This  type 
of  construction  for  schools  should  be  limited  to  buildings 
of  two  stories. 

Class  E or  Frame  Construction.  — A Class  E build- 
ing is  constructed  entirely  of  wood.  A school  of  frame 
construction  should  not  be  more  than  two  stories  high.1 

Classification  of  the  Heating  and  Ventilation.  - — 
Having  classified  the  construction,  the  next  step  should 
be  to  classify  the  permanent  mechanical  installations, 
such  as  the  heating  and  ventilation  systems.  If  they 
are  graded  numerically,  it  will  avoid  confusion  with  the 
grading  of  the  types  of  construction. 

Heating  and  Ventilation,  Grade  I.  — This  grade 
includes  a steam  boiler  plant,  mechanical  stokers, 
or  oil  burning  systems,  the  dual  system  of  heating  and 
ventilating,  that  is,  radiators  and  the  air  of  the  plenum 
system  tempered,  air  washers,  temperature,  and  hu- 
midity controlled  by  thermostats,  and  vacuum  pumps 
for  the  return  system. 

Heating  and  Ventilation,  Grade  II.  — The  same  as 
Grade  I without  the  direct  radiation.  In  this  grade, 
the  heating  of  the  rooms  is  done  by  means  of  heating 
the  air  supply  to  such  temperature  that  the  heated  air 
comfortably  warms  the  rooms.  It  should  be  carefully 
recorded  whether  or  not  the  system  includes  an  air 
washer  and  mechanical  stokers,  as  these  installations 
affect  the  cost  of  the  plant. 

Heating  and  Ventilation,  Grade  III.  — This  grade 
consists  of  a hot  air  furnace,  replacing  the  steam  plant 
mentioned  in  Grade  I and  II  and  which  heats  the  build- 
ing similarly  to  the  means  of  Grade  II.  There  is  a 
temperature  control  but  no  air  washer  or  mechanical 
stokers  to  this  system.  It  should  be  noted  that  this 
method  of  heating  is  very  inferior  to  I and  II. 

Heating  and  Ventilation,  Grade  IV.  — This  grade 
consists  of  a steam  plant  furnishing  direct  radiation 
only  to  the  classrooms ; such  rooms  as  the  assembly 
hall  and  large  study  room  are  supplied  with  tempered 
air.  It  also  includes  temperature  control.  Like  Grade 
III  such  a system  is  applicable  only  to  sections  of  the 
country  having  climates  where  open  windows  are  per- 
missible the  year  round. 

Sanitary  Installations.  — It  is  assumed  that  in  this  day 
and  age  only  good  sanitary  fixtures  would  be  used,  conse- 
quently there  would  be  little  or  no  difference  in  the  total 
costs  of  the  different  classes  of  construction,  unless  a septic 
sewage  system  or  a water  supply  system  are  required. 
Then  the  cost  of  these  items  should  be  taken  into  account. 

Electrical  Installations.  — The  principal  items  to 
take  account  of  here  are  whether  or  not  the  lighting 
fixtures  should  be  installed  at  the  time  of  construction, 


1 In  classifying  the  different  types  of  construction  it  has  been  assumed  that  for  all  classes  the  boiler  rooms  are  of  fireproof  construction. 


78 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


and  should  program  clocks  and  bells,  fire  alarm  sys- 
tem and  intercommunicating  telephones  be  provided. 
It  is  assumed  that  all  wiring  shall  be  of  the  metal  con- 
duit method,  and  comply  with  the  rules  of  the  National 
Board  of  Fire  Underwriters. 

Classification  of  the  Educational  Grades.  — A further 
classification  of  building  is  necessary  to  fully  compre- 
hend and  solve  fully  the  problem  of  costs.  For  it  is 
evident  to  those  at  all  familiar  with  schools  that  the 
senior  inclusive,  or  cosmopolitan  high  school  with  built- 
in  equipment  will  cost  more  per  cubic  foot  than  the 
low  elementary  school  of  the  same  class  of  construction. 

Any  number  of  classifications  of  schools  might  be 
formed,  but  the  main  point  is  to  keep  these  somewhat 
technical  matters  simplified  so  that  it  is  not  difficult 
for  the  layman  to  follow  the  modus  operandi  and  know 
how  to  act  intelligently  and  logically  when  the  facts 
are  placed  before  him. 

The  following  is  suggested  as  a simple  classification : 

The  Elementary  School. 

1.  Lower  elementary,  grades  I to  VI  inclusive  without 
assembly  hall. 

2.  Same  with  assembly  hall. 

3.  Upper  elementary,  grades  I to  VIII  inclusive, 
with  rooms  for  cooking,  sewing,  manual  training,  and 
assembly  hall.  If  the  school  has  a gymnasium  or  a 
swimming-pool  special  mention  should  be  made  of  the 
facts.  But  as  a general  rule  the  average  upper  ele- 
mentary school  does  not  have  these  features. 

Junior  High  School. 

The  High  School.  — It  is  not  so  simple  a matter 
to  classify  the  high  school,  as  secondary  educational 
systems  are  constantly  changing  by  the  additions  of 
new  subjects  or  courses  and  consequently  new  and 
different  rooms  and  equipment.  The  classical  or 
purely  academic  high  school  containing  classrooms, 
assembly  hall,  gymnasium,  library,  and  laboratories  for 
the  elementary  sciences  is  fast  being  supplanted  by  the 
inclusive  high  school  with  all  kinds  of  shops,  labora- 
tories, rooms  for  household  arts  and  commercial  in- 
struction in  addition  to  the  rooms  or  departments  in- 
cluded within  the  scope  of  the  classical  high  school. 
Therefore,  any  classification  will  require  supplementary 
data  regarding  the  rooms  for  special  study  or  work. 
Furthermore,  the  method  of  handling  study  classes, 
whether  in  special  study  halls  or  in  classrooms  under 
the  supervision  of  the  class  teacher,  is  quite  likely  to 
affect  the  plan  and  the  cubic  contents  of  the  building; 
it  would  be  well  to  have  the  method  fully  understood 
before  determining  on  a unit  cost. 

However,  the  following  is  offered  as  a suggestion  as  to 
classification  to  be  amplified  according  to  the  prevailing 
conditions. 


1.  Classical  high  school. 

2.  Commercial  high  school. 

3.  Technical  high  school. 

4.  Inclusive  or  cosmopolitan  high  school  embody- 
ing 1,  2,  3,  and 

5.  Vocational  or  trade  schools. 

6.  High  school  with  dormitories. 

(See  Elko,  Nevada,  High  School  plan.) 

Having  thus  classified  the  construction,  the  heating 
and  ventilating  systems,  and  the  types  of  buildings, 
for  use  it  is  possible  then  to  proceed  to  quote  costs  per 
cubic  foot  from  work  executed  prior  to  the  war  as  a basis 
from  which  to  work.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that 
immediate  post-war  prices  and  conditions  are  unstable 
and  will  remain  so  for  some  time.  Consequently  the 
unit  figures  given  below  are  based  on  ante-war  costs. 
Until  the  world  has  readjusted  itself  to  the  new  order 
of  conditions,  reasonable  margins  for  safety  should  be 
allowed  in  all  estimating.  The  fluctuations  and  prices 
of  both  labor  and  materials  must  also  be  considered. 
The  furniture  and  equipment  should  not  be  included 
in  obtaining  the  net  cost  of  the  building,  nor  should 
the  walks,  approaches,  grading,  and  landscape  work  be 
included,  as  exceptionally  expensive  work  may  be  re- 
quired for  filling,  surfacing,  and  planting.  Therefore 
the  grading  should  be  figured  separately. 

The  following  tables  have  been  compiled  from  a 
collection  of  data  dating  back  to  1910. 

Table  No.  1 is  a compilation  from  the  school  records 
of  the  different  localities.  It  should  be  noted  that  cer- 
tain classes  of  construction  are  lower  in  one  section 
than  in  another,  while  another  class  of  construction 
in  the  same  locality  is  higher  in  unit  cost  due  to  the 
remoteness  of  the  structural  materials  from  the  source 
of  supply.  This  also  accounts  for  the  range  of  unit 
costs  given  in  Table  No.  2. 

In  like  manner,  it  should  be  remembered  that  heat- 
ing and  ventilating  will  vary  in  cost  according  to  the 
climatic  and  seasonal  conditions  of  the  different  locali- 
ties. For  instance,  heating  should  cost  more  in  Massa- 
chusetts, New  York,  Illinois,  and  Missouri  than  it  does 
in  California.  This  is  somewhat  true  of  plumbing  as 
well,  for  less  covering  of  pipes  against  frost  is  re- 
quired in  the  last  locality  than  in  any  of  the  previously 
mentioned  states. 

Due  to  the  wider  use  of  the  high  school  over  that  of 
the  elementary,  the  unit  costs  of  the  electrical  work  are 
correspondingly  higher.  Also  the  electrical  installa- 
tions in  the  shops,  laboratories,  etc.,  of  the  junior,  tech- 
nical, inclusive,  and  vocational  high  schools  mil  cause 
the  cost  of  this  work  to  run  considerably  higher  than 
that  installed  in  the  elementary  school,  or  in  the  classi- 
cal or  the  commercial  high  school. 


COST  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


79 


It  is  very  important  that  the  reader  should  remember 
that  any  table  of  costs  has  only  a relative  value.  Prices 
change  daily,  and  conditions  governed  by  labor,  trans- 
portation, etc.  will  materially  affect  the  cost  of  build- 
ing. Therefore  the  writer  submits  the  following  tables, 
with  this  caution  of  their  use. 


Table  No.  i.  — Approximate  Costs  (in  Cents)  per  Cubic  Foot 
por  Class  A Buildings  with  Class  I Heating  and  Ventilating 
and  Full  Electrical  Installation. 


Locality 

Cost  per 

CU.  FT. 

Cost  of 
Gen.  Work 

PER  CU.  FT. 

Cost  of 

H.  & V. 

PER  CU.  FT. 

Plumbing 

PER  CU.  FT. 

Elec. 
Work  per 

CU.  FT. 

Boston 

22  to  25^ 

18  to  20t 

2 tO  it 

x.i  to  I.5f! 

.8  to  1.9 t 

Chicago  .... 

17  to  20(1 

13  to  16^ 

2 tO  it 

1 to  i.st 

.25  to  .4 t 

St.  Louis  .... 

17  tO  20)1 

13  to  16 i 

2!  to  4 1 

f to  I.2f ! 

i to  it 

San  Francisco  . . 

19  to  2 it 

16  to  I9(i 

1 to  i.si* 

•7  to  1.3) ! 

j to  1 1 

Class  B Buildings  Class  I (Heating  and  Ventilating)  and  Full 
Electrical  Equipment. 


Boston 

19  to  24 i 

17  to  20^ 

2 to  it 

i.x  to  i.$i 

.8  to  i.9f* 

Chicago  . . . . 

16  to  igt 

13  to  at 

2 to  it 

1.0  to  x.5f* 

.25  to  M 

St.  Louis  .... 

16  to  20 t 

12  to  15)* 

2\  to  4 1 

f to  1.2 t 

i to  it 

San  Francisco  . . 

16  to  i9f* 

12  to  lit 

1 to  1. 5)S 

•7  to  1.3 t 

\ to  it 

Class  C Buildings  Class  II  (Heating  and  Ventilating)  and  Full 
Electrical  Equipment. 


Boston 

17  to  24^ 

14  to  20t 

1.7  to  2.7)* 

Same  as 

Same  as 

Chicago  .... 

15  to  18^ 

12  to  I5f* 

1.6  to  2.8^ 

above 

above 

St.  Louis  .... 

15  to  i8f* 

13  to  I5(* 

1.8  to  it 

San  Francisco  . . 

14  to  17 t 

xi$  to  I4f* 

1 to  1.5 t 

Table  2.  — Approximate  Costs  (in  Cents)  per  Cubic  Foot  for 
Different  Grades  of  School  Building  Construction. 


Type  of  School 

Class  A 

Class  B 

Class  C 

Class  D 

Class  E 

i Low  elementary  with- 
out assembly  hall 

20  tO  2 6i 

18  to  23^ 

16  to  20 i 

14  to  18 t 

13  to  iTt 

2 Same  with  assembly 
hall 

18  to  24^ 

17  to  23) 1 

15  to  20 i 

14  to  i8f! 

13  to  16^ 

3 Upper  elementary  . . 

19  to  24 t 

18  to  22) * 

15  to  20 1 

15  to  I9<* 

13  to  17 t 

4 Junior  high  school  . . 

20  tO  24^ 

17  to  2 it 

15  tO  20t 

15  to  I9f* 

This  is  prob- 

5 Classical  high  school  . 

20  tO  24 t 

18  to  23^ 

17  tO  21 t 

16  to  20 t 

Iematical 

6 Commercial  high  school 

20  to  24 t 

18  to  2 it 

17  tO  21^ 

16  to  20<k 

as  there  are 

7 Technical  high  school  . 

21  to  26 t 

18  to  24 t 

17  to  22i 

16  to  21 t 

very  few  ex- 

8 Inclusive  high  school  . 

21  tO  26^ 

18  to  23^ 

l6  tO  2 Iff 

15  to  20 

amples  of 

9 Vocational  or  trade 
school 

22  tO  26^f 

18  to  24ff 

17  to  23  f* 

l6  tO  22{f 

this  type  of 
construction 

10  Dormitories  .... 

25  to  sot 

23  to  27 t 

20  tO  25 t 

19  to  23 t 

for  these 

buildings. 

Table  3.  — Approximate  Cost  (in  Cents)  per  Cubic  Foot  for 
Different  Grades  of  Heating  and  Ventilating  Systems  for 
Schools. 


Type  of  School 

Grade  I 
Complete 

Grade  II 
Plenum 
Only 

Grade  III 
Hot  Air 
Furnace 

Grade  IV 
Radiation 
Only 

Elementary 

2 to  it 

1.5  to  2.5 t 

0.8  to  1.5 t 

0.7  tO  1.2)1 

High  school 

1.5  to  2.5 (* 
f Should 

I to  2 1 

0.7  to  it 

0.5  tO  I. st 

Dormitories 

{ not  install 
( plenum 

1.2  to  2 t 

i.  to  i.st 

Table  4. — Approximate  Costs  (in  Cents)  per  Cubic  Foot  for 
Plumbing  and  Electrical  Installations  in  the  Different 
Classes  of  Educational  Buildings. 


Type  of  School 

Plumbing 

Electrical 

Elementary 

i to  1.2 

i to  1 

Junior  high  school  

1 to  1.3 

1 to  1.3 

Classical  or  commercial  high  school  . . . 

1 to  1.3 

| to  1.2 

Technical  high  school . 

i to  1.4 

i to  1.9 

Inclusive  high  school 

i to  1.5 

1 to  2 

Vocational  high  school 

f to  x.s 

1 to  2 

Dormitories 

1.2  to  1.7 

1.5  to  2.5 

Note:  — The  increased  cost  in  building  in  1920  is  approximately 
150  per  cent  higher  than  in  1914. 


There  should  be  some  check  on  the  cost  per  cubic 
foot  method  in  order  to  insure  against  a low  unit  cost 
per  cubic  foot  and  at  the  same  time  a high  cubage  per 
pupil.  The  compact  or  closed  type  of  school  will  show 
a smaller  cubage  per  pupil,  while  the  open  or  spread- 
out  type  will  require  a greater  allowance.  The  one- 
story  schools  will  show  a decided  increase  over  that  of 
the  two-  or  three-story  schools. 

The  compact  elementary  school  with  classrooms 
and  a very  few  accessory  or  related  rooms  will  require 
from  600  to  800  cubic  feet  per  pupil,  while  the  open  type 
will  need  from  900  to  1100  cubic  feet,  showing  a wide 
divergence.  Similarly  the  two  types  of  high  schools 
will  show  a wide  variance  in  cubage  per  pupil.  In  five 
recently  built  high  schools  constructed  in  different  sec- 
tions of  the  country,  the  lowest  cubage  was  1200  cubic 
feet  per  pupil,  while  the  highest  was  slightly  more  than 
2700  cubic  feet  per  pupil.  Naturally  the  cost  per  cubic 
foot  was  much  lower  in  the  latter.  Yet  from  the  two 
plans,  the  school  with  the  higher  cubage  per  pupil  con- 
tained more  rooms  for  educational  and  physical  ad- 
vantages than  the  high  school  of  the  lowest  cubage. 

The  writer  has  built  a number  of  one-  and  two-story 
schools  of  the  Class  C construction  which  cost  between 
eleven  and  fourteen  cents  per  cubic  foot,  but  they  were 
of  the  open  type,  and  their  unit  cost  is  not  recorded  in 
Table  No.  2,  as  such  figures  undoubtedly  would  be  mis- 
leading, the  cost  per  pupil  being  about  normal. 

Inasmuch  as  the  tendency  is  towards  the  open  type 
of  plan  for  both  the  elementary  and  high  school,  the 
data  at  hand  are  not  sufficient  to  warrant  establishing  a 
limit  to  the  cubage  per  pupil.  Also  the  hygienic  ad- 
vantages of  the  open  plan  for  sunshine  and  natural 
ventilation  are  so  pronounced  that  it  is  hard  to  believe, 
notwithstanding  the  desire  to  economize,  that  the  closed 
scheme  would  be  preferable  to  the  open  type  when  land 
space  is  available  for  the  latter. 

However,  when  the  combined  floor  area  of  the  rooms 
for  instruction  is  appreciably  less  than  50  per  cent  of 
the  total  floor  area  of  the  building,  then  it  is  time  to 
look  for  extravagance  or  waste  in  the  planning  of  areas. 


So 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Rooms  for  instruction  should  include  classrooms,  labora- 
tories, library,  shops,  home  economics  rooms,  rooms  for 
commercial  work,  drawing,  and  any  rooms  used  for 
instruction.  The  question  naturally  arises,  are  as- 
sembly halls,  gymnasia,  swimming-pools,  etc.,  in  the 
category  of  instruction  rooms?  Generally  they  should 
not  be  included,  but  should  be  classified  as  rooms  re- 
lated to  instruction  rooms. 

Cost  of  Equipment.  — It  is  most  essential  that  a re- 
liable estimate  be  obtained,  showing  the  cost  of  the 
furniture  and  equipment,  before  school  boards  establish 
a figure  covering  the  cost  of  the  proposed  school.  Very 
often  this  important  item  is  overlooked  until  the  build- 
ing is  completed,  and  then  it  is  found  necessary  either 
to  call  for  additional  funds  or  to  install  worn-out  and 
disfigured  furniture  and  equipment  entirely  inadequate 
to  meet  the  needs  of  the  school.  Stock  furniture  can 
be  purchased  more  cheaply  than  it  can  be  designed  and 
specially  made.  And  undoubtedly  it  will  be  better  built 
and  generally  of  a finer  design.  But  equipment  for 
science  laboratories,  household  arts,  library  bookcases, 
and  similar  equipment  should  be  designed  by  the  archi- 
tect, in  collaboration  with  the  heads  of  the  different 
departments,  as  the  needs  and  requirements  of  each 
school  can  be  accommodated  better  by  this  method 
than  by  attempting  to  make  the  school  meet  the  require- 
ments of  stock  equipment. 

The  following  preliminary  estimate  was  prepared  by 
the  writer  for  the  Board  of  Education  of  a city  of  20,000 
inhabitants  in  California,  in  February,  1917,  prior  to 
the  bond  election  for  a new  high  school.  This  enabled 
the  Board  to  go  before  the  electors  with  definite  data  re- 
garding the  proposed  building.  This,  together  with  the 
preliminary  drawings,  demonstrated  a businesslike  pro- 
cedure which  has  had  a marked  influence  upon  other 
communities.  At  least  the  “ rough-shod,”  hazardous 
guess  is  absent. 

It  should  be  carefully  noted  that  this  estimate  applied 
to  a distinct  group  of  buildings  for  a community  hav- 
ing a number  of  special  problems  involved.  For  an- 
other city  or  district,  distinctly  different  conditions 
might  govern  the  plan,  the  amount  and  character  of 
the  equipment,  and  the  materials  entering  into  the 
construction.  Consequently  the  unit  costs  and  the 
prices  quoted  would  naturally  change.  The  data  are 
submitted  to  indicate  the  necessity  of  having  a thoroughly 
prepared  estimate  of  the  cost  of  the  furniture  and 
equipment,  without  which  it  is  impossible  to  clearly 
present  the  facts  of  the  case  to  the  people  so  that  they 
may  vote  intelligently  on  the  expenditure.  It  will  be 
found  more  favorable  to  the  building  of  schools  if  people 
are  enlightened  to  the  fullest  extent  on  these  matters 
prior  to  the  time  of  taking  the  first  important  step. 


Estimated  Cost  of  Building  and  Equipment  of  Proposed 
High  School  for  City  of  (X) 


I Buildings  Only 


February  2,  1917 


Description 


A Main  building  . . . 

Contains : 

Principal’s  suite 
Vice  principal’s  suite 
Women  teachers’  rest 
room 

Men  teachers’  room 
16  Classrooms 
School  paper  room 
Library 
Reading  and  magazine 
room 

Commercial  Depart- 
ment 

Typewriting  room 
Bookkeeping  room 

B Assembly  hall  .... 

Contains : 

Auditorium,  65' X 100' 
Stage,  6o'X3°' 

Seats  1000  people 
Music  department 

C Science  building  . . . 

Contains : 

2 Chemistry  labora- 
tories 

1 Chemistry  lecture  ; 
room 

1 Store  room  for  chem- 
ical supplies 
1 dark  room 
1 Biology  laboratory 
1 Store  room  for  bio- 
logical supplies 
1 Physics  laboratory 
1 Small  laboratory  and 
store  room 

1 Physics  lecture  room 
1 General  science  lab- 
oratory 

1 General  science  store- 
room 

D Shop  building  .... 

Contains : 

1 Recitation  room 
1 Bench  and  lathe 
room 

1 Forge  room 
1 Machine-shop 
1 Mechanical  drawing 
room 

1 Freehand  drawing 
room 

1 Auto  shop 

E Home  economics  building 

Contains 

1 Domestic  science 
room 

1 Domestic  arts  and 
crafts  room 


Size 


65' X 250' 


70' X 150'  1 


70' X 1 50' 


70' X So' 


F Gymnasium 

Contains 

1 Boys’  locker  room 
1 Girls’  locker  room 
1 Boys’  shower  room 
1 Girls’  shower  room 
1 Main  hall 

G Cafeteria 

Contains : 

Kitchen  and  service 
space  sufficient  to 
accommodate  312 
persons 

H Miscellaneous  .... 
Landscaping,  planting, 
preparation  of  site  and 
other  non-comparable 

items 

Total  cost  of  buildings 
without  equipment  . . 


I 50'  X 100' 


Area 


36' 


8,300 


36' 


Total 

Cubage  1 h h Estimated 
2*  p.  Cost 


585,000  $0.16  $93,600.00 


298,800  0.14  41,832.00 


210,000  0.14  29,400.00 


1 10,500'  20'  210,000  0.14  29,400.00 


5,600'  20'  112,000  0.14  15.6S0.00 


5,000'  33'  165,000  o.rj  23,000.00 


52'X  84'  1 4,368'  20'  87,360  0.13  11,356.00 


$257,268.00 


COST  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


81 


II  Estimated  Cost  of  Equipment 


Description 

H 

Main  building 

Principal’s  suite 

1 Roll-top  desk 

$40.00 

1 Desk  chair 

8.00 

5 Visitors’  chairs  @ $4.00 

20  00 

1 Settee  

35-oo 

1 Rug 

40.00 

1 Center  table 

20.00 

1 Filing  cabinet 

35-oo 

1 $198.00 

Vice  principal’s  suite 

1 Flat-top  desk 

40.00 

i Revolving  chair 

7.00 

2 Visitors’  chairs  @ $6.00 

12.00 

1 Drop-lid  typewriter  desk  .... 

35-00 

1 Typewriter  chair 

750 

i 6'  library  table 

40.00 

Filing  cases 

100.00 

1 Rug 

35-0° 

276.00 

Women  teachers’  rest  room 

1 Couch  

30.00 

4 Wicker  chairs  @ $9.00 

36.00 

3 Wicker  rockers  @ $10.00  .... 

30.00 

i Table 

25.00 

1 Writing  desk 

20.00 

1 Rug 

35-00 

176.00 

Men  teachers’  rest  room 

Same  as  above 

176.00 

$826.00 

Classrooms 

30  Movable  chairs  @ $7.50 

225.00 

1 Revolving  chair 

7.00 

1 Visitors’  chair 

6.00 

1 Teacher’s  desk 

20.00 

16  Classrooms 

$258.00 

$4,128.00 

School  paper  room 

2 Flat-top  desks  @ $20.00 

40.00 

2 Chairs  @ $6.00  

12.00 

3 6'  tables  @ $25.00  

75.00 

127.00 

Library 

5 3'X5'  Tables  @ $20.00 

100.00 

30  Chairs  @ $6.00  

180.00 

i Book  exchange  desk 

30.00 

1 Revolving  chair 

7.00 

0 

q 

Note:  Bookshelves  will  be  built  in. 

Reading  and  magazine  room 

1 Newspaper  file 

15.00 

3 3'Xs'  tables  @ $20.00 

60.00 

18  Chairs  @ $6.00 

108.00 

2 Magazine  racks  @ $20.00  .... 

40.00 

223.00 

Commercial  Department 

Typewriting  Room 

40  Typewriter  desks  @ $25.00  . . . 

$1 ,000.00 

40  Typewriter  chairs  @ $2.50  . . . . 

100.00 

1 Instructor’s  desk 

35-00 

1 Instructor’s  chair 

7.00 

1,142.00 

Note:  No  machines  included. 

Bookkeeping  room 

35  Bookkeeping  desks  @ $25.00  . . . 

$875.00 

35  Bookkeeping  chairs  @ $2.50  . . 

87.50 

1 Instructor’s  desk 

35-oo 

1 Instructor’s  chair 

7.00 

1,004.50 

Total  for  main  building  

7,767.50 

Assembly  hall 

Auditorium 

1,000  chairs  @ $4.50  . . . 

$4,500.00 

$4,500.00 

Stage 

12  Platform  chairs  @ $7.00  . . 

84.OO 

i Pedestal  stand  .... 

20.00 

Stage  curtains  

500.00 

Stage  scenery  (1  set)  .... 

450.00 

1,054.00 

Music  department 

Allow 

$400.00 

400.00 

5,954-oo 

Note:  Piano  not  included 

Science  Building 

2 Chemistry  laboratories  @ $2,500.00 

$5,000.00 

$S,ooo.oo 

i Chemistry  lecture  room 

1 Instructor’s  table  .... 

0 

q 

d 

0 

48  Chairs  @ $4.00  . . 

192.00 

492.00 

Description 

Science  Building  — Continued 

i Biology  laboratory 

Allow 

$1,800.00 

$1,800.00 

1 Small  physics  laboratory 

Allow 

$1,000.00 

1,000.00 

i Physics  laboratory 

Allow 

$2,000.00 

2,000.00 

1 Physics  lecture  room 

1 Instructor’s  table  . . . 

48  Seats  @ $4.00  . . 

$300.00 

192.00 

492.00 

1 General  Science  laboratory 

Allow 

1,800.00 

1,800.00 

$12,584.00 

Shop  Building 

Recitation  room 

36  Movable  chairs  @ $7.50  .... 

1 Instructor’s  desk  .... 

1 Instructor’s  chair  . . . 

$270.00 

20.00 

7.00 

297.00 

Bench  and  lathe  room 

18  Woodworking  benches  @ $50.00  . 

$900.00 

6 13"  X55"  Lathes  @ $90.00  . . . . 
6 7 Horse-power  motors  @ $40.00  . . 

1 36"  Band  saw  with  5 horse-power 

540-00 

240.00 

motor  .... 

420.00 

1 Universal  bench  saw  with  5 horse- 

power  motor  .... 

650.00 

1 30"  Planer  with  15  horse-power  motor 

1,180.00 

1 16"  Jointer  with  5 horse-power  motor 

250.00 

1 Sander  with  5 horse-power  motor 

382.00 

1 Grinder  with  horse-power  motor  . 

150.00 

4,712.00 

Forge  shop 

6 Pair  forges  @ $130.00  . . 

$780.00 

i Exhauster  with  7!  horse-power  motor 
1 Blower  with  2 horse-power  motor 

1 Smoke  separator  .... 

330.00 

100.00 

250.00 

12  Sets  forge-shop  tools,  anvils,  and  ac- 

cessories  .... 

476.00 

1,936.00 

Machine  shop 

8 i4,'X72,/  Lathes  with  motor  drives 

@ $1,076.00 

8,608.00 

1 16"  Shaper  with  3 horse-power  motor 

1 3o//X3o"Xio//  Planer  with  5 horse- 

700.00 

power  motor 

1,800.00 

6,945.00 

Machine  shop  (continued) 

1 22"  Drill  press  with  i horse-power 

motor 

$263.00 

i Universal  milling  machine,  motor 

driven 

1,680.00 

1 Sensitive  Drill,  motor  driven  . . . 

94.00 

1 Shear  

75.00 

1 Emery  wheel  grinder 

40.00 

1 Hack  saw 

30.00 

13,290.00 

Mechanical  Drawing  Room 

24  Benches  @ $12.00 

$288.00 

24  Stools  @ $3.00 

72.00 

1 Instructor’s  desk 

20.00 

i Instructor’s  chair  

7.00 

387.00 

Freehand  drawing  room 

Same  equipment  as  above 

Auto  shop 

387-00 

1 2-ton  chain  hoist 

45.00 

21 ,054.00 

Home  economics  building 

Domestic  science  room 

Allow  

$r,50o.oo 

$1,500.00 

Domestic  arts  room 

Allow 

$650.00 

$650.00 

2,150.00 

Gymnasium 

400  Double  tier  lockers,  $7.00  .... 

$2,800.00 

$2,800.00 

2,800.00 

Cafeteria 

Kitchen  equipment 

$4,000.00 

50  Tables  @ $10.00 

500.00 

312  Chairs  @ $2.00 

624.00 

$3,124.00 

3,124.00 

Recapitulation 

$57 .433-5° 

Cost  of  buildings 

$244,268.00 

Cost  of  landscape  work,  etc 

13,000.00 

Cost  of  equipment 

57,433-50 

$314,701.50 

Note:  — Cost  of  equipment  in  1920  is  150  to  250  per  cent  higher  than  in  1917. 


Comparative  Costs  and  Records.  — It  is  heartily 
recommended  that  accurate  records  of  unit  costs  of 
school  buildings  be  kept  by  boards  of  education  for  the 
valuable  information  these  records  provide  for  esti- 


mating and  checking  up  the  cost  of  new  plants.  Noth- 
ing will  so  quickly  indicate  waste  and  unwarranted 
extravagance  as  a chart  having  such  data  in  a ready 
reference  form.  There  is  no  doubt  in  the  writer’s  opinion 


82 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


that  at  least  a tenth  more  schools  could  be  built  for  the 
money  expended  in  the  last  fifteen  years  if  such  in- 
telligible data  were  available  for  reference.  It  should 
be  observed  further  that  unless  the  data  are  reliable 
they  are  worse  than  useless. 

The  following  are  two  forms  of  tables  of  informa- 
tion and  cost  which  should  be  filled  in  at  the  comple- 
tion of  all  new  buildings  and  kept  in  the  records  of  the 
local  board  and  in  the  office  of  the  State  Superintendent 
of  Education. 

TABLE  NO.  A 

x.  Name  of  School 

2.  Location  Street City State 

3.  Date — work  commenced  Mo Yr 

completed  Mo Yr 

4.  Educational  class 

5.  Class  of  construction 

6.  System  of  heating  and  ventilation 

7.  Total  cost Normal  cost  $ 

Abnormal  cost  $ 

8.  Cubage 

9.  Cost  per  cubic  ft.  (a)  Based  on  total  cost  $ 

( b ) Based  on  normal  cost  $ 

10.  Total  floor  area 

11.  Cost  per  sq.  ft.  (a)  Based  on  total  cost  $ 

( b ) Based  on  normal  cost  $ 

12.  Pupil  capacity 

13.  Cost  per  pupil  (a)  Based  on  total  cost  $ 

( b ) Based  on  normal  cost  $ 

14.  Static  capacity 

15.  Cost  per  static  unit  $ 

Note:  Enter  all  items  and  amounts  of  abnormal  costs  below. 

TABLE  NO.  B 

Name  and  grade  of  school 

Location 

Year  completed 

General  description 


Subdivision  of  Costs  of  Contracts 


Title  of  Contract 

Amount 

Cost  per 
Cubic 
Foot 

Cost  per 
Pupil 

Cost  per 
Static 
Unit 

General  contract 
Heating  and  ventilat- 
ing 

Plumbing 

Electrical 

Inspection 

Engineer’s  fee 
Architect’s  fee 

s 

$ 

$ 

$ 

Sub-totals 

Furniture  and  equip- 
ment 

Landscape  work 

Any  abnormal  cost 
(specify) 

Sub-total 

Cost  of  site 

Number  of  acres  or 
square  feet 

Cost  per  acre  $ 
or  square  foot 

Grand  total 

Static  Capacity.  — In  a paper  read  before  the  Na- 
tional Association  of  School  Accounting  Officers  on 
May  16,  1917,  Mr.  C.  L.  Wooldridge,  then  Superin- 
tendent of  School  Buildings,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  has  clearly 
defined  the  most  accurate  method  of  comparing  the 
cost  of  school  buildings  that  has  come  to  the  writer’s 
attention,  and  that  part  defining  static  capacity  is 
quoted  below,  with  his  permission. 

“ To  get  this  on  a fair  comparable  basis  we  must  find 
a term  which  expresses  capacity  and  which  can  be  ap- 
plied and  used  to  measure  every  part  of  a school  build- 
ing which  has  capacity. 

“ To  meet  this  need  I recommended  that  the  term 
Pupil  Capacity  be  permanently  abandoned  and  that  we 
substitute  therefor  the  term  Static  Capacity. 


Static  Capacity  of  Building  “X” 


No. 

Name 

Static 

Capacity 

Total 

Static 

Capacity 

l6 

Classrooms 

5i 

816 

l6 

Coatrooms  

5° 

800 

I 

Assembly  room 

700 

700 

I 

Kindergarten 

62 

62 

I 

Kindergarten  coatroom 

60 

60 

I 

Kindergarten  workroom 

2 

2 

I 

Ungraded  room 

9 

9 

I 

Cooking  laboratory 

25 

25 

I 

Cooking  laboratory  coatroom  .... 

24 

24 

I 

Model  dining  room 

6 

6 

I 

Sewing  laboratory 

25 

25 

I 

Fitting  room 

2 

2 

I 

Sewing  laboratory  coatroom  .... 

24 

24 

I 

Model  bedroom 

2 

2 

I 

Domestic  science  lecture  room  .... 

25 

25 

I 

Bench  room 

25 

25 

I 

Bench  room  coatroom 

24 

24 

I 

Wood-finishing  room 

2 

2 

I 

Drafting  room 

25 

25 

I 

Drafting  room  coatroom 

24 

24 

I 

Manual  training  lecture  room  .... 

25 

25 

I 

Blue-print  room 

2 

2 

I 

Boys’  playroom,  15  square  feet  per  pupil 

154 

154 

I 

Girls’  playroom,  15  square  feet  per  pupil 

!54 

154 

2 

Community  rooms 

IOO 

200 

51 

Water-closets 

I 

51 

II 

Urinals 

I 

I I 

36 

Washstands 

I 

36 

24 

Drinking-fountains 

I 

24 

8 

Slop  sinks 

I 

8 

I 

General  office 

2 

2 

I 

Private  office 

I 

I 

I 

Teachers’  locker  room 

24 

24 

I 

Medical  inspectors’  office 

2 

2 

I 

Book  storeroom 

I 

I 

Building  contains,  static  units  .... 

3377 

Cost,  $187,346.16 
Static  units,  3377 


= $55.47  per  static  unit 


“ By  static  capacity  I mean  the  total  capacity  of  pupils, 
teachers,  and  clerks  as  applied  to  every  room  and  de- 
partment in  a school  building.  For  instance,  a standard 
classroom  on  a fifteen  square  foot  basis  will  accommo- 


COST  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


83 


date  fifty  pupils  and  one  teacher,  therefore  its  static 
capacity  is  fifty-one.  A cloakroom  large  enough  to 
place  the  coat  hooks  far  enough  apart  so  that  no  pupil’s 
coat  will  touch  the  coat  on  the  next  hook  has  a definite 
static  capacity.  A toilet  room  has  a static  capacity 
equal  to  the  total  number  of  fixtures.  An  auditorium 
with  twenty-inch  seats  placed  thirty  inches  back  to  back 
and  not  more  than  thirteen  seats  between  aisles  has  a 
definite  static  capacity. 

“ In  this  way,  it  is  possible  to  formulate  a clean-cut 
rule  for  measuring  the  static  capacity  of  any  room  in  a 
school  building.  We  will  now  measure  the  static  ca- 
pacity of  a school  building. 

“We  now  have  a rule  which  really  considers  every 
element  entering  into  the  capacity  of  the  school  building. 

“In  advancing  this  rule,  I do  not  wish  to  be  under- 
stood that  my  application  of  it  as  illustrated  above  is 
absolutely  right.  I merely  wish  to  advance  the  idea 
that  everything  in  a building  which  has  to  do  with  its 
capacity  should  be  considered,  and  I believe  with  more 
careful  consideration  and  study  such  a rule  can  be  suc- 
cessfully worked  out  and  uniformly  applied. 

“A  complete  report  for  purposes  of  comparison  on  a 
school  building  would  be  somewhat  as  follows : 

Comparable  Data 

School  “X.” 

District,  Pittsburgh. 

Year  built,  19x4. 

Educational  class,  upper  elementary. 

Construction  class,  first  grade. 

Cubage,  1,094,696  cubic  feet. 

Static  capacity,  3377  units. 


Cost  per 
Cu.  Ft. 

Cost  per 
Static  Unit 

Cost  of  general  work 

$142,091.98 

$0.1298 

$42.08 

Cost  of  heating  and  ventilating 

29,038.00 

0.0265 

8-59 

Cost  of  plumbing 

io.543-33 

0.0096 

3.12 

Cost  of  electrical  installations  . . 

5.672-85 

0.0052 

1.68 

Total 

$187,346.16 

$0.1711 

$55-47 

Non-Comparable  Data 


Cost  of  landscaping 

$7,547.00 

Cost  of  abnormal  foundations  . . 

8,169.00 

Cost  of  fixed  equipment  .... 

10,162.45 

Cost  of  architectural  service  . . . 

12,183-73 

Cost  of  inspection 

3,5i5-6i 

Total 

$41,577-79 

Total  cost 

$228,923.95 

“On  the  assumption  that  the  above  rules  were  in  gen- 
eral use,  I still  feel  that  comparative  costs  would  not  be 
reliable  or  authentic  unless  the  rules  were  applied  fairly 
and  impartially.  It  is  possible  to  apply  any  rule  in  a 
matter  of  this  sort,  and  by  slight  variations  in  its  ap- 
plication to  get  considerable  difference  in  the  results.”  1 


Costs 

For  the  following  report  the  author  is  indebted  to 
Mr.  Wm.  B.  Ittner,  Architect,  and  Chairman  of  the 
Committee  on  “ Standardization  of  School  Building 
Measurements  and  Cubical  Contents,”  appointed  by 
the  American  Institute  of  Architects.  This  report 
has  been  approved  by  authorized  committees  from  the 
following  organizations : 

American  Institute  of  Architects, 

National  Association  of  School  Accounting  Officers, 

Committee  on  Standardization  of  Schoolhouse  Plan- 
ning, and  Construction,  National  Education  Association. 

THE  AMERICAN  INSTITUTE  OF  ARCHITECTS 

Report  of  the  Committee  on  School  Building  Measure- 
ments 

[To  the  Fifty-second  Annual  Convention] 

The  Committee  on  School  Building  Measurements  submits 
the  following  report : 

For  the  purpose  of  obtaining  comparable  data  upon  the  edu- 
cational utility  and  cost  of  school  buildings,  they  shall  be  classi- 
fied, measured,  and  defined  as  follows: 

Educational  Classification:  School  Buildings  shall  be  classi- 
fied, educationally,  as  — 

Lower  Elementary, 

Upper  Elementary, 

High,  or  Secondary. 

Lower  Elementary : Shall  be  defined  as  a building  containing 
class  and  kindergarten  rooms,  together  with  the  usual  accessory 
rooms,  such  as  principal’s  office,  teachers’  rooms,  playrooms, 
toilets,  etc.,  and  used  for  the  lower  elementary  grades  only. 

Should  a school  building  of  this  type  be  provided  with  as- 
sembly room,  gymnasium,  or  other  special  rooms  it  shall  fall 
into  the  next  classification. 

Upper  Elementary:  Shall  be  defined  as  a building  contain- 
ing lower  or  upper  elementary  grades,  and  in  addition  to  the 
regular  class  and  accessory  rooms,  an  assembly  hall,  gymnasium, 
and  such  special  rooms  as  may  be  included  for  upper  grade  or  special 
work,  which  may  include  elementary  science,  elementary  in- 
dustrial training  and  household  arts. 

This  classification  would  thus  include  the  Junior  High  School,  the 
Elementary  Industrial  or  other  types  of  special  elementary  schools. 

High  or  Secondary:  Shall  be  defined  as  a building  contain- 
ing classrooms,  recitation  rooms,  laboratories,  and  such  spe- 
cial rooms  as  are  necessary  for  classical,  technical,  industrial, 
household  arts,  normal,  agricultural,  or  other  purposes  re- 
quired for  secondary  or  junior  college  education. 

Construction  Classification 

Type  A. — A building  constructed  entirely  of  fire-resistive 
materials,  including  its  roofs,  windows,  doors,  floors,  and  finish. 

Type  B.  — A building  of  fire-resistive  construction  in  its 
walls,  floors,  stairways  and  ceilings,  but  with  wood  finish,  wood 
or  composition  floor  surface,  and  wood  roof  construction  over 
fire-resistive  ceiling. 

Type  C.  — A building  with  masonry  walls,  fire-resistive  cor- 
ridors and  stairways,  but  with  ordinary  construction  otherwise, 
i.e.  combustible  floors,  partitions,  roofs  and  finish. 

Journal,  July,  1917. 


1 American  School  Board 


84 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Type  D.  — A building  with  masonry  walls,  but  otherwise 
ordinary  or  joist  construction  and  wood  finish. 

Type  E.  — A frame  building  constructed  with  wood  above 
foundation  with  or  without  slate  or  other  semi-fireproof  ma- 
terial on  roof. 

Note:  Should  buildings  of  any  of  the  above  classifications 
be  erected  without  complete  ventilating  systems  or  other  me- 
chanical equipment,  due  note  should  be  made  of  such  fact  in  re- 
porting its  cost  data. 

Cost  Units 

To  determine  the  educational  utility  of  the  building,  obtain  the 
cost  per  pupil. 

To  determine  construction  cost  of  building,  obtain  the  cost 
per  cubic  foot. 

The  divisor  to  be  used  to  determine  the  cost  per  pupil,  shall 
be  determined  by  the  number  of  pupils  normally  accommodated 
in  rooms  designed  for  classes  only.  In  arriving  at  the  number  of 
pupils,  special  rooms  are  to  be  figured  at  the  actual  number  of 
pupils  accommodated  for  one  class  period  only.  Auditorium 
or  assembly  rooms  are  to  be  ignored,  but  gymnasium  may  be 
figured  for  one  or  two  classes,  as  the  accommodation  may  pro- 
vide. No  gymnasium,  however,  shall  be  accredited  with  two 
classes,  if  below  40  by  70  feet  in  size. 

Cost  per  cubic  foot.  — To  obtain  the  cube  of  a school  build- 
ing, multiply  the  area  of  the  outside  of  the  building  at  the  first- 
floor  level  by  the  height  of  the  building  from  six  inches  below  the 
general  basement  floor  to  the  mean  height  of  the  roof.  Para- 
pet walls,  stacks  and  other  projections  beyond  the  mean  height 
of  the  roof,  as  well  as  balconies  and  porches  not  contributing 
to  the  actual  usable  floor  of  the  building,  are  to  be  ignored. 

Where  portions  of  the  building  are  built  to  different  heights, 
each  portion  is  to  be  taken  as  an  individual  unit  and  the  rule 
as  above  applied. 

Cost  Items 

The  cost  of  school  buildings  shall  be  divided  into  four  general 
items : 


First.  — Cost  of  land  and  grading. 

Second.  — Cost  of  building  construction. 

Third.  — Cost  of  furniture  and  fixed  equipment. 

Fourth.  — Cost  of  architects’,  engineers’,  brokers’  and  super- 
vision services. 

First.  — Cost  of  land  and  grading  should  include  the  cost  of 
the  site  and  the  necessary  grading  to  place  it  in  condition  to 
receive  the  building.  Should  the  site  be  abnormal  and  require 
piling,  filling,  quarrying,  or  other  unusual  expenditures  to  place 
it  in  normal  condition  to  receive  the  building,  such  costs  are  also 
to  be  charged  up  against  the  site  and  not  the  building. 

Second.  — Cost  of  building  should  include : 

(a)  General  contract  and  any  sub-contracts  pertaining  to  the 
general  construction  of  the  building,  as,  for  example,  excavating, 
masonry,  fireproofing,  steel  construction,  carpentry,  cabinet 
work,  sheet  metal  work,  roofing,  painting,  etc. 

( b ) All  contracts  for  electrical  work,  plumbing,  vacuum  clean- 
ing, sewage  disposal,  heating  and  ventilating,  clock  systems, 
blackboards,  elevators,  or  any  other  contract  for  any  part  of  the 
building  not  included  above,  necessary  to  complete  the  same, 
ready  for  occupancy. 

(c)  The  cost  of  all  site  improvements,  such  as  walks,  drives, 
yard  paving,  fencing,  and  landscape  gardening. 

Third.  — Cost  of  furniture  and  fixed  equipment: 

(a)  Should  include  cost  of  all  portable  furniture  and  cabinets ; 
all  laboratory  and  shop  equipment,  and  all  other  equipment 
which  would  not  be  classified  as  “Educational  Supplies.” 

(b)  All  decorations,  including  special  painting  or  decoration 
of  any  kind  that  may  not  be  included  in  the  general  painting 
contract.  Hangings,  rugs,  pictures,  casts,  and  other  forms  of 
decorations  furnished  at  the  time  of  the  occupancy  of  the  build- 
ing which  are  not  classified  as  “Educational  Supplies.” 

Fourth.  — Cost  of  architects’ , engineers’,  brokers’,  and  super- 
vision services  should  include  the  cost  of  all  plans  and  specifications, 
architects’,  engineers’,  landscape  gardening  and  supervision  and 
all  other  experts’  services  and  expenses. 

William  B.  Ittner,  Chairman. 


CHAPTER  V 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  AS  AFFECTING  BUILDINGS 

By  E.  Morris  Cox,  A.B.,  Assistant  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Oakland,  California 

Organization  of  Elementary  School.  School  Site.  General  Arrangement  of  Building.  Cleanliness.  Height  of  Buildings. 
Standardization  of  Classrooms.  Special  Rooms.  Complete  Equipment.  Physical  Education.  Health  and  Sanitation.  Arrange- 
ment of  Classrooms.  Visual  Instruction.  Assembly  Hall.  Office  and  Library.  Elementary  Course  of  Study. 


The  Organization  of  the  Elementary  School.  — The 

building  of  school  buildings,  like  most  other  kinds  of 
building,  has  usually  been  carried  on  without  very  much 
consideration  as  to  what  is  to  be  done  in  the  building 
after  it  is  completed.  Consequently  the  buildings  are 
just  about  as  well  adapted  to  the  work  that  is  to  be  car- 
ried on  in  them  as  are  kitchens  and  office  buildings. 
Of  later  years  occasionally  a superintendent  or  a prin- 
cipal has  been  consulted  in  the  making  of  school  build- 
ing plans  and  as  often  his  advice  has  been  rejected  as  it 
has  been  accepted.  Much  more  often  the  advice  of 
teachers  regarding  planning  of  the  interior  of  a class- 
room has  been  heeded.  Because  of  the  fact  that  the 
advice  and  counsel  of  superintendents,  principals,  and 
teachers  has  not  usually  been  sought,  very  little  study 
or  thought  has  been  devoted  by  them  to  the  problem  of 
school  planning,  and  consequently  most  of  them  are  not 
ready  with  any  practical  advice.  The  first  thing  and 
the  last  thing  that  a school  architect  or  a board  of  edu- 
cation should  do  in  the  planning  and  erecting  of  the 
school  building  is  to  seek  the  advice  and  counsel  of  those 
who  are  to  conduct  the  school  in  that  building  after  it 
is  erected. 

The  adaptation  of  the  building  to  the  school  organi- 
zation is  more  important  than  any  other  problem  con- 
nected with  school  building.  The  waste  of  time  and 
effort  and  nervous  energy  due  to  careless  planning  or 
lack  of  planning  is  everywhere  noticeable  to  one  fa- 
miliar with  the  organization  and  operation  of  schools. 

A School  Site.  — ■ -The  size  and  location  of  the  school 
site  and  the  location  of  the  building  thereon  vitally 
affect  the  operation  of  the  school.  A playground  of 
proper  size,  properly  drained  and  properly  arranged, 
will  to  a large  degree  administer  itself.  A playground 
that  is  too  small  to  accommodate  the  school  or  which 
is  not  properly  adapted  to  play  purposes  distracts  the 
attention  of  principals  and  teachers  from  the  planning 
of  recreation  activities  or  other  school  work.  Conse- 


quently, for  administrative  reasons,  it  is  important 
to  have  the  school  building  properly  located,  with  abun- 
dant play  space  available  for  both  boys  and  girls,  and 
this  play  space  properly  prepared  for  its  purpose.  The 
school  building  should  be  near  the  center  of  the  north 
side  of  the  grounds  so  that  there  may  be  during  the  winter 
season  the  driest  and  sunniest  part  of  the  school  grounds 
available  for  play  and  a fair  division  of  the  grounds  be- 
tween boys  and  girls.  There  should  be  at  least  one- 
fourth  acre  for  every  classroom.  This  may  seem  ex- 
cessive in  cities,  but  our  best  school  systems  have  brought 
themselves  to  it.  No  city  should  locate  a school  build- 
ing on  less  than  five  acres.  No  one  can  foretell  how 
soon  the  day  will  arrive  when  there  will  be  a fifteen-  or 
twenty-room  building  on  that  site.  No  effort  should 
be  spared  to  secure  the  erection  of  school  buildings 
away  from  the  main  arteries  of  traffic.  No  one  can 
possibly  foretell  street  development  of  the  future,  but 
it  is  possible  for  the  authorities  at  least  to  avoid  locating 
the  school  building  on  the  main  arteries  of  traffic  al- 
ready established  and  oftentimes  immediately  adjacent 
to  car  lines  and  railways. 

General  Arrangement  of  Building.  — It  is  not  an  un- 
common thing  to  see  a school  building  with  steps  and 
doorways  so  arranged  that  much  unnecessary  time  is 
consumed  in  convening  and  dismissing  school.  It  is 
actual  economy  of  time  for  children  and  teachers,  and 
therefore  economy  in  education,  to  plan  very  carefully 
the  stairs,  doorways,  and  exits  for  quick  and  easy  en- 
trance and  exit  to  street  and  playground.  It  would 
be  easy  to  record  years  of  lost  time  because  of  poor 
planning  in  these  respects.  With  an  arrangement  of 
halls  and  stairways  which  requires  thirty  seconds  of 
excess  time  in  convening  or  dismissing  a school  of  five 
hundred  pupils  with  only  four  convenings  and  four 
dismissals  during  the  day,  we  have  a loss  of  over  thirty- 
three  hours  of  time  per  day.  Illustrations  might  be 
given  of  school  buildings  in  which  the  loss  of  time  is  two 


86 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Fig.  66.  — Laclede  Elementary  School,  St.  Louis,  Missouri. 


Mr.  Wm.  B.  Ittner,  Architect. 


S O S IO  IS  20  2S  JO  JS  40 


LACLEDE,  SCHOOL 

fff.iioms,  mo. 
w*b  iitkrb-,  AS-cmracr 

Fig.  67. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  AS  AFFECTING  BUILDINGS 


87 


Fig.  68. 


• (Second  flooil  plaist  • 


.SCALE.  OF  Fe.LT 

/O  /£  20  2S  JO  JS 


JLACLELDE,  SCHOOL 

fST  LOUI^  AVO. 
W^BITTNEjE-,  AE-CHlTEdl1 


Fig.  69. 


88 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


or  three  times  this  amount.  Stairs  should  be  so  planned 
as  to  bring  most  direct  access  between  classrooms  and 
playground,  and  exits  should  be  wide  enough  to  give 
full  capacity  to  the  stairs.  The  adequacy  of  stair  equip- 
ment depends  therefore  upon  both  their  number  and 
location.  There  should  be  no  room  for  dispute  as  to 
their  sufficiency. 

Cleanliness.  — - Teachers  and  principals  universally 
will  agree  that  lack  of  cleanliness  of  the  school  building 
not  only  endangers  the  health  of  the  children  but  inter- 
feres with  the  best  operation  of  the  school.  School 
buildings  should  be  planned  more  carefully  to  assist  in 
cleanliness.  Ledges  and  moldings  and  other  flat  pro- 
jections should  be  eliminated.  There  are  but  few  of 
them  that  cannot  be  abandoned.  Rough  walls  due 
either  to  the  desire  to  create  a rough  surface  or  to  faulty 
construction  are  dust  and  germ  collectors.  It  is  actual 
economy  to  spend  more  money  in  construction  that 
avoids  dust  collectors  rather  than  to  spend  it  later  on 
the  removal  of  dust. 

Height  of  Buildings.  — Administration  as  well  as 
economical  reasons  should  be  urged  for  building  in  the 
most  compact  form.  There  are  many  things  that  may 
be  said  in  favor  of  one-story  buildings,  but  from  the 
administrative  point  of  view  one-story  buildings  be- 
yond perhaps  ten  classrooms  are  not  desirable.  The 
consensus  of  opinion  of  a large  number  of  principals 
with  whom  the  writer  has  conferred  on  this  question  is 
in  favor  of  a building  with  two  floors  above  the  ground 
floor.  In  this  building  the  indoor  playrooms,  janitor’s 
rooms,  heating  apparatus,  and  the  main  toilet  accommo- 
dations should  be  placed  on  the  ground  floor  and  this 
should  be  on  the  level  with  the  playground.  The  toilet 
accommodations  should  be  located  particularly  con- 
venient to  the  playground,  so  that  they  will  be  service- 
able not  only  during  the  school  hours  but  for  playground 
activities  conducted  outside  of  school  hours.  If  there  is 
room  enough  on  this  floor  it  will  be  economical  and  prob- 
ably desirable  to  locate  here  shops  and  domestic  science 
rooms.  The  plumbing  can  be  made  more  economical, 
and  if  properly  located  there  will  be  less  objection  to 
their  noise.  The  kindergarten  room  may  also  be  prop- 
erly located  on  the  ground  floor,  with  easy  access  to  the 
playground. 

There  are  few  climates  in  which  covered  playrooms 
are  not  imperative.  Many  persons  who  are  not  suffi- 
ciently familiar  with  the  school  problem,  and  a few 
who  are,  have  been  willing  to  eliminate  covered  play- 
rooms. This  must  always  result  in  children  playing 
in  the  rooms  and  corridors  during  the  inclement  weather 
or  else  not  being  able  to  play  at  all,  which  is  still  worse. 
The  elimination  of  playrooms  means  the  exhaustion  of 
nervous  energy  of  children  and  teachers  which  might  be 


much  better  spent  on  school  work.  The  covered  play- 
room should  be  abundantly  open  to  the  fresh  air.  Mod- 
ern organization  of  recreational  facilities  makes  it  pos- 
sible to  make  the  indoor  playroom  take  a real  part  in 
education. 

Standardization  of  the  Classroom.  — There  has  been 
a growing  opinion  that  the  type  of  classroom  of  the 
future  has  become  pretty  well  fixed.  It  is  fortunate 
for  school  architecture  that  the  type  of  classroom  did 
not  become  fixed  twenty-five  years  ago  at  the  standards 
of  that  time,  and  it  will  be  probably  just  as  fortunate 
for  the  period  of  twenty-five  years  hence  if  the  idea  of 
standardization  does  not  get  any  greater  foothold  now. 
Standardization  usually  means  stagnation.  The  stand- 
ardized classroom  and  the  obsolete  lock-step  promotion 
system  go  hand  in  hand.  The  future  elementary  school 
will  surely  not  be  classified  and  graded  as  is  the  pres- 
ent elementary  school.  The  future  elementary  school 
will  have  more  teachers  and  more  classrooms,  there- 
fore, unless  we  are  to  build  larger  buildings,  the  class- 
rooms may  be  still  smaller.  There  will  be  classes  of 
children  advancing  more  rapidly  than  what  we  pro- 
nounce the  normal  rate  of  progress  and  there  will  be 
classes  of  children  who  are  incapable  of  doing  the  regu- 
lar type  of  classroom  work.  Also  classes  for  blind  and 
deaf  are  often  organized.  Particularly  in  upper-grade 
work,  even  in  the  elementary  schools  including  grades 
higher  than  the  sixth,  it  will  be  desirable  to  have  rooms 
set  apart  for  music  and  drawing  and  probably  for 
science.  Various  schools  have  made  experiments  along 
these  lines  and  some  of  them  have  been  very  successful. 

Special  Rooms.  — So  far  as  the  administration  of 
schools  is  concerned,  it  is  not  at  all  necessary  that  rooms 
should  be  made  small,  but  the  modern  cost  of  building 
demands  that  the  square  feet  of  floor  space  shall  not  be 
greater  than  is  necessary  for  a proper  conduct  of  the 
class.  The  size  of  the  present  standard  classroom  is 
none  too  large  for  the  present  standard  class  and  is  none 
too  large  even  for  smaller  classes,  therefore,  only  for 
economical  reasons  should  smaller  rooms  for  smaller 
classes  be  adopted.  The  music  room  might  readily  be 
combined  with  the  auditorium,  provided  the  auditorium 
is  so  constructed  as  to  make  it  an  attractive  room  suit- 
able for  this  use.  If  the  auditorium  is  to  be  a large  one, 
it  will  be  unsatisfactory  for  ordinary  classroom  in- 
struction in  music.  Ideally,  such  a room  should  be 
about  one  and  one-half  to  two  times  the  usual  sized 
classroom.  It  is  not  in  the  present  development  of  the 
subject  imperative  that  there  should  be  a separate 
room  for  drawing  in  the  elementary  grades,  but  a room 
somewhat  larger  than  the  regular  classroom  could  be 
equipped  in  a manner  to  make  drawing  very  much  more 
satisfactory  even  for  pupils  in  the  primary  grades. 


9o 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Fig.  71. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  AS  AFFECTING  BUILDINGS 


9i 


■ JZCOMV  fLOOK.  PlAfi  ■ 


Fig.  72.  — Clawson  Elementary  School,  Oakland,  California. 


92 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


pIG  73-  — Clawson  Elementary  School,  Oakland,  California. 


Fig.  74.  — Clawson  Elementary  School,  Oakland,  California. 


Mr.  John  J Donovan,  Architect. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  AS  AFFECTING  BUILDINGS 


93 


Mr.  dome  J . L/onOv u/i,  Architect. 

Fig.  75.  — Clawson  Elementary  School,  Oakland,  California. 


It  is  much  more  difficult  to  define  what  the  science 
room  ought  to  be.  There  is  much  diversity  of  opinion. 
It  would  seem,  however,  that  in  every  school  there 
should  be  a room  in  which  classes  in  simple  experi- 
mentation, sand  and  clay  modeling,  and  other  similar 
work  may  be  conveniently  conducted.  In  such  a room 
the  furniture  would  be  chairs  and  tables,  and  the  room 
would  be  supplied  with  the  proper  plumbing  for  water 
and  gas. 

Complete  Equipment.  — It  is  rather  a common  prac- 
tice to  exhaust  all  of  the  available  funds  in  the  build- 
ing operations,  leaving  it  to  the  future  to  provide  light- 
ing fixtures,  electric  bells  and  clocks,  telephones,  drink- 
ing fountains,  cupboards,  lockers,  bookcases,  and  such 
fixtures.  This  usually  results  in  the  school  being 
without  these  things  for  a considerable  length  of  time 
and  perhaps  forever.  It  is  a prevalent  misconception 
that  a good  school  needs  only  a good  building.  Many 
communities  proceed  on  the  theory  that  because  schools 
have  been  conducted  without  such  equipment  schools 
still  may  be  so  conducted.  They  do  not  recognize 


that  the  absence  of  such  equipment  means  the  waste 
of  time  and  effort  of  those  in  charge  of  the  school,  and 
therefore  must  result  in  less  effort  and  attention  being 
given  to  the  welfare  of  the  youth.  It  is  a difficult  thing 
to  learn  that  there  is  no  economy  in  doing  things  wrong. 
In  this  connection  it  should  be  noted  that  a school  build- 
ing and  grounds  that  are  to  be  used  for  recreational 
facilities  are  not  properly  equipped  without  showers  and 
swimming-pools. 

Physical  Education.  — It  should  be  noted  that  here- 
after the  American  public  is  going  to  demand  proper 
physical  education,  and  that  this  proper  physical  edu- 
cation will  primarily  require  outdoor  facilities  for  recrea- 
tion and  indoor  facilities  consisting  of  dressing-rooms, 
showers,  and  swimming-pools.  It  will  not  be  high 
schools  only  that  must  have  such  equipment. 

Health  and  Sanitation.  — One  room  in  the  building 
large  enough  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  health  officer 
in  making  physical  tests  should  be  devoted  entirely 
to  the  health  department,  including  in  its  purposes  the 
supplying  the  school  needs  for  a rest  and  emergency 


94 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


ALBERT  R.  SABIN  SCHOOL. 


Hirsch  and  Leavitt  Streets,  Chicago. 

A.  F.  Hussander.  architect. 
Board  of  Education.,  Chicago. 

Fig.  76. 


room.  It  should  have  adjacent  to  it  suitable  wash 
basins  and  toilet,  and  the  room  should  be  properly  fur- 
nished for  its  purposes.  The  corridors  of  the  buildings 


-ALDDfeT-  J5- <5 A DIN  • SCHOOL  • 

• NLEAWTT-  ST.  mesCff  ST.  ^ N.  IPmtj  AT  ■ 

■A  F HUSSANDEP  -ARCHITECT- 
■ BOA  QD  ■ OF  EDUCATION 
■ CHICAGO  ■ 

Fig.  77. 


should  be  so  constructed  as  to  have  permanent  outside 
ventilation.  Supplementary  toilet  accommodations 
should  be  located  on  each  wing  on  each  floor.  In  most 
climates  it  would  be  desirable  for  construction  to  be 
such  that  every  classroom  has  certain  ventilation  which 
cannot  be  shut  off  by  the  teacher. 

Arrangement  of  Classrooms.  — Considerable  care 
should  be  devoted  to  bringing  the  classrooms  for  like 
or  similar  grades  close  together.  More  and  more  various 
grades  are  cooperating  in  their  work.  It  is,  therefore, 
economy  of  time  and  effort  to  have  these  grades  as  near 
together  as  possible.  The  kindergarten  should  be  near 
the  first  grade ; the  first  grades  should  be  close  together 
and  near  the  second,  and  so  on  throughout  the  school. 
It  should  be  noted  that  the  smaller  the  children  the 
nearer  the  exits  they  should  be.  Consequently,  it 
follows  that  the  upper  grades  should  be  on  the  upper 
floors.  Above  the  fourth  grade  at  least  some  of  the 
rooms  should  be  properly  equipped  for  operating  stere- 
opticons  and  projectoscopes  to  be  used  in  connection 
with  the  school  work. 

Visual  Instruction.  — Visual  instruction  is  to  play  a 
larger  and  larger  part  in  the  regular  school  curriculum. 
Geography  and  history  and  nature  study  and  many  of 
the  other  school  subjects  will  depend  materially  upon 
this  line  of  instruction  in  the  future.  A very  simple 
equipment  can  be  adopted  for  some  of  the  classrooms, 
and  a complete  moving  picture  apparatus  should  be  in 
connection  with  the  assembly  hall. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  AS  AFFECTING  BUILDINGS 


95 


3 \ 


d 

1/PP£jz  ppef  Of/tssEnOLyH* 

CaM/ji 

A LBBFT-  R ° SAEJN -SCHOOL- 

■NLEAlITTST.  ft/PSCHST^ ■H-HSWUHT-AV- 
■ AFHVSSANDEP  ■ ARCHITECT 
BOAPD  OF  EDUCATION  ■ 

CHICAGO  ■ 

Fig.  78. 


The  Assembly  Hall.  — The  assembly  hall  is  no  longer 
a place  to  be  closed  up  all  of  the  year  except  upon  the 
last  day  of  each  term.  The  assembly  hall  should  be 
used  by  the  school  for  all  sorts  of  school  work  and  recrea- 
tion. It  should  be  available  for  a great  variety  of 
community  interests  and  it  should  become  a real  asset 
to  the  school  in  bringing  the  school  and  the  community 
closer  together.  It  is  important  therefore  that  the 
assembly  room  be  so  located  as  to  be  easily  accessible 
to  those  portions  of  the  school  using  it  most,  and  at  the 
same  time  so  located  that  it  can  be  used  by  the  com- 
munity without  interfering  with  the  rest  of  the  school 
building. 

Office  and  Library.  — Economy  of  space  may  be  well 
practiced  in  the  arrangement  of  office  and  library  and 
yet  provide  a perfectly  satisfactory  equipment.  In 
elementary  buildings,  of  which  we  are  now  speaking, 
there  should  be  a small  ante-room  and  adjacent  to  it  a 
small  office.  These  rooms  sometimes  have  been  omitted 
altogether,  and  in  other  cases  they  have  been  made  ex- 
cessively large.  Both  mistakes  should  be  avoided. 
Adjacent  to  the  office  should  be  a storeroom  for  school 
supplies,  and  another  room  which  may  be  called  the 
library  but  which  is  primarily  a storeroom  for  books. 
The  reading  of  the  books  should  be  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  classroom  teachers  in  the  classrooms. 


- ALBERT*  R * SABIN  * SCHOOL  * 

N- LEAVITT- ST.- H/PSCH  ST.  ^H/PVING  AV ■ 

A F HUSSA  NDE13  ■ APCH/TECT  ■ 

■ BOARD  OF  EDUCATION  ■ 

CHICAGO  ■ 

Fig.  79. 

There  should  be  located  conveniently  in  every  class- 
room as  a part  of  the  building  a suitable  bookcase  and 
filing  cabinet.  This  can  be  arranged  as  one  piece  with 
bookshelves  above  and  the  file  space  for  school  papers 
below. 

The  Elementary  Course  of  Study.  — In  high  schools 
and  junior  high  schools  a proper  plan  of  the  building 
is  dependent  upon  a knowledge  of  the  course  of  study 
to  be  pursued  therein.  In  a very  much  less  degree  is 
this  true  in  the  elementary  schools,  but  even  there  it  is 
necessary  for  those  who  are  planning  such  buildings  to 
know  something  of  the  nature  of  the  activities  to  be 
conducted.  Kindergarten  rooms  have  become  fairly 
well  standardized  because  the  kindergarten  itself  is 
standardized,  perhaps  too  much  so. 

In  the  lowest  primary  grades  through  three  or  four 
years  work  the  classroom  work  is  very  largely  confined 
to  acquiring  the  tools  of  learning.  There  should  be 
abundant  blackboard  space  — all  that  it  is  possible  to 
secure.  In  addition  to  the  regular  standard  desks 
there  should  be  room  for  carrying  on  some  schoolroom 
activities.  Just  what  these  shall  be  no  one  is  able  to 
say.  Perhaps  it  is  well  that  this  is  true.  It  is  gen- 
erally conceded  that  there  should  be  opportunity  for 
these  grades  to  work  around  sand  tables  or  around  a 
table  on  which  they  portray  by  their  own  handiwork 


g6 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


various  types  of  human  activities.  In  the  grades  above 
the  fourth  and  even  including  the  fourth,  in  addition  to 
the  studies  long  established  in  the  schools  — reading,  writ- 
ing, arithmetic,  and  spelling  — every  modern  school  will 
have  adequate  provision  for  history,  geography,  nature 
study,  physical  education,  music,  drawing,  and  various 
types  of  handwork.  The  history  and  geography  need  the 
assistance  of  the  stereopticon,  projectoscope,  and  moving 
picture  apparatus.  The  geography  and  nature  study  can 
be  better  conducted  with  the  assistance  of  an  experi- 
mental or  science  room.  Physical  education  demands 
proper  playgrounds,  indoor  playgrounds  for  inclement 
weather,  showers,  and  perhaps  a swimming  pool,  and 
can  well  use  the  auditorium  for  some  activities.  The 
needs  for  music,  drawing,  and  handwork  have  been 
spoken  of  elsewhere.  Therefore,  in  conclusion  it  is 
most  urgently  recommended  that  before  attempting 
to  actually  record  by  drawings  the  rooms  and  depart- 
ments of  the  school  so  as  to  formulate  a scheme  for  any 
such  building,  the  architect  and  the  schoolman  should 
study  fully  the  requirements  of  each  school  problem. 
The  present  and  near  future  enrollment,  the  prospect 
of  the  community  changing  in  character  — that  is, 
from  residential  to  industrial,  the  possibilities  of  changes 
in  methods  of  teaching,  the  important  phases  of  child 
hygiene,  these  with  many  other  features  pertaining  to 
school  administration  and  the  health  and  well  being  of 
the  child  are  problems  that  should  be  thoroughly 


thrashed  out  in  conferences  before  the  preliminary 
drawings  are  started. 

The  tabulations  given  in  Chapter  IV  under  the  Re- 
quirements for  Low  Elementary  and  High  Elementary- 
Schools  will  be  aids  in  determining  the  physical  needs. 
From  these  tabulations  may  be  prepared  more  extensive 
building  programs  than  are  outlined  therein,  for  certain 
communities  have  problems  differing  from  those  of  others, 
and  it  is  a recognized  fact  that  schools  like,  individuals 
cannot  be  of  the  same  mould.  If  the  planning  of  the 
school  is  viewed  from  this  standpoint  a good  start  will 
have  been  made,  and  from  there  on  the  success  of  the 
work  will  depend  largely  upon  the  growth  of  this  early 
vision  and  upon  familiarity  with  the  phases  and  aspects 
of  the  building  to  house  and  care  for  the  child  in  its 
preparation  for  life’s  work. 

The  writer  hesitates  to  trespass  upon  premises  of 
other’s  provinces,  but  it  does  seem  that  the  architecture 
of  the  elementary  school  should  be  symbolic  of  quiet 
simplicity,  expressing  in  permanent  materials  much  the 
same  charm  that  the  little  child  has  for  those  who  ap- 
preciate and  love  children.  Vainglorious  attempts  to 
build  monumentally  are  fatal  to  both  child  and  adult, 
for  instead  of  attracting  the  child’s  interest  they  are 
most  likely  to  repel  and  make  fearful.  First  impres- 
sions are  most  lasting  and  most  influential  and  how  much 
better  it  is  if  the  impressions  and  influences  of  the  archi- 
tecture are  pleasing  and  beneficial  at  an  early  age. 


: . . •;■•••  • • <*.-  ' . • ' - - . *N  ' 

Mr.  John  J.  Doner  an.  Architect. 

Fig.  8o.  — Leland  Stanford  Jr.  University  Elementary  School,  Palo  Alto,  California. 


- 


dVO^  - A1NPO0 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  AS  AFFECTING  BUILDINGS 


91 


Fig.  St. 


^r, 


98 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Mr.  John  J.  Donovan,  Architect. 


Fig.  82.  — Lei. and  Stanford  Jr.  University  Elementary  School,  Palo  Alto,  California. 


Mr.  John  J.  Donotan,  Architect. 

Fig.  83.  — Leland  Stanford  Jr.  University  Elementary  School,  Palo  Alto,  California. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  AS  AFFECTING  BUILDINGS 


99 


Mr.  John  J.  Donovan,  Architect. 


Fig.  84.  — Leland  Stanford  Jr.  University  Elementary  School,  Palo  Alto,  California, 


IOO 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Messrs.  Perkins.  Fellows  and  Hamilton,  Architects. 
Fig.  85.  — Edward  S.  Bragg  School,  Fond  du  Lac,  Wisconsin. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  45  AFFECTING  BUILDINGS 


IOI 


• EDWARD  5.  BRAGG  PUBLIC  .SCHOOL  BUILDING 

• FOND  DU  LAC  • • WISCONSIN  • 

PE  ELK  I N 5 FELLOWS  AND  HAMILTON  - AE.CHITECT3  - CHICAGO  - ILLINOIS 


Fig.  86. 


10  2 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Messrs.  Pertlns,  Fellows  and  Hamilton,  Architects. 
Fig.  87.  — Oakton  School  District  76,  Evanston,  Illinois. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  /IS  AFFECTING  BUILDINGS 


103 


Messrs.  Perkins,  Felloics  and  Hamilton , Architects . 

Fig.  88.  — Oakton  School  District  76,  Evanston,  Illinois. 


104 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Mr.  Wm.  B.  Ittner,  Architect. 


Fig.  89.  — Glasgow  School,  St.  Louis,  Missouri. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  AS  AFFECTING  BUILDINGS 


!°5 


Mr.  Wm.  B.  lltner,_  Architect. 


Fig.  90.  — Ashland  School,  St.  Louis,  Missouri. 


io6 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Mr.  Wm.  B.  Ittner,  Architect. 


Fig.  91.  — Grammar  School,  Kirkwood,  Missouri 


io8 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Fig.  93.  — Grammar  School  No.  2,  Glendora,  California. 


Allison  and  Allison,  Architects 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  AS  AFFECTING  BUILDINGS 


109 


JsU 


Allison  and  Allison , Architects. 


Grammar  School  No.  2,  Glendora,  California, 


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SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


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CHAPTER  VI 


THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  INTERMEDIATE  OR  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOL  AS 

AFFECTING  BUILDINGS 

By  E.  Morris  Cox,  A.B.,  Assistant  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Oakland,  California 

The  Types  of  Junior  High  School.  The  Academic  Type.  The  Industrial  Type.  The  Neighborhood  or  Community  Type.  The 
Cosmopolitan  Type.  Science  Laboratories.  Library.  Office  Equipment.  Teachers’  Retirement  and  Lunch  Rooms.  The  Audi- 
torium and  Gymnasium.  The  Junior  High  School  Course  of  Study. 


In  a very  large  measure  the  conditions  outlined  in 
reference  to  the  elementary  schools  apply  likewise  to  the 
junior  high  school.  It  is  therefore  suggested  that  the 
preceding  chapter  in  relation  to  the  elementary  schools 
should  be  read  before  this  chapter.  It  is  possible  that 
the  school  site  may  need  to  be  larger  than  for  elementary 
schools  to  supply  sufficient  room  for  school  gardening, 
athletic  fields,  etc.  In  the  main,  however,  the  recom- 
mendations in  the  former  chapter  regarding  the  general 
arrangement  of  the  building,  its  cleanliness,  and  the 
completeness  of  its  equipment,  may  be  applied  to  this 
type  of  school.  Whether  there  should  be  a third  story 
in  a junior  high  school  may  be  a matter  of  sufficient 
difference  of  opinion  as  to  leave  the  final  answer  depend- 
ent upon  conditions  to  be  met  in  individual  cases. 

The  Types  of  Junior  High  School.  - The  character 
of  the  building  should  depend  largely  upon  the  partic- 
ular type  of  school  for  which  the  structure  is  being 
planned.  There  have  already  been  developed  in  various 
communities  four  rather  distinct  types  of  junior  high 
schools,  — the  academic,  the  industrial,  the  cosmopolitan, 
and  the  neighborhood  or  community  school. 

The  Academic  Type.  — This  type  of  building  is 
much  better  standardized  than  any  of  the  others.  The 
building  should  consist  of  standardized  classrooms, 
with  some  laboratory  equipment,  some  simple  shops, 
suitable  music  and  drawing  laboratories  and  about  the 
same  type  of  office  equipment,  library,  and  auditorium 
accommodations  as  would  be  used  in  the  other  types. 

The  Industrial  Type.  — Probably  any  discussion  as 
to  the  exact  equipment  and  accommodation  for  an 
industrial  type  junior  high  school  would  be  out  of  date 
before  it  could  be  printed  and  circulated.  Such  rapid 
changes  and  improvements  have  been  taking  place 
that  almost  every  building  erected  contains  important 
new  features.  Really  nothing  in  the  way  of  shop 


accommodations  has  been  standardized.  It  is,  however, 
generally  considered  that  schools  of  this  type  should 
provide  for  sheet  metal  work,  woodworking,  machine 
shop  practice,  blacksmithing,  printing,  and  a variety  of 
types  of  classes  in  general  sewing,  millinery,  dressmaking, 
cooking,  and  dietetics.  One  general  criticism  may  be 
passed  on  most  of  the  buildings  of  this  type.  Proper 
attention  has  not  been  given  to  storage  space  for  raw 
materials  or  for  the  partially  completed  or  completed 
work.  At  present  there  is  a general  consensus  of  opinion 
that  the  drawing  to  be  done  in  connection  with  the 
industrial  work  should  be  under  the  supervision  of  a 
drawing  department  working  in  close  harmony  with 
the  shops  and  laboratories.  If  this  becomes  an  estab- 
lished procedure,  the  drawing  laboratories  should  be 
more  completely  developed  than  has  previously  been 
the  case. 

The  Neighborhood  or  Community  Type.  - — This  type 
of  school  differs  from  the  others  in  its  equipment  for 
general  community  service.  Such  a school  partakes 
largely  of  the  nature  of  the  industrial  school.  The 
shops  can  be  so  planned  as  to  offer  opportunities  for 
afternoon  and  evening  work  for  the  men,  and  the  labora- 
tories, cooking,  sewing,  millinery,  and  dressmaking 
rooms  may  be  as  well  adapted  to  the  use  of  the  women 
of  the  neighborhood  as  for  the  pupils  of  the  day  school. 
Some  of  these  activities  may  be  better  carried  on  in  a 
community  cottage  separate  and  apart  from  these  class- 
rooms, in  which  can  be  organized  a great  variety  of 
community  activities  and  in  which  the  Americanization 
work  for  the  mothers  of  the  community  may  be  largely 
carried  on.  The  community  type  of  school  must  needs 
carry  both  its  indoor  and  outdoor  recreational  and 
physical  training  facilities  to  all  of  the  people  of  the 
neighborhood.  The  library  and  laboratories  should  be 
as  thoughtfully  planned  for  general  community  use  as 


1 1 2 


SCHOOL  A RCHI TEC  LURE 


Mr.  Wm.  A.  Poland , Architect. 


Fig.  96.  — Junior  High  School,  Trenton,  New  Jersey. 


tney  are  for  day  school  use,  and  the  auditorium  can  be 
used  even  more  for  community  use  than  for  the  regular 
day  school. 

The  Cosmopolitan  Type.  — In  many  neighborhoods, 
the  variety  of  needs  will  be  so  great  as  to  make  it  neces- 
sary that  the  building  be  constructed  as  far  as  possible 
to  meet  the  variety  of  conditions  outlined  under  each 
of  these  types.  It  may  not  be  possible  to  develop  each 
line  as  fully  as  in  the  special  types,  but  through  a careful 
selection,  various  types  of  work  along  the  several  lines 
may  be  included. 

Science  Laboratories.  — - The  general  deficiency  in 
scientific  training  given  by  our  lower  schools  is  becoming 
recognized.  Lack  of  experience  in  proper  science  teach- 
ing in  these  schools  has  limited  the  data  at  hand  from 
which  to  determine  how  many  or  what  type  of  science 
laboratories  should  be  installed  in  a junior  high  school, 
or  to  what  extent  these  laboratories  should  be  equipped 
with  scientific  apparatus  and  appliances.  Pupils  and 


schools  of  this  type  are  just  at  the  age  when  they  should 
receive  their  introduction  to  scientific  thought.  It 
would  therefore  seem  that  the  science  courses  in  schools 
of  this  type  should  be  of  a somewhat  general  nature. 
If  this  is  correct,  there  should  be  laboratories  enough  to 
give  to  all  pupils  in  the  school  an  opportunity  for  science 
training  amounting  to  at  least  two  recitation  periods 
per  week.  These  laboratories  should  be  equipped  with 
working  tables,  with  gas,  electricity,  and  running  water, 
and  with  a rather  liberal  equipment  for  keeping  li\dng 
plants  and  animals  and  other  specimens  in  the  laboratory. 

Library.  — There  should  be  a library  room  in  charge 
of  a librarian.  The  library  should  be  liberally  equipped 
with  books  carefully  selected  on  the  basis  of  their  direct 
application  to  the  work  of  the  school.  Pupils  should  be 
carefully  taught  the  use  of  reference  books  and  the  use 
of  a library  for  topical  study.  This  means,  therefore, 
that  the  libraries  should  be  of  liberal  size  and  planned 
as  if  to  be  directed  by  a regular  librarian. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  INTERMEDIATE  OR  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOL 


Office  Equipment.  — A proper  arrangement  of  offices 
with  the  necessary  equipment  for  the  administrative 
work  of  the  school  frequently  receives  too  little  attention. 
There  should  be  an  outer  and  an  inner  office  with  a 
liberal-sized  storeroom  for  school  supplies  adjacent. 
A master  clock,  controlling  the  program  and  secondary 
clocks  and  bells  of  the  school,  should  be  installed  in  the 
office  and  likewise  a serviceable  telephone  system  con- 
necting with  all  the  rooms  of  the  building.  The  outer 
office  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  provide  working  and 
filing  space  for  the  principal’s  clerk.  In  the  large  schools 
there  should  be  an  office  for  a vice  principal.  In  case 
this  official  is  a woman,  the  office  may  advantageously 
be  located  adjacent  to  and  connected  with  the  rest  rooms 
for  women  teachers. 

‘ Teachers’  Retiring  and  Lunch  Rooms.  - Adequate, 
comfortable,  and  attractive  rooms  for  the  use  of  the 
teachers  will  repay  the  community  many  fold.  Too 
often  these  rooms  do  not  exist  at  all  or  are  arranged  in 


some  little  nook  because  it  is  of  no  service  for  any  other 
purpose.  The  nature  of  teaching  is  such  that  under  the 
very  best  of  conditions  the  tax  upon  the  physical  well- 
being of  teachers  is  sufficient  to  exhaust  even  the  hardiest. 
Consequently  everything  that  is  done  in  the  school 
building  arrangements  to  protect  this  physical  well-being 
will  return  dividends  to  the  school. 

The  Auditorium  and  Gymnasium.  — It  is  a difficult 
thing  to  plan  an  auditorium  to  serve  all  of  the  activities 
that  should  be  carried  on  in  the  community  meeting 
room  connected  with  the  school  building.  The  problem 
is  very  much  simplified  if  a gymnasium  separate  from 
the  auditorium  is  possible.  In  this  case  the  gymnasium 
should  be  so  planned  as  to  provide  for  a great  variety 
of  indoor  athletic  activities  and  of  course  should  have 
adjacent  to  it  lockers,  showers,  and  lavatories.  The 
auditorium  should  have  a seating  capacity  for  all  of 
the  school  if  possible,  and  should  be  equipped  for  both 
school  and  community  use  with  a moving  picture 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


114 


Mr.  IT rm.  .4.  Poland,  Architect. 


Fig.  98.  — Junior  High  School,  Trenton,  New  Jersey 


apparatus.  The  chairs  should  be  movable  so  that  the 
floor  may  be  used  for  a variety  of  other  purposes,  — re- 
ceptions, exhibitions  of  school  work,  and  other  activities. 

The  Junior  High  School  Course  of  Study.  ■ — These 
institutions  are  so  new,  that  the  course  of  study  has  not 
become  thoroughly  standardized.  It  seems,  however, 
that  a course  of  study  something  like  the  following  will 
offer  a standard  for  building  plans. 

First  Year  (7th  year  of  schooling) 

English  : reading,  spelling,  language  study,  penmanship. 

History  and  geography 

Arithmetic 

Science 

Music,  vocal  and  instrumental 
Drawing 

Physical  training  and  hygiene 
Industrial  and  vocational  subjects 
Foreign  languages 

Commercial  subjects  (stenography  and  typing) 


Second  Year  (8th  year  of  schooling) 

Course  similar  to  first  year  with  probably  some  variations 
in  hours. 

Third  Year  (gth  year  of  schooling) 

English,  including  grammar  and  composition 
Science 

(At  least  three  electives  for  each  pupil  from  the  following 
subjects) 

Foreign  languages 

Mathematics 

History 

Industrial  and  vocational  subjects 
Commercial  subjects 
Music,  vocal  and  instrumental 
Drawing 

The  amount  of  work  offered  in  industrial  and  voca- 
tional subjects,  foreign  languages,  commercial  subjects, 
music,  and  drawing  would  depend  upon  the  type  of  school. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  INTERMEDIATE  OR  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOL 


ii5 


Approved  Plan 


-Thc ♦ fiRy,T  ^Junior  ^ (— | c c h ^hool 

■ v"  OLD-ALM  J - HOU  JL-JIT " - PRINCETON- AVtl- 

+ fOR  *THE-OTY*or -TRE;NTON" 

♦|\Je.w  ♦ Jersey* 


5u  cH&Ase/ACMT  Plan 


Fig.  99. 


Mr.  Wm.  A.  Poland , Architect. 


n6 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Fig. 


ioo. 


Mr.  Wm.  .4 . Poland,  Architect . 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  INTERMEDIATE  OR  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOL 


117 


UV  LisTZJ,  U\3 


Jhe  - fl r/t  -Junior  - jJicH  *Jt  1 

-ON-OLD  - ALM  .5  - HOU  -5C.  — -SIT  L - PRINCETON  - AVL 

-f'OR  « jME-QTT^Or-jRCSTON- 

♦ Nr-1-1  * Jersey* 


Approvld  Plan 


Mr.  Wm.  A.  Poland,  Architect. 


— 1 

~t 

— ' 

■ . IU.J 

--4AS.', 

L-°j 

tt'44 

pr— 

- -s.  ; 

|ljfi 

il"0"!  — 
ft  °c 

n8 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Cjxtej.®  Untu.®  Untcx© 


.A-  i'l  Cc 


UnTEL®  LlN7Zi.  © 


S-lNTtX  © UlNTtJ.  ® 


flm&VID  R_ftN 


♦The  *f]R/T  * Junior  ♦ (*]igh  ^hool- 

•QN-OLD-ALMJ  - HOU  .SE -.SITE  -PRINCETON  -AVE  - 

♦fOR  ♦XHE-QT^T-or -Jrcntqn* 

♦|S|tW  - JCRSEY- 


Tv  -•*» 


Second  Hjoor  Plan 


Approved  ru^TKi^  Hiking -Pian 

IQI*  . 

CWrfcn..  A*~Hu 


Fig.  102 


il/r.  H'm.  A.  Poland.  A rchiuci. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  INTERMEDIATE  OR  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOL 


119 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Mr.  Theo.  M.  Sanders,  Architect. 

Fig.  104.  — Junior  High  School,  Little  Rock,  Arkansas. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  INTERMEDIATE  OR  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOL 


121 


Fig.  105. 


122 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  INTERMEDIATE  OR  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOL 


123 


124 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


© 


Fig. 


0g  — Edison  Junior  High  School,  Berkeley,  California. 


Mr.  IF.  H.  Ratcliff,  Jr.,  Architect. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  INTERMEDIATE  OR  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOL 


125 


FII\.ST  “ F L Q O I\  * PLAN 


HE  ISOM  ' S C HOOL  ' 3 ^ K C.  L F,Y 

*-  w • m ' ?.  a t c 1 ; r r • j % ’ a r.  c ii  i t l c r 

Fig.  109. 


CHAPTER  VII 


ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION  OF  SENIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS  AS 

AFFECTING  BUILDINGS 

By  Clarence  D.  Kingsley  (M.A.  Columbia  University),  Supervisor  of  High  Schools,  Massachusetts  Department  of 

Education  1 

I.  Who  Are  to  be  Served:  i.  Organization  of  the  School  System;  2.  Variations  in  the  Three-Block  System;  3.  Comprehen- 
sive versus  Special-Type  High  Schools;  4.  Determination  of  the  Contributing  Area  for  Senior  High  Schools;  5.  Determination 
of  the  Contributing  Area  for  Junior  High  Schools;  6.  Probable  Number  of  Pupils  to  be  Furnished  by  the  Contributing  Area. 

II.  Internal  Organization  as  Affecting  Accommodations:  1.  Flexibility;  2.  Program  of  Studies;  3.  Staff  of  the  School;  4.  Size 
of  Laboratories  and  Shops;  5.  Size  of  Classrooms;  6.  Actual  Size  of  Classes ; 7.  Provisions  for  Study ; (a)  Kind  of  Provisions  to 
be  Made ; (6)  Number  of  Sittings  Required ; (c)  Size  of  Study  Halls ; ( d ) Articulation  of  Study  Halls  with  the  Library ; 8.  Time- 
Allotment  for  Physical  Training;  9.  Number  of  Periods  in  the  School  Day;  (a)  Length  of  Period;  (6)  Length  of  School  Day. 

III.  Estimate  and  Tabulation  of  Accommodations  Needed:  i.  Multiple  Uses;  (a)  Laboratory-Recitation  Rooms;  ( b ) Gymna- 
sium-Assembly Hall ; 2.  Sample  Tabulation  for  a School  of  about  200  Pupils ; 3.  Sample  Tabulation  for  a School  of  about  400  Pupils. 

Appendix.  A Schedule  Providing  for  the  Limited  Introduction  of  Supervised  Study.  Special  Provisions  for  Pupils  Who  Must 
Work  Afternoons  and  Evenings. 


I.  Who  Are  to  be  Served.  — Before  determining  the 
site,  costs,  or  sketch  plans  for  a high  school  building, 
a thorough  and  comprehensive  study  should  be  made 
to  ascertain  the  most  desirable  organization  of  the  school 
system,  the  type  of  high  school  needed,  the  contributing 
area,  and  the  probable  number  of  high  school  pupils 
that  will  be  furnished  by  the  contributing  area. 

1.  Organization  of  the  School  System.  — The  authors 
of  this  book  have  assumed  that  the  school  system  will 
contain  elementary,  junior  high,  and  senior  high  schools. 
In  view,  however,  of  the  fact  that  the  introduction  of 
junior  high  schools  is  a recent  innovation,  and  the  further 
fact  that  many  cities  have  not  as  yet  adopted  the  junior 
high  school  idea,  a brief  statement  of  the  reasons  favoring 
the  new  organization  may  be  helpful. 

A system  in  which  eight  years  are  devoted  to  ele- 
mentary education  and  four  years  to  secondary  educa- 
tion is  conveniently  designated  as  an  8-4  system.  One 
in  which  elementary  education  is  shortened  to  six  years, 
followed  by  three  years  for  junior  high  schools  and  three 
for  senior  high  schools,  is  known  as  a 6-3-3  system. 

The  chief  reasons  for  changing  from  an  8-4  to  a 6-3-3 
system  may  be  summarized  as  follows : 

(a)  The  seventh  and  eighth  years  of  the  elementary 
school  have  not,  on  the  whole,  been  effectively  utilized. 
Too  much  time  has  been  devoted  to  reviewing  material 
previously  taught  in  the  first  six  years.  The  work  has 


lacked  interest  and  many  pupils  have  felt  that  they 
were  gaining  but  little.  In  fact,  fully  one-half  of  the 
pupils  have,  in  many  communities,  left  school  in  these 
years.  The  pupils  who  remained  commonly  developed 
habits  of  dawdling  at  their  work.  These  habits,  bad  in 
themselves,  have  been  a serious  detriment  to  high  school 
work.  Proficiency  in  certain  fundamental  processes 
may  be  better  secured  by  the  application  of  these 
processes  to  new  subjects  in  the  junior  high  school 
than  by  these  reviews  in  elementary  subjects. 

(b)  The  first  year  of  the  four-year  high  school  has  not 
been  well  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  pupils  of  that  year. 
The  break  from  the  school  organization,  subjects  of  study, 
and  methods  of  instruction  in  the  elementary  school 
to  the  organization,  subjects,  and  methods  in  the  high 
school  has  been  too  sudden.  The  pupils  have  not  been 
prepared  for  the  transition.  As  a result  the  number 
of  pupils  leaving  school  in  the  first  year  of  the  four- 
year  high  school  has  been  abnormally  large.  The 
junior  high  school  is  succeeding  in  bridging  this  gap. 
It  makes  possible  the  gradual  introduction  of  depart- 
mental instruction,  so  that  the  pupil  may  pass  from  the 
constant  and  personal  supervision  by  one  teacher  to 
instruction  by  four  or  more  teachers. 

(c)  The  junior  high  school  provides  a social  organiza- 
tion which  develops  self-expression,  qualities  of  initiative 
and  cooperation,  and  a sense  of  personal  responsibility. 


1 Mr.  Kingsley  is  chairman  of  the  Commission  on  the  Reorganization  of  Secondary  Education,  appointed  by  the  National  Education  Association. 

126 


ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION  OF  SENIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


127 


Fig.  ho. 


These  qualities  are  important  not  only  in  school  work 
but  also  as  a preparation  for  citizenship  in  a democracy. 

(d)  The  junior  high  school,  by  providing  experiences 
in  a variety  of  work,  helps  the  pupil  in  the  exploration 
of  his  aptitudes  and  in  the  wise  choice  of  work  best 
suited  to'  his  needs  in  the  senior  high  school.  For  the 
large  majority  of  pupils  the  junior  high  school  should  be 
prevocational  rather  than  vocational  in  aim. 

(e)  The  new  organization  makes  it  possible  for  the 
young  children  in  the  first  six  grades  to  obtain  schooling 
within  easy  access  of  their  homes,  and  brings  together  in 
junior  high  schools,  a little  farther  away  from  the  homes 
of  some  of  them,  a group  of  pupils  sufficiently  large 
to  warrant  the  offering  of  the  variety  of  work  needed 
by  pupils  of  varying  interests  and  aptitudes  and  of 
varying  probable  destinies  in  life. 

2.  Variations  in  the  Three-Block  System.  — Instead 
of  the  6-3-3  system  some  communities  have  6-2-4, 
6-4-2,  or  6-6  systems.  The  6-2-4  system  is  found 
chiefly  in  places  where  a four-year  high  school  is  already 
adequately  housed  and  the  community  does  not  feel 
justified  in  erecting  a new  building  to  care  for  more  than 
the  seventh  and  eighth  years.  This  plan,  however,  is 
not  ideal,  because  two  years  is  not  a sufficient  period  in 
which  to  realize  the  distinctive  purposes  of  the  junior 
high  school.  Ninth-year  pupils  do  not  associate  as 
normally  and  naturally  with  the  pupils  of  the  senior 
high  school  as  they  do  with  those  of  the  junior  high  school. 
Moreover  the  junior  high  school  is  better  able  to  meet 
the  educational  needs  of  pupils  in  the  ninth  school  year 
than  can  the  senior  high  school. 

In  rural  communities  too  small  to  maintain  an  effec- 
tive senior  high  school,  the  6-4-2  plan  is  often  desirable. 
With  this  plan  the  pupils  may  obtain  instruction  through 
the  tenth  grade,  or  to  the  age  of  approximately  sixteen, 
in  a school  near  home,  and  then  go  to  a more  distant 
school  for  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  years.  This  plan 


is  being  effectively  worked  out  in  Vermont,  where  four- 
year  junior  high  schools  are  encouraged  in  small  towns 
and  strong  central  six-year  high  schools  are  established 
in  larger,  conveniently-located  centers. 

In  still  other  places  the  junior  and  senior  high  schools 
are  organized  as  one  school,  or  at  least  housed  in  one 
building,  resulting  in  a 6-6  system.  This  plan  is  adapted 
to  the  needs  of  communities  too  small  to  maintain  dis- 
tinct junior  and  senior  high  schools,  but  sufficiently 
large  to  maintain  an  effective  six-year  high  school. 
In  such  schools  the  special  needs  of  the  younger  pupils 
must  be  provided  for.  Where  the  size  of  the  school 
permits  there  may  be  two  principals  and  two  quite  dis- 
tinct student  bodies  sharing  in  the  use  of  certain  common 
equipment,  such  as  the  auditorium,  but  using  such 
equipment  at  different  times. 

3.  Comprehensive  vs.  Special-Type  High  Schools.  — 
To  meet  the  varied  needs  of  high-school  pupils  most 
wisely  and  to  safeguard  and  promote  mutual  under- 
standings in  our  democracy,  the  author  of  this  chapter 
strongly  favors  the  comprehensive  type  of  high  school 
instead  of  the  specialized  high  schools  found  in  certain 
American  cities.  In  some  of  our  oldest  cities  specialized 
high  schools  arose  naturally  because  the  earliest  schools 
were  of  an  academic  type,  while  new  schools  were  estab- 
lished to  provide  for  newer  types  of  secondary  educa- 
tion. The  existing  schools  conceived  their  function  in 
narrow  terms,  and  it  was  feared  that  they  would  not  be 
friendly  to  the  development  of  the  newer  types  of  edu- 
cation. In  some  other  cities,  specialized  schools  are 
due  to  a failure  to  plan  comprehensively.  The  short- 
comings of  specialized  schools  have  already  been  recog- 
nized in  certain  cities  having  had  such  schools,  with  the 
result  that  specialized  schools  have  been  united  to  form 
comprehensive  schools. 

The  arguments  for  the  comprehensive  high  school 
are  set  forth  as  follows  by  the  Commission  on  the  Re- 


128 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Fig.  hi. 


organization  of  Secondary  Education,  appointed  by  the 
National  Education  Association  in  its  report  entitled 
“ Cardinal  Principles  of  Secondary  Education.”  1 

“ The  comprehensive  (sometimes  called  composite,  or 
cosmopolitan)  high  school,  embracing  all  curriculums  in 
one  unified  organization,  should  remain  the  standard 
type  of  secondary  school  in  the  United  States. 

“ Junior  high  schools  must  be  of  the  comprehensive  type, 
whatever  policy  be  adopted  for  the  senior  high  schools, 
since  one  of  the  primary  purposes  of  the  junior  high  school 
is  to  assist  the  pupil  through  a wide  variety  of  contacts 
and  experiences  to  obtain  a basis  for  intelligent  choice 
of  his  educational  and  vocational  career.  In  the  judg- 
ment of  the  commission  senior  high  schools  and  four- 
year  high  schools  of  the  older  organizations  should,  as  a 
rule,  be  of  the  comprehensive  type,  for  the  following 
reasons : 

“ (a)  For  Effectiveness  of  Vocational  Education. — When 
effectively  organized  and  administered  the  comprehen- 
sive high  school  can  make  differentiated  education  of 
greater  value  to  the  individual  and  to  society,  for  such 
value  depends  largely  upon  the  extent  to  which  the 
individual  pursues  the  curriculum  best  suited  to  his 


needs.  This  factor  is  of  prime  importance,  although  fre- 
quently ignored  in  discussions  regarding  the  effective- 
ness of  vocational  and  other  types  of  differentiated 
education. 

“In  a system  of  special-type  schools  many  influences 
interfere  with  the  wise  choice  of  curriculum.  Thus  many 
pupils  choose  the  high  school  nearest  to  their  homes, 
or  the  school  to  which  their  friends  have  gone  or  are 
going,  or  the  school  that  provides  the  most  attractive 
social  life,  or  has  the  best  athletic  teams.  Still  others 
are  unwisely  influenced  by  the  notions  of  neighbors 
and  friends  of  the  family.  After  entering  a special- 
type  school,  many  pupils  drop  out  because  the  work  is 
not  adapted  to  their  needs,  while  comparatively  few 
transfer  to  another  school. 

“In  a comprehensive  school  the  influences  interfering 
with  a wise  choice  of  curriculum  may  be  reduced  to  a 
minimum.  When  an  unwise  choice  has  been  made  the 
pupil  may  be  greatly  aided  in  discovering  a curriculum 
better  adapted  to  his  needs  because  he  can  see  other 
work  in  the  school,  talk  with  school  companions,  and 
confer  with  teachers  who  are  able  to  give  him  expert 
advice  regarding  such  curriculums.  When  such  a pupil 


1 Bulletin  35  for  1918,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education. 


ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION  OF  SENIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


129 


has  found  a curriculum  better  adapted  to  his  needs, 
he  can  be  transferred  to  it  without  severance  of  school 
relationships  and,  what  seems  to  him,  the  sacrifice  of 
school  loyalty. 

“ Moreover,  pupils  in  comprehensive  schools  have  con- 
tacts valuable  to  them  vocationally,  since  people  in 
every  vocation  must  be  able  to  deal  intelligently  with 
those  in  other  vocations,  and  employers  and  employees 
must  be  able  to  understand  one  another  and  recognize 
common  interests.  Similarly,  teachers  in  comprehen- 
sive schools  have  a better  opportunity  to  observe  other 
curriculums  and  are  thereby  better  able  to  advise  pupils 
intelligently. 

“ Summarizing  under  this  head,  the  well-organized 
comprehensive  school  can  make  differentiated  education 
of  greater  value  than  can  the  special-type  school,  because 
it  aids  in  a wise  choice  of  curriculum,  assists  in  readjust- 
ments when  such  are  desirable,  and  provides  for  wider 
contacts  essential  to  true  success  in  every  vocation. 

“ ( b ) For  Unification.  — When  administered  by  a prin- 
cipal who  himself  recognizes  the  social  value  of  all  types 
of  secondary  education  and  inspires  a broad  spirit  of 
democracy  among  teachers  and  pupils,  the  compre- 


hensive high  school  is  a better  instrument  for  unification. 
Through  friendships  formed  with  pupils  pursuing  other 
curriculums  and  having  vocational  and  educational  goals 
widely  different  from  their  own,  the  pupils  realize  that 
the  interests  which  they  hold  in  common  with  others  are, 
after  all,  far  more  important  than  the  differences  that 
would  tend  to  make  them  antagonistic  to  others. 
Through  school  assemblies  and  organizations  they 
acquire  common  ideas.  Through  group  activities  they 
secure  training  in  cooperation.  Through  loyalty  to  a 
school  which  includes  many  groups  they  are  prepared 
for  loyalty  to  State  and  Nation.  In  short,  the  compre- 
hensive school  is  the  prototype  of  a democracy  in  which 
various  groups  must  have  a degree  of  self-consciousness 
as  groups  and  yet  be  federated  into  a larger  whole 
through  the  recognition  of  common  interests  and  ideals. 
Life  in  such  a school  is  a natural  and  valuable  prepara- 
tion for  life  in  a democracy. 

“ (c)  For  Objectives  Other  than  Vocation.  — A compre- 
hensive high  school  can  provide  much  more  effectively 
for  health  education,  education  for  the  worthy  use  of 
leisure,  and  home-making  education  than  a number  of 
smaller  special-type  schools  can. 


T3° 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Fig.  113. 


“ The  most  effective  health  education  requires  adequate 
equipment  and  instructors  competent  to  diagnose  health 
needs  and  direct  health  activities.  Expenses  and 
difficulties  of  duplication  of  such  facilities  in  every 
smaller  special-type  school  are  almost  prohibitive. 
Preparation  for  the  worthy  use  of  leisure  is  best  achieved 
when  there  is  a wide  variety  of  activities  from  which 
pupils  may  select,  such  as  arts  and  crafts  clubs,  literary 
and  debating  societies,  and  musical  organizations.  All 
of  these  require  for  their  success  enthusiastic  leadership 
such  as  can  best  be  secured  from  a large  faculty.  Girls 
in  all  curriculums  should  have  the  advantages  of  work 
in  household  arts  under  efficient  directors  and  with  ade- 
quate equipment.  Such  conditions  are  most  readily 
provided  in  the  comprehensive  school  where  there  is  a 
strong  department  of  household  arts. 

“ With  the  establishment  of  a special-type  high  school 
it  frequently  happens  that  various  important  phases 
of  education  are  neglected  or  minimized  in  the  other 
schools  of  that  system. 

“ ( d ) For  Accessibility.  - In  cities  large  enough  to  re- 


quire more  than  one  high  school  it  is  desirable  to  have 
each  school  so  located  as  to  serve  a particular  section  of 
the  city,  thereby  reducing  the  expense  and  loss  of  time 
involved  in  travel  on  the  part  of  pupils.  The  proximity 
of  the  school  to  the  homes  results  also  in  greater  interest 
in  education  on  the  part  of  pupils  and  parents,  and  con- 
sequently increases  the  drawing  and  holding  power  of 
the  school. 

“ (e)  Adaptation  to  Local  Needs.  — In  recommending 
the  comprehensive  high  school  as  the  standard  secondary 
school  the  commission  recognizes  that  in  large  cities 
where  two  or  more  high  schools  are  needed  it  is  not 
always  possible  to  provide  every  curriculum  in  each 
high  school,  such  a practice  being  precluded  by  the  fact 
that  certain  curriculums  would  thereby  enroll  in  the 
several  schools  too  few  pupils  to  permit  economical 
organization  and  administration.  In  such  cases  a few 
curriculums  may  well  appear  in  selected  comprehensive 
schools  or  even  in  a single  school  onl)r,  while  other 
curriculums  appear  in  every  school. 

“ The  commission  also  recognizes  the  impracticability 


ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION  OF  SENIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


Fig.  i 14. 


of  offering  every  curriculum  in  every  small  rural  high 
school.  In  such  cases  it  is  desirable  that  a curriculum 
for  which  the  number  of  pupils  does  not  warrant  such 
duplication  should  be  offered  in  selected  schools,  and  that 
pupils  needing  that  curriculum  should  go  to  those  schools. 
This  plan  is  substantially  the  same  as  that  recommended 
for  the  large  city. 

“ (/)  Effective  Organization  of  Curriculums  in  Compre- 
hensive High  Schools.  — Finally,  the  commission  recog- 
nizes that  in  the  past  relatively  ineffective  instruction 
has  been  afforded  in  some  comprehensive  schools.  This 
has  been  due  in  part  to  the  fact  that  everywhere  voca- 
tional education  has  been  passing  and  is  still  passing 
through  a period  of  experimentation.  The  commission 
believes,  however,  that  the  most  serious  defect  in  voca- 
tional education  in  the  comprehensive  high  school  has 
been  due  to  a lack  of  proper  organization  and  adminis- 
tration. Effective  vocational  education  cannot  be 
secured  when  administered  like  so  many  accidental 
groupings  of  subjects.  To  remedy  this  situation  the 
commission  recommends  that  each  curriculum,  or  group 
of  closely  related  curriculums,  in  the  large  comprehensive 


high  school  be  placed  under  the  supervision  of  a director 
whose  task  it  shall  be  to  organize  that  curriculum  and 
maintain  its  efficiency.  The  curriculum  directors  must 
work  under  the  general  direction  of  the  principal,  who 
must  be  the  coordinator  of  all  the  activities  of  the  school. 
Especially  is  it  necessary  that  each  director  shall  be 
selected  with  the  same  care  that  would  be  exercised  in 
choosing  the  principal  of  a special-type  school  enrolling  as 
many  pupils  as  are  enrolled  in  the  curriculum  or  curricu- 
lums under  his  direction.  In  medium-sized  high  schools 
unable  to  employ  directors  for  the  various  curriculums, 
the  teachers  should  be  organized  into  committees  to  con- 
sider the  problems  of  the  various  curriculums,  all 
working  under  the  direction  of  the  principal. 

“ Unless  the  various  curriculums  are  effectively  organ- 
ized and  administered,  and  unless  the  democratic  spirit 
pervades  the  school,  the  comprehensive  high  school  is  in 
danger  of  failure  ; with  these  factors  present,  it  has  every 
promise  of  success.” 

4.  Determination  of  the  Contributing  Area  for  Senior 
High  Schools.  — High  schools  should  be  so  distributed 
that  the  contributing  area  for  each  school  will  be  suffi- 


132 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


ciently  large  to  supply  enough  students  to  warrant  a wide 
variety  of  curriculums,  but  not  so  large  that  pupils  in 
the  more  remote  sections  of  that  area  will  be  deterred 
from  attendance,  or  that  the  cost  of  transportation  and 
the  time  spent  in  travel  will  be  excessive. 

In  villages  and  rural  sections  a high  school  should 
not  be  built  until  the  situation  has  been  thoroughly  can- 
vassed to  ascertain  whether  the  needs  of  the  pupils 
will  be  best  served  (a)  by  building  a local  school,  or 
(. b ) by  furnishing  tuition  and  transportation  to  an  exist- 
ing high  school  in  a neighboring  town  or  city,  or  (c)  by 
uniting  with  other  towns  or  districts  in  establishing  a 
union  high-school  district. 

In  Massachusetts  all  school  districts  within  township 
lines  were  abolished  fifty  years  ago,  and  the  city  or 
township  became  the  taxation  unit  for  the  support  of 
schools.  The  state  contains  38  such  cities  and  316 
townships.  Of  these  only  6 cities  and  3 towns  maintain 
more  than  one  high  school  each,  while  114  towns  which 
do  not  maintain  a high  school  pay  the  tuition  and  trans- 
portation of  pupils  to  high  schools  in  other  towns  or 
cities.  The  desirability  of  encouraging  two  or  more 
towns  to  unite  in  maintaining  union  high  schools  is 
receiving  favorable  consideration. 

In  Illinois,  school  districts  regardless  of  township 
lines  may  unite  in  a new  taxation  unit  for  the  purpose 
of  establishing  a union  high  school. 

In  California  the  state  and  county  provide  generous 
aid  to  any  district  maintaining  a high  school,  and  a 
pupil  may  attend,  without  payment  of  tuition,  any  high 
school  within  the  county  in  which  he  or  she  resides. 
While  California  has  nineteen  times  the  area  of  Massa- 
chusetts it  has  only  about  the  same  number  of  high 
schools  as  the  latter  state. 

One  advantage  in  establishing  a union  high-school  dis- 
trict instead  of  paying  tuition  and  transportation  lies  in 
the  fact  that  the  people  in  all  portions  of  the  union  dis- 
trict may  take  part  in  the  selection  of  the  board  control- 
ling the  school,  and  consequently  the  needs  of  the  pupils 
from  all  portions  are  more  likely  to  receive  adequate 
consideration.  Also,  more  money  may  be  available  for 
erecting  the  building. 

When  rural  districts  are  within  easy  access  of  cities 
the  question  arises  as  to  whether  the  needs  of  country 
youth  are  so  different  from  those  of  city  youth  that  an 
attempt  should  be  made  to  send  them  to  a union  rural 
high  school  rather  than  to  a city  high  school.  Much 
may  be  said  on  both  sides  of  this  question.  It  is  likely 
that  their  needs  will  be  more  fully  met  by  the  union 
rural  school  if  that  school  be  accessible  and  large  enough 
to  provide  a good  variety  of  curriculums.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  needs  of  country  and  city  youth  are  not 
sharply  divided,  since  many  city  youth  would  profit 


by  an  agricultural  curriculum,  while  many  country  youth 
should  be  prepared  for  professions  and  occupations 
essentially  urban  in  character. 

In  small  and  medium-sized  cities  one  high  school,  com- 
prehensive in  type,  is  to  be  preferred  to  two  or  more 
smaller  high  schools. 

This  comprehensive  high  school  should  offer  all  types 
of  secondary  education,  including  all  varieties  of  trade 
and  continuation  education  that  may  wisely  be  estab- 
lished for  the  young  people  of  high-school  age  in  that 
community.  It  is  reasonable  to  assume  that  pupils 
living  within  a radius  of  one  and  a half  miles  will  be 
actually  benefited  by  walking  to  and  from  school. 

A problem  arising  in  every  growing  city  is  whether  to 
enlarge  its  existing  high  school  or  to  build  additional 
schools.  The  solution  of  this  problem  will  depend 
upon  geographical  considerations  and  upon  the  decision 
as  to  the  most  desirable  size  of  high  school.  Contrary 
to  the  opinion  frequently  held,  a very  large  high  school 
can  be  administered  not  only  economically  but  also 
effectively,  provided  that  the  school  board  does  not 
practice  false  economy  by  failing  to  furnish  the  prin- 
cipal with  the  assistance  which  he  needs  for  the  dis- 
charge of  his  administrative  and  supervisory  duties. 
It  is  seldom  possible  for  a principal  to  come  into  close 
personal  contact  with  every  pupil  in  a school  of  even 
500.  Moreover  one  man  cannot,  unaided,  devote  ade- 
quate attention  simultaneously  to  all  the  varied  duties 
involved  in  the  administration  and  supervision  of  even 
a medium-sized  school.  The  best  administration,  there- 
fore, involves  the  delegation  of  important  duties.  With 
the  recognition  of  this  truth  the  arguments  for  a school 
of  restricted  size  largely  disappear. 

In  cities  too  large  in  area  for  one  high  school,  the  city 
should  be  divided  into  two  or  more  districts,  each  to 
be  served  by  a comprehensive  high  school.  Too  fre- 
quently such  cities  have  increased  high  school  accom- 
modations by  the  erection  of  special- type  high  schools. 
This  method  has  not  reduced  to  any  appreciable  extent 
the  amount  of  travel  and  has  produced  many  bad  results 
educationally  and  socially.  By  the  district  plan  exces- 
sive loss  of  time  and  money  involved  in  travel  to  and 
from  school  is  avoided.  Each  such  district  high  school 
should  offer  all  the  curriculums  for  which  there  is  suffi- 
cient need  in  its  district.  Any  curriculum  for  which 
there  is  not  sufficient  demand  to  warrant  duplication 
in  all  schools  may  be  offered  in  one  or  more  schools 
only,  and  pupils  needing  that  curriculum  encouraged 
to  attend  those  schools.  By  this  plan  the  establish- 
ment of  special- type  schools  is  avoided  and  all  the 
schools  have  the  advantages  of  breadth  and  catho- 
licity, even  though  some  may  not  have  all  the  cur- 
riculums. 


ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION  OF  SENIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


i33 


Sr  ijv , v. 

Fig.  115.  — South  Side  High  School,  Newark,  New  Jersey. 


Mr.  E.  F.  Oullbert,  Architect. 


5.  Determination  of  the  Contributing  Area  for  Junior 
High  Schools.  — The  contributing  area  for  a junior  high 
school  should,  in  some  cases,  be  smaller  than  that  for  a 
senior  high  school.  For  rural  areas  the  Vermont  plan 
is  to  be  commended,  whereby  many  smaller  towns  main- 
tain four-year  junior  high  schools  containing  grades 
7,  8,  9,  and  10,  and  a few  centrally  located,  large  towns 
or  cities  maintain  six-year  high  schools  containing  grades 
7 to  12.  The  four-year  junior  high  schools  are  thus 
contributory  to  the  central  six-year  high  schools.  By 
this  plan  the  younger  pupils  are  not  exposed  to  the  temp- 
tations and  inconveniences  of  travel,  while  the  older 
pupils  who  are  more  mature  and  better  able  to  look  out 
for  themselves  have  the  advantages  of  the  more  varied 
curriculums  and  the  more  elaborate  equipment  furnished 
by  the  larger  high  schools. 

In  large  cities  having  two  or  more  senior  high  school 
districts,  a better  coordination  can  be  worked  out  be- 
tween  junior  and  senior  high  schools  if  one  or  more 
junior  high  school  districts  lie  wholly  within  a given 
senior  high  school  district. 

6.  Probable  Number  of  Pupils  to  be  Furnished  by  the 


Contributing  Area.  — After  determining  the  contributing 
area,  an  estimate  should  be  made  as  to  the  probable 
number  of  high  school  pupils  who  will  be  supplied  by 
that  area  within  the  next  few  years.  The  following 
factors  should  be  taken  into  consideration : 

(a)  The  probable  increase  in  the  population  of  that 
area. 

(■ b ) The  probable  drawing  and  retentive  power  of  the 
new  school  on  account  of  : 

(1)  Attractive  power  of  new  curriculums  and  activi- 
ties that  the  new  building  will  make  possible. 

(2)  Attractive  power  of  the  new  building  itself. 

(3)  Retentive  power  of  improved  methods  of  in- 
struction. 

(e)  The  probable  changes  in  compulsory  school  laws, 
such  as  the  raising  of  the  compulsory  school  age. 

Seldom  do  school  boards  make  sufficient  allowance 
for  these  increases.  As  a result  new  buildings  are 
generally  overcrowded  soon  after  their  erection.  In 
many  communities  the  high  school  attendance  is  rapidly 
approaching  the  total  number  of  pupils  of  high  school 
age  living  in  the  contributing  area.  There  is  little 


134 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Fig.  ii6.  — South  Side  High  School,  Newark,  New  Jersey. 


Mr.  E.  F.  GuUberl.  Architect. 


ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION  OF  SENIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


i3S 


Fig.  i i 7.  — South  Side  High  School,  Newark,  New  Jersey, 


Mr.  E.  F.  Guilbert,  Architect. 


136 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


SIDE ‘HIGH  * SCHOOL—  NE 


Fig.  i 18. 


J* 

Mr.  E.  F.  GuUbert,  Architect. 


ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION  OF  SENIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


i37 


FIRST  • FLOOR  • PLAN  ~ SOUTH  - SIDE  -HIGH  -SCHOOL  -—  NEWARK.  M.-J. 


Fig.  iiq. 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


138 


doubt  that  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when  the  compul- 
sory school  age  will  be  raised  first  to  sixteen,  and  finally 
to  eighteen. 

In  rapidly  growing  communities  it  is  not  to  be  expected 
that  a high  school  will  be  built  large  enough  to  provide 
for  more  than  five  or  ten  years  of  growth.  Consequently 
every  such  school  should  be  so  planned  that  it  can  be 
economically  and  efficiently  enlarged.  For  this  purpose 
certain  facilities  should  be  constructed  at  the  outset 
with  reference  to  the  ultimate  capacity  of  the  school, 
while  other  facilities,  such  as  additional  classrooms,  may 
be  deferred. 

II.  Internal  Organization  as  Affecting  Accommoda- 
tions. — - After  determining  the  number  of  pupils  to  be 
accommodated,  the  internal  organization  of  the  high 
school  should  be  mapped  out  by  the  educational  authori- 
ties. If  the  school  which  is  to  occupy  the  building  is  a 
new  organization  and  a large  one,  the  principal  who  is 
to  administer  it  should  be  selected  at  once  and  given 
ample  time  in  which  to  work  out  every  detail.  He  should 
visit  the  best  schools  in  the  country  and  make  a scien- 
tific analysis  of  every  problem.  He  should  outline  the 
program  of  studies,  estimate  the  number  of  pupils  likely 
to  take  each  subject,  and  determine  the  number  of 
classes  in  each  subject,  so  as  to  ascertain  the  size  and 
number  of  rooms  needed  for  each  type  of  work. 

1 . Flexibility.  — As  these  estimates  can  be  merely 
provisional,  and  since  secondary  education  is  under- 
going rapid  changes  as  to  curriculums,  class  organization, 
and  methods  of  instruction,  no  effort  should  be  spared  to 
make  the  building  so  flexible  that  changes  can  be  made, 
when  necessary,  with  the  minimum  of  expense.  One  of 
the  best  devices  for  securing  flexibility  in  a building 
cons:sts  in  placing  all  heating  and  ventilating  ducts 
in  the  walls  between  the  rooms  and  the  corridors,  making 
partitions  between  rooms  non-supporting.  This  prin- 
ciple should  be  regarded  as  fundamental  in  all  high 
school  construction. 

2.  Program  of  Studies.  It  would  not  be  possible 
within  the  limits  of  this  chapter  to  discuss  the  principles 
underlying  the  organization  of  a modern  program  of 
studies.  Reference  may  be  made,  however,  to  the 
report 1 of  the  Commission  on  the  Reorganization  of 
Secondary  Education  setting  forth  the  seven  main  ob- 
jectives of  education  which  should  find  recognition  in 
the  work  of  every  high  school  student.  These  objectives 
are  held  to  be : Health,  command  of  fundamental 
processes,  worthy  home  membership,  vocation,  citizen- 
ship, worthy  use  of  leisure,  and  ethical  character. 

Four  of  these  objectives  have  a direct  bearing  upon 
buildings,  as  follows : health  demands  adequate  gymna- 
siums, shower  baths,  outdoor  equipment  for  games, 


sanitary  and  hygienic  buildings,  and  lunch  rooms  where 
pupils  may  be  seated  when  they  eat;  worthy  home- 
membership  requires  equipment  for  teaching  all  phases 
of  home-making ; vocation  calls  for  a wide  variety  of 
equipment  for  commercial,  agricultural,  and  industrial 
curriculums ; and  the  worthy  use  of  leisure  gives  a new 
significance  to  the  school  library,  equipment  for  school 
dramatics,  provision  for  school  bands  and  orchestras, 
art  instruction,  and  the  embodiment  of  good  taste  in  the 
building  itself. 

Among  the  other  factors  of  school  organization  which 
have  a distinct  bearing  upon  the  building  we  will  discuss 
the  following,  but  would  caution  the  reader  that  the 
conclusions  reached  must  be  regarded  as  tentative. 
It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  analysis  here  presented  will 
stimulate  others  to  make  detailed  investigations. 

3.  Staff  of  the  School.  — In  order  that  the  building  may 
provide  for  all  the  activities  of  the  school,  there  should  be 
an  analysis  of  the  functions  of  the  staff  of  the  school, 
and  rooms  other  than  recitation  rooms  should  be  pro- 
vided for  certain  of  these  functions.  The  larger  the 
school,  the  greater  should  be  the  subdivision  of  labor,  and 
the  more  specific  should  be  the  provisions  in  the  building 
for  the  discharge  of  these  functions.  The  following 
analysis  is  suggested : 


General  administra- 
tion vested  in  the  « 
Principal 


Instruction  — Teachers 
Supervision  of  Instruction  — Heads 
of  departments,  and  curriculum 
directors 

Educational  and  vocational  guid- 
ance — Director 

Personal  service  — Dean  of  girls 
Library  service  — Librarian  and, 
in  the  large  school,  assistant 
librarians 

Clerical  service  — Clerk  or  clerks 
Health  service  — Physical  training 
teachers,  school  physician,  and 
school  nurse 

Luncheon  service  — Director  and 
employees 

Recreation  — Director 
Janitorial  service  — Janitor  and.  in 
the  large  school,  assistant  janitors 
Heretofore  the  importance  of  the  functions  other  than 
instruction  has  frequently  been  underestimated.  With- 
out curriculum  directors  instruction  has  been  thought 
of  too  largely  in  terms  of  subjects  of  study  with  too  little 
reference  to  the  adaptation  of  these  studies  to  larger 
ends.  Educational  and  vocational  guidance  has  been 
left  to  the  individual  teachers  without  the  broader 
prospective  which  a director  could  establish.  The 


l 


1 Card'nrl  PEnc'ples  of  Secondary  Education,  Bulletin  35  for  1918,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education. 


ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION  OF  SENIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


i39 


administration  of  the  library  has  been  placed  in  the  hands 
of  teachers  without  training  in  library  methods  and  with- 
out a knowledge  of  the  best  books  for  high  school  students. 
Inadequate  clerical  service  has  overburdened  the  teachers 
with  clerical  routine  which  they  are  unable  to  discharge 
effectively.  The  absence  of  school  nurses  makes  it 
impossible  for  the  advice  of  the  school  physician  to  be 
carried  out.  The  lunch  room  must  have  a competent 
director  in  order  that  the  health  of  pupils  may  be  pro- 
moted. A director  of  recreation  can  organize  school 
pageants  and  put  the  recreation  of  young  people  on  a 
high  plane.  An  adequate  janitorial  service  is  necessary 
in  order  that  the  building  may  be  sanitary  and  embody 
high  standards  of  cleanliness. 

Heads  of  departments,  curriculum  directors,  and  the 
director  of  recreation  will  ordinarily  be  teachers  who 
give  only  a part  of  their  time  to  these  administrative 
duties.  In  the  medium-sized  school  the  director  of 
educational  and  vocational  guidance  and  the  dean  of 
girls  may  also  do  some  teaching. 

The  main  office  may  well  accommodate  the  clerks, 
while  the  principal  and  some  of  the  other  administrators 
should  have  offices  connecting  with  the  main  office. 
In  the  large  school  the  heads  of  some  of  the  departments 
should  have  offices  which  correlate  with  the  other  rooms 
of  their  respective  departments.  The  offices  of  heads 
of  the  English  and  social  studies  departments  should 
correlate  with  the  library,  which  is  really  the  laboratory 
for  those  departments.  The  offices  of  the  health  service 
may  well  correlate  with  the  gymnasium. 

4.  Size  of  Laboratories  and  Shops.  It  is  a common 
error  to  make  laboratories  and  shops  too  small.  Ade- 
quate space  in  these  rooms  is  necessary  in  order  to 
accommodate  a sufficient  variety  of  equipment  of  proper 
size.  Shops  should  also  contain  space  for  the  assem- 
bling of  large  pieces.  In  rooms  for  subjects  like  me- 
chanical drawing  and  bookkeeping  there  should  be 
space  for  a few  advanced  students  to  do  some  addi- 
tional individual  work  in  their  free  periods  at  the  same 
time  that  regular  classes  are  being  instructed  in  the 
same  room,  as  some  of  this  individual  work  can  be  con- 
ducted with  the  occasional  help  of  the  teacher. 

In  some  kinds  of  shop  work  and  in  mechanical  draw- 
ing it  is  often  feasible  and  desirable  to  place  more  than 
one  teacher  in  a given  room.  By  so  doing  younger 
assistants  may  have  the  constant  advice  of  more  ex- 
perienced teachers. 

The  advantages  of  a general  shop  containing  a wide 
variety  of  equipment  should  be  considered,  especially 
for  the  small  and  medium-sized  high  school. 

5.  Size  of  Classrooms.  — The  size  of  classrooms  should 
be  determined  by  the  size  of  classes  that  can  be  taught 
effectively.  As  will  be  discussed  later,  a classroom  should 


not  be  designed  to  accommodate  study  pupils  in  rear 
seats  — a plan  sometimes  used,  but  highly  inadvisable. 
Neither  should  classrooms  have  additional  seats  in 
order  to  accommodate  more  home-room  sittings,  because 
study  halls,  commercial  rooms,  and  many  rooms  de- 
signed primarily  as  for  other  special  purposes  can  also 
furnish  home-room  accommodations,  thereby  effecting 
great  economy  and  efficiency.  The  number  of  home- 
room sittings  should  be  ascertained  in  every  building, 
but  the  real  problem  is  that  of  providing  a sufficient 
number  of  rooms,  of  various  types  and  of  proper  size, 
for  all  the  activities  of  the  school. 

It  may  be  laid  down  as  a general  principle  that  classes 
of  more  than  30  pupils  are  not  desirable.  It  is,  however, 
impossible  to  arrange  a schedule  so  that  all  classes  will 
be  uniform  in  size.  Some  classes  are  necessarily  quite 
small.  To  avoid  having  too  many  small  classes,  with 
the  resulting  high  cost  of  instruction,  it  is  necessary  in 
some  schools  to  avoid  making  two  sections  of  a class  in 
a given  subject  when  the  total  number  does  not  exceed 
36  pupils.  Since  a classroom  seating  36  pupils,  with 
six  rows  and  six  seats  in  a row,  makes  a good  classroom, 
it  may  not  be  inadvisable  in  some  large  schools  where 
strict  economy  must  be  exercised  to  adopt  36  as  the 
standard  size  for  classrooms,  but  in  schools  with  greater 
financial  ability  where  classes  can  be  kept  down  in  size, 
30  is  a wiser  standard. 

In  medium-sized  schools,  especially  where  many  of 
the  teachers  are  inexperienced,  the  standard  should  not 
exceed  30. 

In  small  schools,  of  say  less  than  200  pupils,  it  may  be 
desirable  to  reduce  the  standard  to  24-pupil  classrooms. 

On  account  of  the  large  number  of  small  classes  found 
in  most  schools  some  persons  favor  the  construction  of  a 
number  of  small  recitation  rooms.  This  practice,  how- 
ever, is  open  to  serious  objection,  because  the  saving 
effected  in  space  does  not  compensate  for  the  loss  in 
teaching  efficiency  involved  in  the  change  in  room  every 
time  that  the  teacher  has  a small  class.  Progressive 
teachers  collect  and  arrange  illustrative  material  for 
their  work,  adding  greatly  to  the  effectiveness  of  instruc- 
tion. This  material  cannot  well  be  moved  from  room 
to  room  between  periods. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  will  occasionally  be  found  desir- 
able to  have  classes  larger  than  the  standard  adopted. 
To  accommodate  such  classes  there  will  be  need  for  a 
few  classrooms  larger  than  the  standard.  Such  rooms 
may  accommodate  36  pupils  in  schools  where  30  is  the 
standard  and  30  pupils  where  24  is  the  standard.  The 
saving  effected  by  having  only  a few  large  rooms  and 
keeping  the  size  of  all  the  other  classrooms  down  to  a 
smaller  standard  is  very  considerable.  In  fact  the  saving 
warrants  the  loss  of  efficiency  involved  in  the  compara- 


140 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


tively  few  times  that  a teacher  must  change  rooms  because 
of  oversized  classes. 

6.  Actual  Size  of  Classes.  — • On  account  of  promo- 
tion by  subjects  and  the  variety  of  courses  offered  in 
the  modern  high  school  there  is  necessarily  considerable 
variation  in  the  size  of  classes.  When  the  number  of 
periods  in  the  school  day  is  increased  and  the  science 
of  schedule-making  is  perfected,  it  will  be  possible  to 
have  less  variation  than  is  frequently  found  to-day, 
thereby  increasing  the  efficiency  of  the  schools. 

The  following  tables  show  the  actual  variations  in 
size  of  classes  as  revealed  by  a survey  of  Massachusetts 
high  schools  made  by  the  author  in  1916-1917.  These 
tables  give  the  number  of  classes  and  percentage  of  classes 
of  various  sizes  in  240  high  schools.  The  only  public 
high  schools  not  included  were  the  15  Boston  high 
schools  in  which  the  conditions  were  abnormal,  and 
one  small-sized  high  school.  To  show  the  conditions 
in  schools  of  different  sizes  the  schools  were  grouped 
as  follows : 

Group  I.  42  high  schools  each  having  over  500  pupils 
Group  II.  46  high  schools  each  having  201  to  500  pupils 

Group  III.  48  high  schools  each  having  101  to  200  pupils 

Group  IV.  52  high  schools  each  having  51  to  100  pupils 

Group  V.  52  high  schools  each  having  1 to  50  pupils 


Number  of  Classes  or  Various  Sizes 
(Exclusive  of  Classes  in  Music  and  Physical  Training) 


Size  or  Class 

Classes  in 

Group  I 

Group  II 

Group  III 

Group  IV 

Group  V 

Total 

1-  S pupils  . 

96 

IOC 

144 

190 

254 

■'T 

00 

6-10  pupils 

37i 

397 

306 

404 

309 

1,787 

11-15  pupils 

965 

616 

458 

320 

230 

2,589 

16-20  pupils 

1,874 

859 

434 

269 

91 

3,527 

21-25  pupils 

2,181 

754 

292 

130 

36 

3,393 

26-30  pupils 

i,8S4 

535 

188 

33 

7 

2,617 

31-35  pupils  • 

876 

273 

70 

l6 

5 

1,240 

Over  35  pupils  . 

322 

1 2 I 

26 

8 

477 

Total  . . 

8,539 

3,65s 

1,918 

i,37o 

932 

16,414 

Number  of  high 

schools  . . 

42 

46 

48 

52 

52 

24O 

Per  Cent  of  Classes  of  Various  Sizes 
(Exclusive  of  Classes  in  Music  and  Physical  Training) 


Size  of  Class 

Per  Cent  of 

Classes  in 

Group  I 

Group  II 

Group  III 

Group  IV 

Group  V 

Total 

1-  5 pupils 

I 

3 

8 

14 

27 

4.6 

6-10  pupils 

4 

II 

l6 

29 

33 

10.9 

11-15  pupils 

II 

17 

24 

23 

25 

15.8 

16-20  pupils 

22 

23 

23 

20 

IO 

21-5 

21-25  pupils 

26 

21 

IS 

9 

4 

20.7 

26-30  pupils 

22 

15 

IO 

2 

I 

16.0 

31-35  pupils  . 

IO 

7 

4 

I 

I 

7.6 

Over  35  pupils  . 

4 

3 

I 

I 

2.9 

Total  . . 

IOO 

IOO 

IOO 

IOO 

IOO 

100.0 

Number  of  high 

schools  . . 

42 

46 

48 

52 

52 

240 

From  the  above  tables  it  appears  that: 

35-pupil  rooms  would  accommodate  — 

96%  of  the  classes  in  schools  of  over  500  pupils. 

97%  of  the  classes  in  schools  of  201  to  500  pupils. 
99%  to  100%  of  the  classes  in  schools  of  not  over  200 
pupils. 

30-pupil  rooms  would  accommodate  — 

86%  of  the  classes  in  schools  of  over  500  pupils. 

90%  of  the  classes  in  schools  of  201  to  500  pupils. 
95%  t°  100%  of  the  classes  in  schools  of  not  over  200 
pupils. 

25-pupil  rooms  would  accommodate  — 

85%  of  the  classes  in  schools  of  101  to  200  pupils. 
96%  to  98%  of  the  classes  in  schools  of  not  over  100 
pupils. 

In  connection  with  these  tables  it  should  be  stated 
that  many  of  the  schools  did  not  show  such  a wide  varia- 
tion in  size  of  classes  as  did  others.  Some  of  the  schools 
had  but  five  periods  in  the  school  day,  thus  making 
readjustments  in  the  size  of  classes  difficult.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  vast  majority  of  schools  promoted  but 
once  a year,  thereby  tending  to  diminish  the  number  of 
undersized  classes.  With  annual  promotions,  an  in- 
crease in  the  number  of  periods  in  the  school  day,  and 
continual  improvement  in  the  science  of  schedule- 
making, it  may  be  possible  to  reduce  the  proportion  of 
oversized  and  undersized  classes  and  consequently  to 
increase  the  proportion  of  normal-sized  classes. 

7.  Provisions  for  Study.  — An  important  factor  in 
educational  efficiency  consists  in  the  success  with  which 
pupils  use  the  time  available  for  study  at  school.  An 
important  factor  in  the  efficiency  of  a building,  there- 
fore, consists  in  satisfactory  provisions  for  study.  To 
solve  this  problem  it  is  necessary  to  determine  the  kind 
of  provisions  to  be  made,  the  number  of  study-sittings 
required,  the  most  desirable  size  of  study  halls,  and 
their  articulation  with  the  school  library. 

(a)  Kind  of  Provisions  to  be  Made.  — The  different 
methods  of  providing  for  study  may  be  analyzed  as 
follows : 


In  class  periods 
(Directed  study) 


In  free  periods 

(Undirected  study) 


In  same  period  and  room  as 

recitation,  and  in  charge  of 
teacher  of  given  subject 
f Study  hall 
Quiet  plan  j Library 

i Spare  classrooms 
Rear-seat  plan 


The  term  directed  study  may  be  applied  to  study  in  a 
given  subject  under  the  direct  guidance  of,  and  in  the 
recitation  room  of,  the  teacher  of  that  subject.  This 
type  is  sometimes  called  supervised  study,  but  the  term 
is  not  satisfactory  because  all  study  should  be  super- 
vised to  some  extent.  Directed  study  is  coming  to  be 


142 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


recognized  as  of  great  importance,  some  of  the  chief 
reasons  being  as  follows : (i)  Pupils  may  be  taught  the 
most  effective  methods  of  work  in  the  particular  subject. 

(2)  The  teacher  may  gain  a clearer  idea  of  the  needs  of 
the  pupils,  both  individually  and  collectively,  and  as 
a result  be  better  able  to  adapt  the  work  to  those  needs. 

(3)  A better  mutual  understanding  and  a more  helpful 
attitude  may  be  established  between  pupil  and  teacher. 

To  provide  for  directed  study  the  class  period,  in- 
stead of  being  only  40  to  50  minutes,  is  lengthened  to 
60  to  90  minutes,  thereby  providing  for  both  recitation 
and  study  in  the  same  period  without  change  of  room 
during  the  period. 

The  term  undirected  study  may  be  applied  when 
different  pupils  are  studying  different  subjects  in  any 
given  room  and  when,  as  a consequence,  the  teacher  in 
charge  generally  gives  no  specific  guidance  but  exer- 
cises only  general  supervision  to  see  that  all  the  pupils 
keep  busy. 

Undirected  study  should  be  conducted  in  study 
halls  especially  designed  and  set  apart  for  the  purpose, 
or  in  the  library,  or  in  classrooms  which  are  not  used 
at  the  time  for  recitations. 


The  plan  whereby  rear  seats  in  a classroom  are  utilized 
for  study  is  objectionable  for  three  reasons : (1)  Study 
pupils  are  not  able  to  concentrate  their  attention  upon 
the  work  in  hand ; (2)  the  teacher  is  not  able  to  give 
even  occasional  assistance  to  the  study  pupils  without 
taking  attention  away  from  the  recitation  group ; and 
(3)  the  teacher  is  not  able  to  make  the  work  for  the 
recitation  group  vitally  interesting  for  fear  of  disturb- 
ing the  study  pupils.  The  third  of  these  reasons  for 
not  using  rear  seats  for  study  is  the  most  important. 
A teacher  once  admitted  that  he  had  actually  abandoned 
a vital  and  interesting  method  of  teaching  a given  sub- 
ject because,  he  said,  it  was  not  suitable  for  use  in  a 
room  in  which  other  pupils  were  studying.  Undoubt- 
edly many  other  teachers  have  stultified  their  methods 
for  this  reason.  Any  plan  of  organization  which  dis- 
courages good  instruction  is  deplorable. 

In  conclusion,  therefore,  as  much  of  the  study  as 
possible  should  be  of  the  first  type,  namely  “ directed 
study,”  and  all  undirected  study  should  be  in  study 
halls,  or  libraries,  or  classrooms  not  used  at  the  time  for 
recitations. 

( b ) Number  of  Study-sittings  Required.  — Distinct 


ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION  OF  SENIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


i43 


GROVER.  CLEVELAND  HlCH  SCHOOL 


• Lours  M .0 

WM-B-rTTJ4^.  AHrLHlTECLT.  5T- LOCJIS  MO 


Fig.  122. 


144 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


G£QV^  CL£ViLAND  HI6H  SCHOOL 

5TLOUI5  JA.O  ■ 

W M B I TT/^ElL • ARCHITECT-  6T  LOUI5-  MO- 


Fig.  123. 


ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION  OF  SENIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


i45 


Grgveil  Cleveland  hi6h  school 

• X,OUl5  • M.O  ■ 

WM,  B.  ITTN£,K_  AHOHlT£C,T  3T  LOUIS.  MjO  • 

Fig.  124. 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


CtRdvetl  Cleveland  high  school 

ST  LOU  I 5 MO 

WM- B JTTVWEJL,  ARCHITECT-  5T  LOUIS  Mo.. 

Fig.  125. 


ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION  OF  SENIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


i47 


study-sittings  need  not  be  provided  for  directed  study, 
as  it  is  conducted  in  regular  classrooms  in  the  length- 
ened school  periods. 

In  a large  well-organized  school  the  number  of  pupils 
in  undirected  study  need  not  vary  greatly  in  the  dif- 
ferent periods,  if  the  entire  plant  is  used  economically. 
Nevertheless  there  will  be  some  variation.  To  allow 
for  such  variation  the  number  of  study-sittings  should 
probably  be  from  15%  to  25%  greater  than  the  average 
number  used.  In  medium-sized  schools  of  from  300  to 
500  pupils,  the  number  of  study-sittings  might  exceed 
the  average  used  by  probably  20%  to  40%.  In  any 
period  in  which  this  margin  does  not  suffice,  it  is  prob- 
able that  classrooms  not  used  for  regular  classes  at  that 
time  and  the  library  may  take  care  of  those  who  cannot 
be  seated  in  the  study  halls. 

The  average  number  of  pupils  who  will  need  study- 
sittings  may  be  obtained  by  the  formula, 

a — pX  — 
w 

in  which 

a = average  number  of  study-sittings, 
p = pupils  to  be  accommodated  in  the  school, 
f = average  number  of  free  periods  of  each  pupil 
per  week, 

w= periods  in  the  schedule  per  week. 

For  instance,  in  a school  planned  for  1000  pupils,  if 
each  pupil  is  likely  to  have  6 free  periods  for  undirected 
study  in  a week  of  35  periods,  then 

Average  number  of  study-sittings  occupied  = 1000  X 
A— 171* 

In  such  a school  the  study  halls  should  provide  for  a 
margin  of  15  per  cent  to  25  per  cent,  or  a total  of  197  to 
214  pupils. 

(c)  Size  of  Study  Halls.  — Observation  leads  the 
author  of  this  chapter  to  regard  as  ideal  a study  hall 
seating  72  pupils,  with  six  rows  and  twelve  seats  in  a 
row,  in  which  the  teacher’s  desk  is  on  a platform  about 
15  inches  in  height.  Aside  from  the  problem  of  disci- 
pline, a larger  study  hall  is  not  likely  to  be  efficient,  be- 
cause the  attention  of  pupils  is  diverted  to  some  ex- 
tent by  the  normal  entrance  and  exit  of  pupils,  and 
by  other  inevitable  interruptions  which  increase  in  fre- 
quency as  the  number  of  pupils  is  increased. 

(d)  Articulation  of  Study  Halls  with  the  Library.  — 
It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  study  hall  should 
articulate  with  the  library  by  means  of  a door  or  pas- 
sageway. By  this  method  a pupil  may  have  free  ac- 
cess to  the  library  during  any  study  period  without 
the  necessity  of  securing  a pass.  This  plan  relieves 
both  the  teacher  in  charge  of  the  study  hall  and  the 
librarian  of  needless  clerical  work,  and  results  in  greatly 

1 Bulletin  50  for  1917  of  th 


increased  use  of  the  library.  The  efficiency  of  the 
library  is  greatly  impaired  under  other  plans. 

In  a school  requiring  two  study  halls,  they  should  be 
located  with  the  library  between  them.  If  more  than 
two  study  halls  are  needed,  each  pupil  should  have 
certain  study  periods  in  those  study  halls  which  do 
articulate  with  the  library. 

8.  Time- Allotment  for  Physical  Training. — • The 
number  of  pupils  who  can  be  accommodated  by  a given 
gymnasium  will  depend  upon  the  time-allotment  for 
physical  training  and  the  length  of  the  school  day. 

The  efficiency  of  many  high-school  gymnasiums  is 
reduced  almost  to  the  vanishing  point  by  an  inade- 
quate time-allotment  for  the  work.  A single  period  of 
40  to  50  minutes  makes  it  impossible  for  the  students 
to  change  to  gymnasium  suits,  obtain  the  vigorous 
exercises  or  recreative  games  necessary  for  health,  and 
follow  these  with  the  shower  bath.  A period  of  60 
minutes  is  hardly  adequate  for  these  purposes,  especially 
for  the  girls,  as  they  require  more  time  than  the  boys 
for  the  showers  and  dressing.  The  following  quotation 
from  a report  of  the  Commission  on  the  Reorganization 
of  Secondary  Education,  entitled  “ Physical  Education 
in  Secondary  Schools,”  1 shows  how  double  periods  for 
physical  education  may  be  inserted  in  a high  school 
schedule  and  at  the  same  time  put  the  gymnasium 
floor  to  continuous  use,  thereby  accommodating  the 
maximum  number  of  pupils. 


“Sample  Arrangement  of  Double  Gymnasium  Periods  in  a High- 
School  Schedule 


148 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


“ This  schedule  provides  for  seven  classes  of  50  pupils 
each;  that  is, ^theoretically  350  pupils  per  day  per 
gymnasium,  or  875  different  pupils  on  the  basis  of  two 
double  periods  per  week  for  each  pupil.  This  arrange- 
ment uses  the  gymnasium  continuously  and  allows  for 
alternation  of  two  teachers  in  instruction  in  hygiene, 
physical  education  practice,  and  supervision  of  the  bath- 
ing. Three  hours  of  instruction  during  the  school  day, 
plus  two  hours  on  the  playground  and  in  the  gymnasium 
or  pool  after  school,  should  be  the  maximum  require- 
ment for  one  teacher.  The  remainder  of  the  day  is 
needed  for  administration  and  the  keeping  up  of  equip- 
ment, records,  etc.” 

9.  Number  of  Periods  in  the  School  Day.  — The  num- 
ber of  periods  in  the  school  day  has  a direct  bearing  upon 
the  accommodations  needed.  If  the  school  day  con- 
tains only  five  or  six  periods  there  will  be  need  for  rela- 
tively few  study-sittings.  With  an  increase  in  the  num- 
ber of  periods  more  study-sittings  will  be  needed,  but 
the  number  of  classrooms  may  be  reduced,  as  each  room 
can  be  used  a greater  number  of  periods.  In  a large 
school  an  increase  in  the  number  of  periods  will  also 
decrease  the  need  for  duplication  of  laboratories  and 
shops  of  any  given  kind,  will  permit  the  gymnasium 
to  be  used  for  a larger  number  of  classes,  and  will  per- 
mit more  extended  use  of  all  equipment. 

The  number  of  periods  in  the  school  day  cannot  be  sat- 
isfactorily determined  without  considering  the  desirable 
length  of  period  and  the  desirable  length  of  school  day. 

(a)  Length  of  Period.  — Periods  uniformly  less  than 
40  minutes  are  generally  regarded  as  too  short.  The 
majority  of  accredited  high  schools  have  periods  40  to 
50  minutes  in  length.  Moreover,  a single  period  of  40 
to  50  minutes  is  too  short  for  much  of  the  work  in  house- 
hold arts,  industrial  arts,  and  laboratory  science.  Con- 
sequently, in  the  modern  school  having  40-  or  50- 
minute  periods,  such  work  as  cannot  be  successfully 
conducted  in  single  periods  is  given  two  or  three  con- 
secutive periods,  called  double  or  triple  periods.  Long 
periods  are  also  necessary  for  physical  training,  as  in- 
dicated in  the  preceding  section. 

In  some  schools  directed  study  has  been  introduced 
in  selected  subjects,  assigning  double  periods  to  them. 
If,  however,  all  subjects  are  given  double  40-minute 
periods  daily,  a very  long  school  day  will  result.  To 
allow  for  directed  study  without  establishing  such  a 
long  school  day,  some  schools  are  adopting  the  60- 
minute  period.  This  period  is  well  adapted  to  labora- 
tory work  and  drawing  and  some  kinds  of  shopwork, 
while  the  double  60-minute  period  is  none  too  long  for 
other  kinds  of  shopwork.  The  60-minute  period,  how- 
ever, is  not  quite  long  enough  for  physical  training, 
especially  for  girls’  classes. 


A third  plan,  recommended  by  the  author  in  a sur- 
vey of  the  Clinton  (Mass.)  High  School,  consists  of  a 
combination  of  long  and  short  periods  so  arranged 
that  every  subject  which  comes  daily  has  during  the  week 
two  or  three  65-minute  periods  and  three  or  two  short 
40-minute  periods.  This  plan  provides  for  the  limited 
introduction  of  supervised  study  in  such  a form  as  to 
increase  the  probability  of  its  success,  eliminates  the 
necessity  of  scheduling  special  double  periods  for  labo- 
ratory work,  and  gives  gymnasium  periods  of  65  and 
80  minutes.  (For  details,  see  appendix.) 

( b ) Length  of  School  Day.  — By  the  net  length  of 
the  school  day  we  mean  the  time  exclusive  of  inter- 
missions for  lunch  or  recess.  A net  school  day  of  less 
than  five  hours  should  be  condemned  as  too  short. 
It  does  not  permit  the  school  to  devote  sufficient  time 
to  physical  training,  drawing,  music,  household  arts, 
and  shopwork.  It  allows  the  pupil  very  little  time  for 
study  at  school  and  for  the  use  of  the  school  library. 
The  present  tendency  may  be  said  to  be  in  favor  of  a 
school  day  of  six  hours  net,  with  a seven-hour  day  for 
pupils  taking  a large  amount  of  shopwork. 

The  conception  that  the  school  day  must  begin  and 
end  at  the  same  time  for  all  pupils  and  for  all  teachers 
will  undoubtedly,  and  should,  disappear  in  the  well- 
organized  comprehensive  high  school.  The  tendency 
to  break  down  the  fixed  school  day  will  be  further  in- 
creased with  the  development  of  part-time,  or  con- 
tinuation education,  as  pupils  will  come  and  go  at  all 
times  in  the  day. 

In  some  schools  many  pupils  find  it  necessary  to  work 
afternoons.  These  pupils  should  have  every  encourage- 
ment to  continue  their  schooling.  At  the  same  time,  it  is 
not  fair  to  reduce  the  schooling  of  the  other  pupils. 
To  adjust  the  work  to  these  two  groups  of  pupils  the 
schedule  may  be  so  arranged  from  year  to  year  that 
pupils  who  must  work  afternoons  may  obtain  a com- 
plete high-school  course  by  taking  less  work  each  year 
and  by  spending  one  extra  year  in  school.  By  this 
plan  they  will  not  be  placed  under  an  excessive  strain 
and  the  quality  of  their  work  may  be  preserved,  while 
the  pupils  who  can  devote  all  their  time  to  school  work 
may  complete  a standard  high-school  course  in  the 
regular  number  of  years.  (For  details  of  such  a plan, 
see  appendix.) 

III.  Estimate  and  Tabulation  of  Accommodations 
Needed.  — After  working  out  the  internal  organiza- 
tion of  the  high  school,  an  estimate  may  be  made  of  the 
number  of  rooms  of  each  kind  needed,  the  kinds  of 
equipment,  the  number  of  pupils  to  be  accommodated, 
and  finally  the  area  or  dimensions  of  each  room.  If 
these  conclusions  are  presented  in  some  tabular  form 
it  will  be  much  easier  to  analyze,  criticize,  and  com- 


ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION  OF  SENIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


149 


prehend  them,  and  to  check  up  the  sketch  plans  after 
they  are  prepared.  A brief  tabular  form  is  suggested 
in  this  chapter,  but  it  would  probably  be  desirable  to 
add  more  details  regarding  equipment  and  to  give 
the  area  or  dimensions  of  each  room. 

1.  Multiple  Uses. — -Many  high-school  rooms,  if 
used  for  only  one  special  purpose,  would  be  unoccupied 
most  of  the  time.  Furthermore,  flexibility  of  organiza- 
tion is  promoted  when  there  is  some  leeway  in  the  num- 
ber of  rooms  available  for  a given  purpose.  Con- 
sequently, rooms  which  are  not  likely  to  be  used  con- 
tinuously for  the  distinctive  purpose  for  which  they  are 
especially  designed  should,  whenever  feasible,  be  so 
constructed  that  they  may  be  used  at  other  times  for 
some  supplementary  purpose  or  purposes. 

In  a small  or  medium-sized  high  school,  it  is  not  fea- 
sible to  include  so  great  a variety  of  rooms  as  would  be 
appropriate  in  a large  high  school.  If,  however,  the  prin- 
ciple of  multiple  uses  is  utilized  so  that  rooms  may  be 
used  continuously,  for  different  purposes  at  different 
times,  then  a small  building  can  provide  for  all  the  more 
important  needs  of  the  school  at  reasonable  cost. 

The  application  of  the  principle  of  multiple  uses  in 
small  high  schools  may  be  illustrated  as  follows : 

(a)  Laboratory- Recitation  Rooms.  — In  small  and 
medium-sized  schools  physics  laboratories  are  seldom 
used  continuously  for  physics  classes.  Blackboards  and 
tablet-armchairs  are  desirable  as  supplementary  equip- 
ment in  such  a room  for  classwork  in  physics.  With 
such  supplementary  equipment,  the  room  may  readily 
be  used  for  recitations  in  other  subjects  as  well. 

Biological  laboratories,  if  equipped  with  low  tables  and 
chairs,  may  also  be  used  for  recitations  in  other  subjects. 

In  the  small  or  medium-sized  school  it  is  often  de- 
sirable to  offer  physics  and  chemistry  in  alternate  years. 
Hence,  one  laboratory  may  be  equipped  with  convert- 
ible tables  and  used  for  both  sciences,  and  also  if  equipped 
with  tablet-armchairs  may  be  used  for  recitations  in 
other  subjects. 

( b ) Gymnasium- Assembly  Hall.  — Communities  build- 
ing small  or  medium-sized  schools  often  find  that  they 
cannot  afford  to  build  both  an  adequate  gymnasium 
and  an  assembly  hall  large  enough  for  some  of  the  most 
important  occasions.  In  such  cases  it  is  far  better  to 
construct  one  large  room  which  may  be  used  for  both 
purposes.  A gymnasium  floor  should  be  50  feet  by 
70  or  80  feet  with  a clear  height  of  not  less  than  18  feet. 
To  serve  also  as  an  auditorium,  such  a room  should  have 
a stage  of  generous  size.  When  this  room  is  used  for 
games  to  which  spectators  are  invited  the  stage  may 
seat  the  spectators. 

1 Under  certain  conditions  and  where  geart  economy  is  needed,  it  may 
on  other  days.  The  better  plan  is  to  have  entirely  separate  equipment. 


2.  Sample  Tabulation  for  a School  of  About  200  Pupils. 
— Every  high  school  building  presents  its  own  problems. 
No  solution  for  one  community  will  apply  without 
modification  to  any  other  community. 

The  following  tabulation  might  apply  to  a school  to 
accommodate  210  pupils,  having  a staff  consisting  of  a 
principal,  eight  to  ten  teachers,  including  a teacher- 
librarian  and  physical  training  teachers  devoting  part  of 
their  time  to  other  subjects,  and  also  a clerk  and  a 
janitor. 


Room 

Distinctive 

Purposes 

Supplemen- 
tary Uses 

Chief  Equipment 

Portion  of 
Time  Usable 
by  Teacher 

Pupils 
Accommo- 
dated in 
Home 
Rooms 

I. 

Gymnasium 

Auditorium 

None 

Gymnasium  appara- 
tus, removable  seats 

None 

2. 

Library 

None 

Bookshelves 

Display  boards 
Magazine  racks 

Loan  desk 

Readers’  tables  for  30 
pupils 

Teacher- 

librarian 

None 

3- 

Study  hall 

None 

72  desks 

Teachers  in 
free  periods 

72 

4- 

Shop 

None 

Benches 

Lathes 

Diversified  power  ma- 
chinery 

1 to  all 

None 

5- 

Kitchen 

None 

Ranges 

Refrigerator 

Tables 

2 

None 

6. 

Sewing 

Recitations 

Tables  and  chairs 

All 

24 

7- 

Drawing 

Recitations 

Drawing  desks 

All 

None 

8. 

Bookkeeping 

Recitations 

30  flat-top  tables 

All 

30 

9* 

Typewriting 

None 

Typewriters 

1 to  * 

None 

IO. 

Bhysical- 

chemical 

laboratory 

Recitations 

Convertible  labora- 
tory tables 
Tablet-armchairs 

All 

None 

II. 

Biological- 

agricultural 

laboratory 

Recitations 

Plants 

Animals 

Low  tables  and  chairs 

All 

24 

12. 

Recitations 

Desks 

All 

30 

13- 

Recitations 

Desks 

All 

30 

In  addition  to  the  above  rooms  the  following  ac- 
commodations will  be  needed. 

1.  Principal’s  office.  In  the  small  school,  supplies 
and  text  books  may  be  conveniently  kept  in  closets  in 
this  room. 

2.  Teachers’ room.  Designed  primarily  for  the  women 
teachers,  this  room  may  also  be  used  as  an  emergency 
sick  room  for  students. 

3.  Boys’  coat  room  and  toilets. 

4.  Girls’  coat  room  and  toilets. 

5.  Dressing  room  and  showers  for  boys.1 

6.  Dressing  room  and  showers  for  girls.1 

7.  Heating  plant,  including  janitor’s  office. 

8.  Storage. 

9.  Lunch  room. 

It  should  be  noted  that  only  two  regular  recitation 
rooms  are  needed  in  the  above  scheme.  This  plan  of 
computation  is  in  marked  contrast  with  the  usual  method 
of  beginning  with  recitation  rooms  and  adding  special 

be  feasible  for  the  boys  to  use  this  equipment  on  certain  days  and  girls 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


ISO 

rooms.  The  economy  secured  by  the  plan  here  employed 
is  apparent. 

3.  Sample  Tabulation  for  a School  of  About  400  Pupils. 

In  planning  a building  for  400  pupils,  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  utilize  the  principle  of  multiple  uses  as  exten- 
sively as  in  a school  to  accommodate  half  the  number 
of  pupils. 

The  following  tabulation  might  apply  to  a school  to 
accommodate  418  pupils,  having  a staff  consisting  of  a 
principal,  sixteen  to  eighteen  teachers,  including  a 
librarian  and  two  physical  training  teachers  who  devote 
a part  of  their  time  to  teaching  other  subjects,  and  also 
a clerk  and  a janitor. 


Room 

Distinctive 

Purposes 

Supplemen- 
tary Uses 

Chiee  Equipment 

Portion  op 
Time  Usable 
by  Teacher 

Pupils 
Accommo- 
dated in 
Home 
Rooms 

I. 

Auditorium 

Music 

classes 

Public 

speaking 

Dramatics 

} to  all 

None 

2. 

Gymnasium 

Socials 

All 

None 

3 ■ 

Library 

None 

Book  shelves 

Loan  desk 

Display  boards 
Magazine  racks 
Readers’  tables 

Librarian 

None 

4- 

Study  ball 

None 

Desks 

Teachers  in 
free  periods 

72 

5- 

Shops 

None 

Benches 

Lathes 

Diversified  power  ma- 
chinery 

All 

None 

6. 

Kitchen 

None 

Tables 

Ranges 

Refrigerators 

All 

None 

7- 

Sewing 

Recitations 

Tables  and  chairs 

All 

30 

8. 

Art 

Recitations 

Drawing  tables 

Chairs 

All 

30 

9- 

Mechanical 

drawing 

Recitations 

Drawing  tables 

Chairs 

All 

30 

10. 

Physics 

laboratory 

Recitations 

Tables 

Chairs 

All 

3° 

II. 

Chemical 

laboratory 

Recitations 

Tables 

Chairs 

All 

None 

12. 

Biological- 

agricultural 

laboratory 

Recitations 

Plants 

Animals 

Low  tables  with  chairs 

All 

30 

13- 

Bookkeeping 

Recitations 

Flat-top  desks 

All 

40 

14. 

Typewriting 

None 

Typewriters 

J to  all 

None 

15- 

Recitations 

Desks 

All 

36 

16. 

Recitations 

Desks 

All 

30 

17. 

Recitations 

Desks 

All 

30 

18. 

Recitations 

Desks 

All 

30 

19- 

Recitations 

Desks 

All 

30 

In  addition  to  the  above  rooms  the  same  additional 
accommodations  should  be  provided  as  were  outlined 
for  the  school  with  210  pupils. 

The  above  tabulations  may  be  suggestive  as  indicating 
a method  of  presenting  conclusions,  but  should  not  be 
taken  as  indicating  the  most  desirable  solution  for  any 
given  community.  The  importance  of  adapting  a build- 
ing to  the  needs  of  the  community  and  of  working  out 
the  organization  of  the  school  before  making  the  sketch 
plans  cannot  be  overestimated. 

Appendix.  — - The  following  quotation  from  the  eighty- 
second  Annual  Report  of  the  Massachusetts  Board  of 
Education  gives  the  recommendations  of  the  author 


in  his  survey  of  the  Clinton  (Mass.)  High  School  with 
reference  to  the  length  of  recitation  periods  and  of  the 
school  day,  the  limited  introduction  of  supervised  study, 
and  special  provisions  for  pupils  who  must  work  after- 
noons and  evenings.  These  recommendations  have  a 
bearing  upon  the  planning  of  high-school  buildings. 

A Schedule  Providing  for  the  Limited  Introduction 
of  Supervised  Study.  — Supervised  study  is  now  recog- 
nized as  a desirable  feature  of  secondary  education. 
Many  schools,  however,  find  serious  practical  diffi- 
culties in  its  introduction.  If  the  number  of  periods 
in  the  daily  schedule  is  reduced  there  will  be  serious 
administrative  difficulties,  including  conflicts  in  pupils’ 
schedules,  whereas  if  the  school  day  is  lengthened  ex- 
cessively fatigue  on  the  part  of  both  pupils  and  teachers 
may  result.  Moreover,  few  teachers  have  mastered 
the  technique  of  supervised  study,  and  there  is  a strong 
tendency  on  their  part  to  keep  the  pupils  reciting  for  the 
entire  period,  thus  defeating  the  purposes  for  which 
the  periods  were  lengthened.  In  order  to  avoid  these 
pitfalls  and  to  meet  certain  other  conditions,  the  follow- 
ing recommendations  were  made  with  regard  to  the 
daily  schedule : 

At  the  present  time  the  high  school  day  begins  at  8.15  and  closes 
at  1.05.  Five  minutes  are  devoted  to  opening  exercises.  There 
are  six  forty-minute  periods,  with  five  minutes  for  change  of 
classes  between  the  first  and  second  periods,  the  third  and  fourth 
periods,  and  the  fifth  and  sixth  periods,  and  two  fifteen-minute 
recesses  between  the  second  and  third,  and  fourth  and  fifth 
periods. 

I am  told  that  the  majority  of  the  families  in  Clinton  have 
their  heartiest  meal  at  noon.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  pupils 
are  unable  to  reach  home  until  after  1 o’clock  they  cannot  eat 
this  meal  with  the  family.  Either  the  householders  must  keep  the 
dinner  warm  until  the  arrival  of  the  high  school  pupils,  or  else 
these  pupils  must  have  a cold  dinner.  This  undoubtedly  results 
in  undernourishment  for  a large  proportion  of  the  pupils  at  an 
age  when  adequate  nourishment  is  a matter  of  great  importance. 
Furthermore,  the  town  of  Clinton  is  so  small  in  area  and  the  high 
school  is  so  centrally  located  that  it  would  be  possible  for  all 
pupils  who  live  in  the  town  to  go  home  for  their  dinner  if  the 
noon  period  were  made  about  an  hour  and  a quarter  in  length. 
Consequently,  I recommend  the  adoption  of  a two-session  plan, 
the  morning  session  extending  from  8.10  to  12,  and  the  afternoon 
session  beginning  at  1.15. 

' The  present  tendency  is  strongly  in  favor  of  a longer  school 
day  in  order  that  pupils  may  be  able  to  do  a larger  part  of  their 
studying  at  the  school,  where  materials  for  school  work  are  at 
hand  and  where  they  may  have  the  help  and  guidance  of  the 
teachers.  High  school  pupils  need  to  be  taught  how  to  study. 
Without  such  instruction  they  are  unable  to  work  to  the  best 
advantage.  This  is  one  of  the  chief  causes  for  discouragement 
and  the  dropping  out  of  school.  To  offset  this  difficulty  “super- 
vised study”  is  being  introduced  into  many  high  schools.  Ac- 
cording to  this  plan  the  recitation  period  is  lengthened  to  sixty 
or  seventy  minutes  so  as  to  include  time  for  recitation  and  time 
for  study  under  the  direction  of  the  teacher. 

However,  if  all  six  periods  were  lengthened  to  sixty  or  seventy 


ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION  OF  SENIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


minutes,  it  would  make  a school  day  much  longer  than  the  present 
high  school  day  at  Clinton.  I am,  therefore,  recommending  that 
three  of  the  six  periods  be  lengthened  to  sixty-five  minutes  each, 
including  time  for  change  of  classes ; that  the  other  three  periods 
be  only  forty  minutes  in  length,  including  time  for  change  of 
classes;  and  that  these  periods  be  so  arranged  that  every  class 
which  has  five  recitations  a week  will  have  two  or  three  sixty-five 
minute  periods  and  three  or  two  forty-minute  periods. 

I am  also  recommending  that  fifteen  minutes  be  devoted  each 
day  to  setting-up  exercises.  These  exercises  are  being  conducted 
in  many  schools,  and  are  growing  in  favor.  They  do  not  take 
the  place  of  vigorous  gymnasium  exercises,  but  give  relaxation, 
increase  the  circulation,  and  prevent  fatigue.  I am  suggesting 
that  they  come  after  the  second  period,  where  they  will  be  most 
useful  in  checking  the  fatigue  element. 

The  lengthening  of  the  school  day  here  recommended  is  in 
harmony  with  the  present  tendency  throughout  the  United 
States. 

Schedule  Recommended 

8.10  to  8.15,  opening  exercises. 

8.15  to  9.20,  long  period  No.  1. 

9.20  to  10.25,  long  period  No.  2. 

10.25  to  10.40,  setting-up  exercises. 

10.40  to  ir.20,  short  period  No.  3. 

11.20  to  12,  short  period  No.  4. 

Noon  intermission. 

1. 15  to  1.55,  short  period  No.  5. 

1.55  to  3,  long  period  No.  6. 

In  order  that  each  subject  may  share  in  the  longer  periods  I 
should  recommend  that  the  thirty  periods  in  the  week  be  divided 
into  six  nonconflicting  groups  designated  as  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F; 
that  the  four  morning  periods,  A,  B,  C,  D,  occur  in  alphabetical 
order  on  Monday,  Wednesday,  and  Friday,  and  in  reverse  order 
on  Tuesday  and  Thursday;  and  that  the  two  afternoon  periods, 
E and  F,  occur  in  alphabetical  order  on  Monday,  Wednesday,  and 
Friday,  and  in  reverse  order  on  Tuesday  and  Thursday.  A sub- 
ject assigned  to  the  A,  B,  or  E periods  would,  therefore,  have  three 
long  periods  and  two  short  periods,  while  a subject  assigned  to 
the  C,  D,  or  F periods  would  have  two  long  periods  and  three 
short  periods. 


Period 

Monday 

Tuesday 

Wednesday 

Thursday 

Friday 

Morning 

1 

A 

D 

A 

D 

A 

2 

B 

C 

B 

C 

B 

3 

C 

B 

C 

B 

C 

4 

D 

A 

D 

A 

D 

Afternoon 

s . 

E 

F 

E 

F 

E 

6 

F 

E 

F 

E 

F 

This  schedule  provides  for  supervised  study.  It  allows  suffi- 
cient time  for  laboratory  work  in  the  sciences  without  the  necessity 
of  scheduling  so-called  double  periods  for  this  purpose.  Further- 
more, it  makes  possible  effective  work  in  physical  training.  Pupils 
cannot  obtain  the  kind  of  physical  training  that  they  need  unless 
they  have  time  in  which  to  put  on  gymnasium  suits,  to  take  vigor- 
ous exercises,  and  to  follow  the  exercise  with  the  shower  bath. 
The  sixty-five  minute  period  gives  sufficient  time  for  this  purpose. 
The  third  and  fourth  periods  separately  would  be  too  short,  but 
combined  as  a double  period  they  would  give  eighty  minutes  for 


151 

physical  training.  The  other  short  period,  namely,  the  fifth 
period,  should  not  be  used  for  gymnasium  work,  as  it  comes  too 
soon  after  dinner. 

As  a slight  modification  of  the  above  schedule,  the  two  long 
periods  on  Friday  morning  could  be  shortened  to  provide  for  an 
assembly  period.  Even  then  every  subject  coming  daily  would 
have  two  long  periods  each  week. 

Special  Provision  for  Pupils  Who  Must  Work  After- 
noons and  Evenings.  — In  many  high  schools  the  most 
serious  objection  to  supervised  study  and  the  longer 
school  day  is  due  to  the  fact  that  many  pupils  must, 
or  think  they  must,  earn  money  while  attending  school. 
For  such  schools  the  following  plan,  recommended  for 
Clinton,  may  be  suggestive  : 

A very  large  proportion  of  the  pupils  in  the  Clinton  high  school 
are  working  afternoons,  or  evenings,  or  both,  as  may  be  seen  from 
the  following  table : 


Pupils  Working  Afternoons,  or  Evenings,  or  Both 


Freshmen 

Sophomores 

Juniors 

Seniors 

Totals 

Boys 

Attendance  . . 

28 

22 

13 

18 

81 

Working  . . . 

l6 

18 

II 

18 

63 

Per  cent  working 

57 

82 

85 

IOO 

78 

Girls 

Attendance  . . 

44 

29 

28 

29 

130 

Working  . . . 

5 

7 

6 

17 

35 

Per  cent  working 

II 

24 

21 

59 

27 

Totals 

Attendance  . . 

72 

51 

41 

47 

2 1 1 

Working  . . . 

21 

25 

17 

35 

98 

Per  cent  working 

29 

49 

4i 

74 

46 

For  pupils  who  must  earn  a part  or  all  of  their  support  in  order 
to  continue  in  school,  some  adjustment  should  be  made  in  the 
distribution  of  their  time  and  energy.  If  they  attempt  to  carry 
the  full  amount  of  school  work,  either  the  quality  of  that  work  is 
likely  to  deteriorate,  or  there  is  likely  to  be  a serious  drain  upon 
health  and  vitality.  The  superintendent  of  schools  and  the  act- 
ing high  school  principal  assure  me  that  they  have  observed  a 
deterioration  in  the  quality  of  the  work  of  these  pupils.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  would  be  unfair  to  pupils  devoting  their  entire  time 
to  school  work  to  reduce  the  amount  of  work  that  they  may  do 
to  the  amount  that  can  be  carried  successfully  by  the  other  pupils. 
The  schedule  recommended  above  is  so  arranged  that  certain 
subjects  come  entirely  in  the  morning  and  others  entirely  in  the 
afternoon.  Therefore,  a pupil  who  must  work  in  the  afternoon 
can  carry  in  the  morning  as  much  work  as  he  can  do  successfully. 
As  a rule,  it  would  be  wiser  for  these  pupils  to  undertake  each 
year  three-quarters  of  the  full  amount  of  high  school  work  and 
maintain  a good  standard  of  scholarship,  rather  than  attempt  the 
full  amount  of  work  and  either  fail  in  part  of  it  or  do  work  of  an 
inferior  quality.  There  is  little  educational  value  in  inferior  work. 
With  this  plan  they  may  complete  the  high  school  course  in  five 
years  without  sacrificing  the  quality  of  their  work.  With  the 
elimination  of  the  ninth  grade  these  pupils  will  complete  the  ele- 
mentary and  high  school  work  in  thirteen  years,  the  time  hereto- 


152 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Messrs.  Whitchouso  and  Fotiilhoux , Architects. 


ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION  OF  SENIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


1 53 


fore  required  of  all  pupils.  On  the  other  hand,  the  pupil  who 
can  devote  all  his  time  to  school  work  may  complete  the  course  in 
twelve  years. 

It  may  be  observed  also  that  the  proposed  schedule  permits 
the  pupils  who  must  work  afternoons  to  obtain  a hot  dinner  at 
the  regular  time  instead  of  hurrying  home  at  i o’clock,  eating  a 
cold  lunch,  and  then  hurrying  to  work.  Adequate  nourishment 
is  certainly  of  prime  importance  to  these  young  persons  who  are 
both  studying  and  working. 

In  order  that  pupils  who  work  afternoons  may  not  be  deprived 
of  any  subjects  offered  by  the  school,  it  is  recommended  that 


subjects  given  only  in  the  afternoon  in  one  year  be  placed  in  the 
morning  the  next  year. 

As  explained  later  in  this  report,  a pupil  who  is  obliged  to  work 
afternoons  the  last  year  or  the  last  two  years  only  may,  if  he 
maintains  a good  record  in  the  earlier  years,  be  able  to  graduate 
in  four  years. 

The  adoption  of  the  above  plan  actually  resulted  in  attend- 
ance for  the  full  school  day  on  the  part  of  all  but  a very  few 
pupils.  In  other  words,  when  pupils  found  that  they  could  carry 
only  part  of  their  work  on  a single  session  plan  they  decided  to 
attend  both  morning  and  afternoon. 


Fig.  127. — Lincoln  High  School,  Portland,  Oregon. 


Messrs.  Whilehouse  and  FouUhoux,  Architects. 


154 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Fig.  128. — -Lincoln  High  School,  Portland,  Oregon. 


Messrs.  WMUhousc  and  FouUhoux.  Architects. 


ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION  OF  SENIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


x55 


Fig.  129.  — Lincoln  High  School,  Portland,  Oregon. 


Messrs.  WMtehonse  and  Fouilhoux,  Architects. 


j56 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


I T2  D LCDE2 


r- 


Fig.  130.  — Lincoln  High  School,  Portland,  Oregon. 


Messrs.  I Vhitehouse  and  Fouilhouz.  Archileas. 


CHAPTER  VIII 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  FOR  VOCATIONAL  SCHOOLS 

By  J.  D.  Wright,  Acting  Assistant  Director  for  Industrial  Education , Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education 


I.  General  Education  and  Vocational  Education,  i.  Types  of  Vocational  Schools  or  Classes.  2.  Function  of  the  Vocational 
School.  3.  Agencies  Promoting  Vocational  Education. 

II.  Trade  and  Industrial  Schools  or  Classes.  1.  Industrial  School  Buildings  versus  General  School  Buildings.  2.  Types 
of  Schools  and  Buildings:  (1)  Types  of  Schools;  (2)  Types  of  Buildings  in  General  Use.  3.  The  Problem  of  Equipment: 
(1)  Type  Equipment;  (2)  What  Kind  of  Tools  Should  Be  Provided;  (3)  The  General  Industrial  School;  (4)  Obligation  of  the 
Local  Community.  4.  New  Building  for  Trade  or  Industrial  Education : (1)  Location;  (2)  Construction;  (3)  The  Factory  Type 
of  Industrial  School ; (4).  Division  of  the  Interior;  (5)  Kinds  of  Rooms  and  Relative  Floor  Space ; (6)  Replies  to  Questionnaire.  5. 
Building  and  Equipment  for  a Trade  or  Industrial  School : (1)  The  General  Plan ; (2)  A Typical  Shop ; (3)  General  Specifica- 
tions; (4)  Machine  Shop;  (5)  Carpentry  and  Cabinetmaking ; (6)  Electrical;  (7)  Printing;  (8)  House  Painting  and  Decorating; 
(9)  Sheet  Metal;  (10)  Plumbing;  (n)  Pattern  Making ; (12)  Related  Subjects;  (13)  The  General  School;  (14)  Old  Buildings, 
Factories,  or  Industrial  Plants  as  Temporary  Quarters;  (15)  The  Part-time  School;  (16)  The  Evening  Industrial  School.  6.  A 
Few  Type  Buildings : (1)  The  Worcester  Boys’ Trade  School ; (2)  The  David  Ranken,  Jr.,  School  of  Mechanical  Trades;  (3)  The 
Williamson  Free  School  of  Mechanical  Trades;  (4)  The  Lathrop  School  of  Mechanical  Trades;  (5)  The  William  Hood  Dunwoody 
Industrial  Institute;  (6)  Milwaukee  Boys’  Technical  High  School;  (7)  The  New  Bedford  Vocational  School;  (8)  The  Bayonne 
Vocational  School ; (9)  The  Wentworth  Institute;  (10)  The  Pullman  Free  School;  (n)  The  Boys’ Vocational  School.  7.  Trade 
and  Industrial  Schools  for  Girls : (i)  Manhattan  Trade  School ; (2)  Milwaukee  Public  School  of  Trades  for  Girls ; (3)  Worcester, 
Mass.,  Girls’  Trade  School;  (4)  Jane  Hayes  Gates  Institute. 

III.  Buildings  and  Equipment.  1.  Types  of  Schools.  2.  Types  of  Buildings:  (1)  Smith  Agricultural  School;  (2)  Plan  of 
Combination  Laboratory  and  Recitation  Room ; (3)  Shop  Building,  Sterling,  Colo. ; (4)  A Combination  Shop  Suggested. 

IV.  Home  Economics.  1.  The  Purpose  of  Vocational  Home  Economics  Schools:  (1)  Home-making  Activities.  2.  Schools 
Teaching  Home  Economics:  (1)  Day  Schools;  (2)  Part-time  Schools;  (3)  Evening  Schools.  3.  Types  of  All-day  Schools:  (1) 
Separate  Schools  of  Home-making ; (2)  Home-making  Departments  of  Trade  Schools;  (3)  Home-making  Departments  of  Element- 
ary and  Secondary  Schools.  4.  Modifications  of  Equipment : (1)  In  a High  School ; (2)  Essential  Points ; (3)  The  Practice  House ; 
(4)  Cafeterias  and  Lunch  Rooms.  5.  Standards  in  the  Selection  and  Equipment  of  Rooms  for  Home  Economics  Instruction : 
(1)  Location;  (2)  Size;  (3)  Lighting;  (4)  Ventilation;  (5)  Wall  Finishes. 


I.  General  Education  and  Vocational  Education 

General  Education  and  Vocational  Education.  — 

School  architects  and  school  administrators  are  often 
called  upon  to  assume  the  responsibility  for  the  design 
of  new  buildings.  Modern  school  buildings  are  no 
longer  thought  of  in  terms  of  a single  classroom.  Prob- 
lems of  construction  in  heating,  lighting,  ventilation, 
and  sanitation  have  all  become  secondary  to  the  larger 
problem  of  adaptability.  What  educational  function 
is  the  building  to  serve?  What  are  the  needs  of  this 
phase  of  education  for  which  the  architect  must  make 
provision  in  his  plans  and  specifications?  To  answer 
these  questions  a general  knowledge  of  the  kinds  of 
education  and  a distinction  between  their  functions 
would  seem  to  be  necessary. 

General  Education,  properly  directed  and  controlled, 
aims  to  improve  general  intelligence.  Vocational  edu- 
cation, on  the  other  hand,  aims  to  make  an  intelligent 
producer,  either  of  commodities  or  of  services.  The 


aims  of  elementary  and  high  schools  include  many 
motives  which  are  not  germain  to  vocational  training. 

Many  high  schools  have  as  a definite  aim  the  prepa- 
ration for  entrance  to  higher  institutions  of  a large 
number  of  pupils  who  are  at  least  potential  candidates 
for  entrance  into  such  institutions.  Education  and 
training  of  this  character  does  not  primarily  concern 
itself,  as  does  vocational  education,  with  the  prepara- 
tion of  youth  for  immediate  self-support  in  a deter- 
mined-upon  occupation. 

In  a sense  it  is  true  that  all  education,  provided  the 
educative  process  is  well  planned  and  well  executed,  is 
preparation  for  citizenship  and  for  vocational  activi- 
ties, but  it  should  be  clear  that  the  dominant  aims  of  a 
person  or  group  of  persons  at  any  given  time  should  de- 
termine the  content  and  the  method  of  the  appropriate 
educational  process. 

When  an  individual  starts  upon  his  life  work,  either  by 
definite  preparation  for  a particular  vocation  or  by 
actual  participation  in  the  work  of  that  vocation,  his 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


158 

interest  in  studies  possessing  exclusively  a general  or 
interpretative  value  is  eclipsed  by  the  immediate  focus- 
ing of  his  attention  and  by  the  concentration  of  his 
efforts  upon  vocational  interests. 

Except  in  the  case  of  a few  professions,  such  as  law, 
theology,  and  medicine,  until  comparatively  recent 
times,  men  have  learned  vocations  by  entering  upon 
them.  During  the  last  century,  however,  there  has 
been  a rapid  growth  of  vocational  schools  of  many 
kinds,  such  as  normal  schools,  dental  colleges,  pharma- 
ceutical schools,  training  schools  for  nurses,  engineer- 
ing schools,  agricultural  schools,  and  business  schools. 
As  society  has  developed  needs  for  the  services  of  per- 
sons trained  in  special  vocations,  schools,  either  private 
or  public,  have  been  established  to  prepare  persons  who 
have  chosen  for  a life  work,  service  in  particular  voca- 
tional fields.  Vocational  schools  have  not  been  organ- 
ized, however,  until  the  vocations  themselves  have  de- 
veloped a content,  technique,  or  method  to  such  an  ex- 
tent that  adequate  preparation  could  no  longer  be  given 
by  apprenticeship  or  shop-training  methods. 

It  must  be  assumed  as  axiomatic  that  vocational 
education  is  intended  and  provided  for  individuals 
who  have  made  definite  vocational  choices,  and  for  such 
individuals  only. 

A clear  understanding  that  this  determination  of  aim 
is  an  essential  prerequisite  to  effective  vocational  train- 
ing of  an  individual  would  clear  up  much  confusion  which 
now  exists  as  a result  of  the  use  of  the  term  “ voca- 
tional ” to  describe  certain  subjects  of  study  in  the 
general  elementary  or  secondary  school,  such  as  manual 
training  or  mechanical  drawing  and  shopwork,  which 
are  pursued  by  those  who  probably  have  not  yet  se- 
lected a vocation.  While  the  educational  value  of 
these  and  other  “ practical  ” subjects  is  not  questioned, 
there  rests  clearly  upon  the  school  and  the  community 
an  obligation  to  set  up  adequate  means  to  help  the 
pupil  and  his  parents  to  determine  wisely  upon  specific 
vocational  preparation. 

Types  of  Vocational  Schools  or  Classes. — Vocational 
education  is  for  two  distinct  groups  of  students.  Boys 
and  girls  enrolled  in  public  schools  who  are  preparing  to 
enter  a particular  occupation  may  be  given  instruction 
in  all-day  vocational  schools ; and  workers  who  have 
already  entered  upon  employment  may  be  given  voca- 
tional training  in  part-time  and  evening  schools. 

The  public  cosmopolitan  high  school  can,  under  fa- 
vorable conditions,  undertake  courses  of  one  to  four 
years,  provided  a separate  department  for  the  voca- 
tional courses  is  created,  and  provided  such  courses  are 
supported  by  a sufficiently  broad  conception  of  com- 
munity needs  on  the  part  of  those  charged  with  this 
sort  of  secondary  education.  Such  a high  school  will 


assume  its  full  responsibility  if  the  vocational  courses 
meet  two  sorts  of  community  needs : first,  those  of  the 
youth  in  that  community  who  will  seek  employment 
before  or  at  completion  of  the  high  school  course,  and, 
secondly,  those  of  the  industries  of  that  community 
for  greater  efficiency  in  their  labor  force. 

Schools  for  workers  are  of  two  types.  First,  those 
for  persons  who  are  employed  under  such  conditions 
that  they  can  give  a part  of  the  regular  hours  of  em- 
ployment to  educational  work,  and  secondly,  those  for 
persons  who  must  secure  their  further  education,  if  at 
all,  outside  regular  working  hours.  The  former  are 
part-time  schools,  the  latter  evening  schools. 

Function  of  the  Vocational  School.  — While  vocational 
schools  are  in  general  organized  to  fit  the  individual 
for  profitable  employment,  they  are  specifically  directed 
towards  assisting  two  types  of  individuals ; first,  those 
who  are  preparing  to  enter  employment;  second,  those 
who  are  already  employed. 

To  prepare  young  men  and  women  for  employment 
we  must  have  special  schools  or  departments  with  an 
extensive  equipment  and  buildings.  These  must  ap- 
proach as  near  as  possible  the  actual  conditions  of  the 
industry,  the  home,  or  the  farm. 

In  the  trades  and  industries,  the  responsibility  for 
training  workers  has  been  rapidly  shifting  from  the 
industry  itself  to  other  agencies  both  public  and  private. 
This  change  has  been,  in  a large  measure,  the  direct 
result  of  industrial  development  and  in  the  interest  of 
more  technical  skill  on  the  part  of  the  worker. 

The  large  number  and  variety  of  industrial  occupa- 
tions for  which  training  may  be  given  presents  a much 
larger  problem  in  the  erection  of  buildings,  and  pur- 
chase of  equipment,  than  exists  in  the  organization 
of  other  kinds  of  vocational  schools.  As  a result  of  this 
condition,  trade  and  industrial  schools  have  too  often 
confined  their  activities  to  certain  typical  occupations 
such  as  the  building  trades,  the  metal  trades,  and  print- 
ing trades,  while  those  special  industries  in  which  a very 
large  part  of  the  population  of  the  community  is  en- 
gaged, such  as  textile  mills,  mining,  or  manufacturing, 
are  neglected.  To  meet  the  vocational  needs  of  the 
community,  the  school  must  possess  buildings  and 
equipment  which  will  bring  the  pupil  into  close  contact 
with  trade  conditions. 

When  well  organized  and  equipped  with  machinery 
and  laboratory  facilities  and  supplied  with  qualified 
teachers,  the  school  should  enable  the  pupil  to  secure  an 
advantageous  entrance  into  industry. 

Home  economics  schools  are  intended  to  prepare  girls 
for  useful  employment  as  home  makers  and  house 
daughters  engaged  in  the  occupations  of  the  home. 
The  organization  of  these  schools  is  much  more  simple 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  FOR  VOCATIONAL  SCHOOLS 


in  its  requirements  in  the  selection  of  equipment  and 
the  design  of  suitable  buildings  or  departments. 

In  vocational  agriculture  the  school  must  be  pre- 
pared to  give  the  boys  a practical  experience  in  farm- 
ing. It  must  therefore  have  farm  lands,  farm  animals, 
farm  machinery,  and  a laboratory  in  which  to  conduct 
farm  experiments. 

Agencies  Promoting  Vocational  Education.  — It  might 
be  assumed  that  the  responsibility  rests  upon  the  in- 
dividual to  provide  his  or  her  own  educational  oppor- 
tunities, or  upon  the  family  for  the  education  of  the 
children.  In  our  social  progress  we  have  long  recog- 
nized the  individual  as  a member  of  society,  a part 
of  the  community,  and  one  whose  efficiency  not  only 
determines  his  own  position  in  life  but  one  who,  to- 
gether with  many  others,  determines  the  success  of  the 
whole  community,  the  state,  and  nation. 

The  community  as  an  entity  depends  upon  the  pros- 
perity and  intelligence  of  its  citizenship.  Industry 
demands  a supply  of  skilled  workers  as  well  as  materials. 
These  workers  must  be  provided  if  new  business  is  to 
be  secured.  The  individual  has  grown  to  look  to  the 
local  government  for  his  elementary  and  secondary 
education. 

On  the  other  hand,  states  have  recognized  that  their 
wealth  and  prosperity  are  dependent  upon  the  com- 
munities within  their  borders,  and  that  many  workers 
are  migratory,  and  that  it  is  therefore  necessary  for  the 
state  to  provide  uniform  educational  facilities. 

No  less  than  either  of  these  is  the  responsibility  of  the 
Federal  government  for  the  development  of  our  natural 
resources  in  farm  lands  and  minerals,  and  for  the  im- 
provement in  methods  of  operation  in  production,  in 
manufacture,  in  transportation,  and  in  selling  our  prod- 
ucts in  the  markets  of  the  world. 

The  communities  have  for  many  years  given  to  the 
people  full  opportunities  for  general  education.  It 
has  even  made  attendance  compulsory  in  some  states 
to  the  age  of  sixteen. 

Previous  to  the  passage  of  the  Smith-Hughes  Act  for 
vocational  schools,  several  states  had  enacted  laws  giv- 
ing state  aid  to  the  communities  in  the  payment  of  a 
part  of  the  cost  of  vocational  education.  The  Federal 
Act  does  not  provide  for  the  organization  of  schools 
direct,  but  does  make  provision  for  giving  aid  to  the 
states  and  local  communities  in  the  payment  of  a part 
of  the  salaries  of  approved  teachers  in  these  schools. 

This  aid  is  given  under  certain  general  conditions  of 
approval : 

1.  All  schools  receiving  Federal  aid  must  be  under  public  super- 
vision and  control. 

2.  The  controlling  purpose  must  be  to  fit  for  useful  employment. 

3.  The  instruction  must  be  of  less  than  college  grade. 


4.  The  instruction  must  be  designed  to  meet  the  needs  of 
persons  over  14  who  have  entered  upon  or  who  are  preparing  to 
enter  upon  a vocation. 

5.  Every  dollar  of  Federal  funds  must  be  matched  by  a dollar 
of  state  or  local  funds,  or  both. 

6.  Reimbursement  for  the  salaries  of  teachers  will  be  made  to 
schools  only  for  those  teachers  who  meet  the  qualifications  set 
up  in  the  state  plan  as  approved  by  the  Federal  Board. 

7.  That  the  state  or  local  community,  or  both,  shall  provide 
the  necessary  plant  and  equipment  determined  upon  by  the  state 
board,  with  the  approval  of  the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational 
Education. 

II.  Trade  and  Industrial  Schools  or  Classes 

Industrial  School  Buildings  vs.  General  School  Build- 
ings. Comparative  Floor  Space  Required.  — Standards 
for  general  school  buildings  require  fifteen  to  twenty- 
four  square  feet  of  floor  space,  and  two  hundred  to  two 
hundred  and  fifty  cubic  feet  of  air  space  per  pupil  in  the 
classroom. 

These  values  are  based  upon  many  years  of  experience 
with  the  general  school.  The  usual  classroom  is  ap- 
proximately 22  by  32  feet  and  accommodates  45  pupils. 
This  space  is  inadequate  for  industrial  shop  classes. 
During  the  past  20  years  manual  training  has  come  into 
the  course  of  study  as  a supplementary  type  of  general 
education,  with  one  to  three  hours  per  week  in  the 
upper  grades  of  the  elementary  schools  and  three  to 
five  per  week  in  the  high  school.  It  is  not  possible  to 
give  in  these  classes  more  than  general  principles  and  to 
lead  the  pupil  to  an  appreciation  of  industrial  problems. 
Conclusions  based  on  experience  in  manual  training 
schools  do  not  furnish  an  adequate  basis  for  determining 
the  amount  of  floor  space  needed  in  trade  and  indus- 
trial schools. 

Floor  Space  in  Existing  Schools.  — In  elementary 
schools  manual  training  shops  have  usually  been  placed 
in  class  or  basement  rooms,  many  of  which  are  small 
and  possess  poor  light,  heat,  and  ventilation.  In  high 
schools  architects  usually  make  more  adequate  pro- 
vision for  shops  than  in  elementary  schools. 

The  following  table  shows  the  floor  space  given  to 
different  shops  in  several  existing  cosmopolitan  high, 
technical  high,  and  trade  schools. 


Square  Feet  of  Floor  Space 


School 

Wood- 

work- 

ing 

Shop 

WOOD- 

Tcrn- 

ING 

Forg- 

ing 

Ma- 

chine 

Shop 

Elec- 

trical 

Mason- 

ry 

Pat- 

tern 

Shop 

Soldan  High,  St.  Louis, 

Mo 

2,180 

2,440 

1,800 

2,070 

Northeast  High,  Kansas 

City,  Mo 

1,794 

1,716 

1,056 

1.716 

David  Ranken,  Jr., 

Plumb- 

School  of  M.  T.,  St. 

ing 

Louis,  Mo 

4,324 

4,312 

5,17° 

2,450 

2,450 

2,116 

Milwaukee  Trade  School, 

Milwaukee,  Wis.  . . 

5,336 

5,336 

5,336 

5,336 

5,336 

i6o 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Need  for  Industrial  School  Buildings.  — The  rapid 
growth  of  industrial  schools  is  a development  of  the 
educational  system  designed  to  meet  the  demand  in  the 
industries  for  more  skilled  workmen,  foremen,  and 
superintendents. 

The  situation  is  rapidly  becoming  serious  and  must 
be  met  by  a system  of  industrial  training  which  will 
supply  the  ever-increasing  demands  of  industry  for 
intelligent  man  power.  To  meet  this  demand,  trade 
and  industrial  schools  are  needed.  Pupils  must  be 
given  such  experience  and  trade  training  as  will  fit 
them  to  enter  successfully  upon  industrial  employ- 
ment. This  new  education  requires  a new  type  of  school 
building. 

Types  of  Schools  and  Buildings.  Types  of  Schools. 
— The  Federal  and  State  acts  provide  for  all-day, 
part-time,  and  evening  vocational  schools.  Build- 
ings which  meet  the  needs  of  the  all-day  school  will 
usually  be  satisfactory  for  part-time  and  evening  classes. 
Where  part-time  classes  are  organized  for  general  edu- 
cation, the  ordinary  classroom  will  be  suitable.  Since 
trade  extension  and  related  subjects  are  usually  given 
in  the  part-time  or  evening  school,  it  is  desirable  to 
provide  facilities  for  these  subjects  in  all  new  or  re- 
modeled buildings. 

Types  of  Buildings  in  General  Use.  — The  trade  or 
industrial  training  may  be  given  in  a separate  school 
or  in  a separate  department  of  a general  school.  Where 
the  work  is  given  in  a separate  school,  three  kinds  of 
plants  are  to  be  found  in  this  country : The  special 
building  erected  for  the  purpose,  usually  by  an  issue  of 
bonds ; the  old  factory  building  remodeled  for  the 
purpose ; and  the  abandoned  schoolhouse  which  has 
outlived  its  usefulness  for  general  education  and  is  re- 
modeled to  serve  temporarily  for  industrial  training. 

The  Special  School  Building.  — Such  schools  as 
the  Williamson  Trade  School  near  Philadelphia,  the 
Wentworth  Institute  at  Boston,  the  William  Hood 
Dunwoody  Institute  at  Minneapolis,  which  are  pri- 
vate schools;  and  the  Worcester  (Mass.)  Trade  School 
for  Boys,  and  the  Milwaukee  Trade  School  for  Boys, 
which  are  publicly  supported,  are  quartered  in  special 
buildings  built  for  the  purpose. 

This  seems  to  be  a wise  and  safe  course  to  pursue  in 
cases  where  the  local  authorities  are  certain  that  they 
know  just  what  kind  of  a building  is  needed  to  meet  the 
local  situation.  It  insures  proper  conditions  for  doing 
the  work  from  the  start.  There  is  danger  that  the 
building  will  not  meet  the  changing  conception  of  the 
service  which  the  school  should  give  its  pupils.  Ex- 
perience seems  to  show  that  where  a special  building  is 
erected  as  a general  trade  school  for  giving  industrial 
education,  it  is  advisable  to  build  on  a unit  basis,  each 


unit  being  devoted  to  one  or  more  trades,  and  new 
units  being  added  from  time  to  time  to  meet  the  needs 
of  the  school. 

In  some  cities  the  tendency  is  toward  a unit  trade 
school  for  printing,  for  machinists,  for  textile  workers, 
and  for  other  trades  for  which  the  local  community 
needs  skilled  men  or  women. 

Converted  Buildings.  — The  New  Bedford  and  Spring- 
field,  Mass.,  independent  industrial  schools,  and  the 
Industrial  School  at  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  occupy  old 
factory  buildings  which  have  been  remodeled  so  as  to 
provide  for  a time  at  least  fairly  adequate  accommoda- 
tions for  the  school.  This  method  of  housing  the  work 
can  be  resorted  to  successfully  in  communities  where 
funds  are  not  available  to  provide  a special  building, 
or  when  the  school  authorities  have  not  determined 
upon  the  kind  of  a plant  required  to  meet  their  chang- 
ing ideas  of  what  the  school  should  do. 

The  old  factory  building , however,  is  often  poorly 
adapted  to  school  purposes.  Sometimes  the  location 
is  bad ; usually  the  lighting  poor  and  the  heating 
arrangements  inadequate.  Such  a building  should 
properly  be  regarded  as  a makeshift  or  device  to  be 
used  for  a brief  period  as  the  first  step  in  the  intro- 
duction of  industrial  education  in  the  community. 

Many  cities  have  found  it 'advantageous  to  organize 
their  first  industrial  schools  in  old  schoolhouses  which 
have  been  remodeled.  This  method  of  introducing 
industrial  education  is  good  when  the  community  is 
carrying  on  a small  experiment  or  beginning  the  work. 
By  beginning  in  this  way,  school  authorities  are  able 
to  find  out  what  should  be  done  on  a large  scale  in  the 
case  of  each  kind  of  trade  training.  Further,  an  op- 
portunity is  thus  given  to  prove  the  worth  of  the  work 
before  larger  public  funds  are  asked  for. 

Abandoned  schoolhouses  are  seldom  adapted  to  vo- 
cational work.  The  lighting  is  usually  poor ; the  rooms 
are  not  the  right  shape  and  size ; and  the  construction 
of  the  building  is  not  adapted  to  the  installation  and  use 
of  machinery. 

Some  states  are  attempting  to  solve  the  problem  of 
industrial  education  by  utilizing  separate  departments  in 
general  high  schools.  While  the  children  in  the  depart- 
ment of  vocational  education  might  well  participate 
in  the  social  activities  of  the  school,  the  best  results 
will  be  secured  when  their  training  is  given  in  a dis- 
tinct unit  of  the  building,  erected  or  set  apart  for  this 
purpose.  The  difference  in  the  character  of  the  work 
which  they  are  carrying  on  requires  such  a separation 
for  most  of  the  day. 

Whenever  plans  are  being  made  which  provide  for  a 
department  of  vocational  education  in  a general  school 
building,  the  same  care  should  be  given  to  the  con- 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  FOR  VOCATIONAL  SCHOOLS 


161 


struction  and  equipment  as  in  the  case  of  a special 
school.  As  near  as  possible  the  shops  should  be  located 
on  the  ground  floor  and  away  from  classrooms.  A 
separate  outside  wing  will  enable  the  architect  to  pro- 
vide necessary  facilities  better  than  an  inside  room. 

The  Problem  of  Equipment.  Type  Equipment.  — How 
much  equipment  is  needed?  If  the  pupil  is  to  be 
adjusted  to  meet  the  demands  of  industry,  his  training 
must  be  real.  To  be  real,  the  training  must  be  given 
in  a shop  making  things  on  a useful  or  productive  basis. 
Schools  giving  training  in  such  subjects  as  woodwork- 
ing, metal  working,  electrical  work,  etc.,  can  readily 
find  use  for  the  work  of  the  pupils  either  in  the  building 
itself  or  in  the  school  system.  Every  school  should  make 
a part  of  its  own  equipment.  This  has  been  done  by 
most  of  the  industrial  and  trade  schools.  Enough 
equipment  ought  to  be  bought  at  the  outset  to  start 
the  work  and  to  enable  the  school  to  operate  on  a pro- 
ductive basis. 

Where  schools  find  themselves  with  limited  resources 
at  the  start,  some  second-hand  equipment  for  use  in  the 
first  year  of  the  course  can  be  bought.  In  the  other 
years  of  the  course  it  is  necessary  to  secure  the  very 
latest  and  best  machinery,  so  that  when  the  boy  leaves 
the  school  he  will  be  familiar  with  the  latest  equipment 
and  able  to  take  his  place  in  industry. 

One  of  the  handicaps  under  which  the  school  shop 
must  always  labor  is  that  of  keeping  its  machinery  fully 
abreast  of  the  best  equipment  of  the  commercial  shop. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  this  can  ever  be  done  success- 
fully. Under  the  stress  of  competition,  the  commercial 
shop  changes  its  equipment  from  time  to  time.  With- 
out such  competition  the  school  is  very  likely  to  re- 
main content  with  machinery  that  is  out  of  date. 

This  is  one  of  the  strongest  reasons  why  the  part- 
time  scheme  of  education  which  enables  a boy  to  ob- 
tain the  most  of  his  practical  training  in  the  industry 
itself  promises  to  be  effective  in  dealing  with  the  great 
body  of  wage  earners  between  14  and  18  years  of  age. 
The  old  trades,  in  which  men  were  able  to  obtain  ex- 
perience with  all  the  different  tools,  machines,  and  pro- 
cesses of  their  callings,  are  rapidly  disappearing.  Mod- 
ern industry  does  not  give  the  worker  a chance  to  get  a 
broad  experience  in  working  with  different  machines. 
The  typical  boy  who  comes  to  the  part-time  school  is 
one  who  is  spending  his  entire  time  at  one  machine, 
making  one  small  part  or  portion  of  the  final  output 
of  the  factory. 

The  school  must  always  take  the  boy  as  it  finds  him 
and  give  to  him  the  training  he  needs.  In  giving  part- 
time  instruction  to  the  worker  at  the  specialized  ma- 
chine, the  school,  if  it  is  to  meet  modern  industrial 
conditions,  must  under  the  school  roof  provide  a suffi- 


cient amount  of  equipment  to  enable  the  boy  to  ac- 
quire the  elementary  practice  and  experience  at  the 
machines  and  with  the  tools  and  in  the  processes  which 
the  shop  denies  him  and  which  are  necessary  to  his  in- 
sight, interest,  and  growth  in  the  occupation.  All 
experience  goes  to  show  also  that  a minimum  amount 
of  the  equipment  must  necessarily  be  under  the  school 
roof  in  order  that  the  teacher  may  closely  correlate 
and  connect  the  instruction  which  he  is  giving  with 
the  shop  processes. 

What  Kind  of  Tools  Should  Be  Provided.  — One 
great  mistake  which  many  manual  training  and  tech- 
nical high  schools  have  made,  and  which  industrial 
schools  are  in  danger  of  making,  is  that  of  providing  a 
large  number  of  tools  and  machines  of  one  kind  rather 
than  a smaller  number  of  different  tools  and  machines. 
The  same  amount  of  money  put  into  a more  varied 
equipment  would  enable  the  school,  whether  it  be  a 
manual  training  school  or  trade  school,  to  deal  with 
pupils  individually,  so  as  to  give  each  a wider  range  of 
experience  with  different  machines,  to  substitute  the 
individual  for  the  group  method  of  instruction,  and  to 
approximate  more  nearly  the  conditions  of  real  shop- 
work  so  necessary  in  the  successful  training  of  skilled 
workers  in  industry. 

The  General  Industrial  School.  — The  Federal  Voca- 
tional act  provides  that  for  cities  of  less  than  25,000 
population  the  state  board,  with  the  approval  of  the 
Federal  Board,  may  modify  the  conditions  as  to  length 
of  course  and  hours  of  instruction  per  week. 

In  making  such  modifications,  the  number  of  hours 
of  instruction  per  week  must  in  no  case  be  less  than 
25,  or  the  number  of  hours  of  instruction  per  day  less 
than  5,  a total  of  300  minutes.  Where  no  large  employ- 
ing industry  exists  in  these  cities  general  industrial 
schools  may  be  organized.  This  type  of  school  gives  to 
the  pupil  a general  training  in  industrial  subjects.  One- 
half  of  the  five-hour  day  must  be  given  to  shopwork 
on  a useful  and  productive  basis. 

This  is  the  only  type  of  industrial  school  which  seems 
feasible  in  cities  of  this  size,  because  in  most  cases  there 
is  not  enough  demand  on  the  part  of  any  industry  for 
new  employees  to  justify  unit  trade  training,  as  in  the 
case  of  an  all-day  trade  school,  where  a boy  spends  all  of 
his  time  training  as  a machinist,  carpenter,  plumber,  or 
printer.  In  the  general  industrial  school,  the  idea  is  to 
fit  the  boy  with  some  experience  in  shopwork  in  several 
typical  trades,  such  as  carpentry,  electrical  work,  auto- 
mobile work,  and  in  connection  with  this  shopwork  to 
give  him  instruction  in  related  drawing,  science,  and 
mathematics,  and  in  such  nonvocational  subjects  as 
are  needed  for  a well-rounded  course  of  instruction. 

To  carry  out  this  scheme  the  school  shop,  instead  of 


162 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


having  a carpenter  shop  filled  with  carpenter  benches 
and  a printing  shop  full  of  printer’s  cases,  would  be 
equipped  with  the  small  number  of  tools  and  machines 
necessary  to  give,  in  an  elementary  way,  experiences  in 
several  different  occupations. 

Obligation  of  the  Local  Community.  — In  establishing 
a trade  or  industrial  school,  department,  or  class,  the 
state  or  local  community  must  assume  the  responsi- 
bility of  providing  the  necessary  plant  and  equipment. 
This  must  be  adequate  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  class 
for  the  trade  to  be  taught. 

Where  schools  are  approved  for  state  and  Federal 
aid  in  payment  of  the  salaries  of  teachers  of  vocational 
subjects,  the  local  community  should  be  able  to  supply 
adequate  buildings  and  equipment. 

New  Building  for  Trade  or  Industrial  Education. 
Location.  — In  locating  a new  trade  or  industrial  school, 
care  should  be  taken  to  locate  the  plant  on  a site  suffi- 
ciently large  to  provide  for  additional  units  needed  to 
meet  the  growth  of  the  school.  The  site  should  be  chosen 
so  as  to  accommodate  the  entire  city  from  the  stand- 
point of  street  car  and  other  facilities.  Experience  shows 
that  industrial  schools  can  cooperate  with  industry 
to  a greater  advantage  when  the  school  is  situated  near 
an  industrial  center.  This,  however,  does  not  warrant 
locating  vocational  schools  in  districts  where  the  social 
and  sanitary  conditions  are  undesirable. 

In  the  preparation  of  bulletin  No.  20  for  the  Federal 
Board  for  Vocational  Education,  a questionnaire  was 
sent  to  nine  industrial  or  trade  schools  of  different  types 
asking,  among  other  things,  for  an  opinion  as  to  “ what 
factors  should  determine  the  selection  of  a site  for  a new 
trade  or  industrial  school?  ” The  replies  of  the  schools 
are  given  in  separate  paragraphs  below. 

“Avoid  crowded  space.  The  plant  should  be  far  removed 
from  saloons,  pool  halls,  and  other  things  that  tend  to  distract 
pupils.  The  school  should  be  accessible  to  its  pupils.  This  is 
particularly  desirable  for  evening  school  instruction  to  day 
workers.  A spur  track  is  desirable.” 

“Avoid  dangerous  influences,  questionable  neighborhoods,  etc. 
Locate  site  near  good  car  lines.  Have  ample  space  for  recreation 
and  future  additions.  Give  the  school  as  fortunate  surroundings 
as  would  be  given  to  any  other  school.” 

“Accessibility  for  majority  of  pupils  who  would  attend.  Near 
business  center.  Proximity  to  factories  or  industrial  center  is 
not  important  factor.  Should  have  as  much  dignity  as  a high 
school  site.” 

“Kind  of  trades  to  be  taught — manufacturing  or  building. 
If  the  school  is  cooperative,  locate  near  industrial  plants;  if  all  - 
day  school,  this  factor  need  not  be  considered.” 

“Should  be  accessible  to  street  cars.  Away  from  factories 
using  soft  coal.  Away  from  tenements  where  many  children  are 
in  the  street.  Adjacent  to  business  section.  Accessible  to  cus- 
tomers and  pupils.  Site  should  be  large  enough  for  outdoor 
activities.” 

“If  possible,  avoid  noisy  factory  districts.  Within  one  block 


of  transportation.  Lot  to  have  room  for  recreation,  light,  ventila- 
tion. The  residential  district  of  the  pupils.” 

“Good  car  service.  Facilities  for  cooperating  with  industries. 
Character  of  the  neighborhood  should  be  such  as  to  bring  the 
pupils  into  contact  with  no  undesirable  influences.  Grounds 
should  be  large  so  as  to  accommodate  the  school  for  the  present 
and  future,  and  give  light,  ventilation,  and  space  for  recreation.” 

“Avoid  a noisy,  sooty,  squalid  district.  The  site  should  be 
accessible  and  near  manufacturing  plants.  Good  environment 
and  located  so  as  to  come  within  the  general  notice  of  the  public.” 

“Good  car  service.  Large  area  to  allow  for  good  athletic 
field  and  for  expansion.  In  industrial  center.” 

Construction.  — It  is  not  the  writer’s  intention  to 
set  up  plans  and  specifications  for  the  construction  of 
buildings  which  may  be  used  for  trade  or  industrial 
schools,  but  rather  to  call  the  attention  of  architects 
and  school  administrators  to  some  conditions  which 
increase  the  efficiency  of  the  plant  and  equipment. 

Many  states  have  laws  regulating  the  construction  of 
factories  and  public  school  buildings.  These  regulations 
should  be  observed  in  connection  with  the  local  build- 
ing code. 

Architects  and  school  authorities  should  study  the 
characteristics  of  the  modern  trade  school,  and  incor- 
porate in  the  design  of  proposed  buildings  such  require- 
ments as  have  been  found  necessary  to  meet  the  demands 
of  trade  training.  In  planning  a new  building,  the 
architect  should  provide  shop-floor  space  of  from  100  to 
300  square  feet  per  pupil,  depending  upon  the  particular 
kind  of  industrial  work  for  which  the  shop  is  to  be  used. 
In  shops  requiring  the  installation  of  woodworking  or 
metal-working  machinery,  a larger  floor  space  must  be 
available.  Ceilings  should  be  constructed  varying 
from  12  to  32  feet  in  height.  Rooms  for  class  recitation, 
mechanical  drawing  and  laboratories  should  provide  a 
floor  space  of  from  25  to  90  square  feet  per  pupil.  In 
planning  a new  school  building,  care  should  be  taken 
to  provide  for  adequate  tool  and  stock  rooms  in  which  to 
store  all  of  the  general  tools  and  stock  used  for  instruction 
in  the  shop.  Tool  and  stock  rooms  should  be  provided 
with  shelving  and  lockers  suited  to  the  needs  of  the  par- 
ticular industry  for  which  the  shop  is  used.  As  a part 
of  their  course  in  any  trade  pupils  should  be  given  instruc- 
tion in  the  care  of  the  tool  and  stock  rooms,  so  that  they 
may  be  taught  to  preserve  and  care  for  their  own  tools 
and  equipment.  A detailed  description  of  shops  for 
various  trades  will  be  given  later  in  this  chapter. 

The  Factory  Type  of  Industrial  School.  — The  con- 
struction of  the-  factory  type  must  be  of  such  a 
character  as  to  provide  a large  amount  of  fight.  Extra 
fight  may  be  obtained  in  one-story  buildings  by  means 
of  northern  sawtoothed  skylights,  and  thus  avoid  the 
glare  of  the  direct  sunlight.  Windows  should  be 
planned  to  occupy  as  much  of  the  exterior  wall  space 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  FOR  VOCATIONAL  SCHOOLS 


163 


as  the  construction  and  architecture  of  the  building 
will  permit.  It  is  desirable  that  the  windows  be  of 
factory  construction  with  small  panes,  so  that  accidental 
breakage  will  not  cause  large  expense  for  replacement. 
In  the  construction  of  the  floors,  a knowledge  of  the 
purpose  for  which  the  room  is  to  be  used  is  necessary. 

Each  individual  trade  should  be  considered  from  the 
standpoint  of  its  needs  under  commercial  conditions, 
and  the  plan  made  to  provide  necessary  floor  space, 
light,  door  openings  for  admission  of  large  work,  and 
freight  elevator  service. 

Architects  should  not  specify  cement  floors  for  shops 
in  which  edged  tools  are  to  be  used,  as  it  is  impossible 
to  avoid  dropping  tools  on  the  floor.  Whenever  possible, 
wooden  floors  are  preferable  in  such  cases.  Floors  in 
which  heavy  machinery  is  to  be  installed  should  be 
designed  to  sustain  the  floor  load  weight  with  a sufficient 
safety  factor  to  support  future  additions  to  the  equip- 
ment. It  is  not  always  necessary  or  desirable  to  plaster 
interior  walls.  Machinery  and  fixtures  are  much  more 
easily  adjusted  in  shops  where  the  walls  are  left  with  a 
brick  finish.  The  roof  construction,  like  the  floors, 
necessitates  on  the  part  of  the  architect  a knowledge 
of  the  purpose  for  which  the  room  is  to  be  used.  Pro- 
visions should  be  made  for  numerous  inserts  in  the  ceil- 
ing and  for  suspending  shaft  hangers  from  steel  girders 
whenever  metal-working  machinery  is  to  be  installed. 

Ample  locker  space,  wash  and  toilet  rooms  should 
be  provided.  The  requirements  for  sanitation  should 
be  carefully  observed.  In  planning  the  wash  and  toilet 
rooms  of  the  new  buildings,  a careful  study  should  be 
made  of  the  flushing  systems,  and  the  location  should 
be  convenient  to  the  shop  rooms.  It  is  not  desirable 
to  place  wash  rooms  or  toilets  in  basements  where  the 
problems  of  sanitation  are  greatly  increased. 

The  power  plant  installed  in  a new  building  offers  an 
opportunity  for  giving  courses  in  power-plant  operating 
in  steam  and  electricity,  and  therefore  should  be  installed 
with  these  courses  in  mind.  The  engine  room  should 
be  large  and  well  lighted,  and  in  most  cases  should  be 
located  so  as  to  be  convenient  to  the  electrical  depart- 
ment. This  will  permit  the  use  of  the  generators,  motors, 
and  the  switchboard  for  testing  purposes  in  power-plant 
operating. 

Schools  engaged  in  project  work  will  often  find  it 
necessary  in  the  construction  of  certain  projects  to 
utilize  several  shops  for  the  different  kinds  of  work  in- 
volved. When  the  building  is  planned,  the  shops 
should  therefore  be  located  with  these  conditions  in 
mind,  so  that  the  least  amount  of  confusion  will  result 
in  moving  projects  from  one  shop  to  another. 

It  is  recognized  that  the  amount  of  light  required 
per  square  foot  in  industrial  plants  is  usually  larger 


than  in  other  buildings.  Schools  located  in  northern 
latitudes  require  more  glass  surface  for  natural  light 
than  do  those  located  in  central  or  southern  latitudes. 
The  wiring  for  electric  lights  should  be  calculated 
so  as  to  provide  for  additional  service  when  needed. 
Switchboards  should  be  located  in  the  room  and  fitted 
with  a lock  and  key  as  a protection  to  the  machinery. 
Whenever  possible  all  wiring  should  be  in  conduit.  Main 
conduit  leads  should  be  made  oversize  so  as  to  permit 
drawing  an  extra  pair  of  service  wires  if  needed  for 
future  equipment. 

All  machines  should  be  supplied  with  floor  or  wall 
outlets  for  drop-lights  and  fitted  with  safety  ap- 
pliances to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  state  factory 
laws. 

In  the  same  way  that  modern  architecture  provides 
for  the  location  of  furniture  in  modern  homes,  the  con- 
struction of  a new  building  for  teaching  trades  should 
provide  for  the  installation  of  the  equipment.  Wood- 
working machinery  should  be  arranged  for  efficient  serv- 
ice in  routing  the  material  through  the  machines.  All 
machines  making  smoke,  sawdust,  or  shavings  should 
be  connected  to  an  exhaust  system. 

Division  of  the  Interior.  Temporary  or  Movable 
Partitions.  — Trade  and  industrial  education  is  com- 
paratively new  in  this  country.  It  is  growing  very 
rapidly  through  a series  of  developmental  stages,  and  no 
one  is  able  to  forecast  accurately  what  the  needs  of  any 
one  institution  will  be  a few  years  from  now.  Permanent 
interior  hearing  walls  should  be  avoided  as  a means  of 
providing  greater  flexibility  in  adjusting  interior  parti- 
tions to  the  needs  of  changing  conditions  in  the  shops 
and  classrooms. 

Kinds  of  Rooms  and  Relative  Floor  Space.  — What- 
ever type  of  building  may  be  selected,  the  interior  will 
be  divided  into  rooms  for  shopwork,  science,  drafting, 
classrooms,  and  rooms  for  administrative  purposes. 

The  Federal  and  state  acts  require  that  a specified 
time  shall  be  devoted  in  day  schools  to  practical  work. 
In  addition,  sufficient  time  for  proper  teaching  must  be 
given  to  instruction  in  related  or  technical  subjects  which 
are  also  vocational.  The  remaining  time  should  be 
given  to  non-vocational  subjects  “ necessary  to  build 
well-rounded  courses  of  instruction.” 

Experience  in  vocational  education  in  trades  and  in- 
dustries gained  by  this  country  during  the  last  10  years 
has  established  the  following  as  the  prevailing  practice : 

(a)  In  day  industrial  or  trade  schools,  at  least  one-half  the 
time  is  given  to  practical  work  on  a useful  or  productive  basis. 

( b ) From  25  to  35  per  cent  of  the  time  in  such  schools  is  given 
to  related  studies,  like  mathematics,  drawing  or  science. 

(c)  The  remainder  of  the  time  (15  to  25  per  cent)  is  given  to 
such  subjects  as  English,  civics,  hygiene,  and  history. 


164 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


The  following  table  shows  the  relative  amount  of  floor 
space  usually  given  to  each  kind  of  subjects : 


Relative  Amount  of  Floor  Space 

(Estimated  for  a separate  Trade  School,  having  an  average  enroll- 
ment of  300  pupils.) 


Floor  Space 
Used  in  Rooms 
eor 

Average 
Number  in 
Class 

Average 
Percentage 
or  Time 
Given  to 
Subject 

Minimum 
Number 
oe  Rooms 
Required 

Average 
Floor  Area 
per  Room 

Average 
Per  Cent 
oe  Total 
Floor  Area 

Shopwork  . . 

Related  subjects 
Non-vocational 

10-15 

10-20 

SO 

33i 

10-12 

5-  6 

1500-5000 

500-1800 

6S-8S 

12-28 

subjects  . . 

10-25 

i6f 

3-  4 

400-  700 

3-  7 

In  addition  to  the  above  space,  rooms  for  offices,  lunch, 
shower  baths,  recreation,  and  storage  must  be  provided. 

It  is  clearly  seen  from  this  table  that  a large  portion  of 
the  building  must  be  devoted  to  shops.  Since  the  pri- 
mary purpose  of  a trade  or  industrial  school  is  to  fit 
the  individual  for  useful  and  productive  employment, 
the  building  must  be  planned  to  give  the  individual 
actual  shop  experiences,  and  the  equipment  and  methods 
used  must  closely  follow  the  best  practice  of  the  industry. 
It  is  safer  to  plan  large  shop  spaces  without  interior  par- 
titions and  then  divide  the  space  into  shop,  laboratory 
or  classrooms  as  wanted,  than  to  try  to  anticipate  these 
needs  in  advance.  For  this  reason  the  figures  given  in 
the  above  table  can  only  be  taken  in  a comparative  sense. 

Replies  to  Questionnaire.  — The  same  nine  schools 
replying  to  the  inquiry  regarding  proper  site  for  a school 
were  asked  to  describe  the  type  of  building  which 
should  be  selected  in  a design  for  a new  trade  school. 

The  replies  were  as  follows : 

“The  building  should  be  constructed  along  the  lines  of  a modern 
factory  of  reinforced  concrete,  brick  facing,  with  large  windows, 
and  ample  ceiling  height.  The  governing  idea  should  be  flexibility, 
the  idea  being  to  erect  sectional  partitions  adjacent  to  shops  and 
conduct  each  trade  on  a unit  basis.  Open  plumbing,  sufficient 
openings  for  light  and  power,  gas  and  water,  so  that  shops  and 
classrooms  can  be  enlarged  or  changed  into  other  lines.  Cast-iron 
inserts  should  be  placed  in  the  concrete  ceilings  on  4-foot  centers 
so  that  shafting  can  be  conveniently  erected.” 

“Factory  type  with  great  flexibility.  No  permanent  interior 
bearing  walls.  ‘A  loft  subdivided  to  suit  the  tenant’  is  the  impor- 
tant feature  of  the  building.  Design  rooms  for  ample  natural 
light  in  all  shops  and  classrooms.” 

“Most  approved  methods  of  shop  and  factory  construction  for 
shops.  Office  construction  should  be  used  for  classrooms.  Maxi- 
mum of  utility,  minimum  of  ornateness.  Include  both  gymnasium 
and  auditorium.  Provide  factory  elevator  to  shops  on  upper 
floors  and  wide  doorways.” 

“The  kind  of  trades  to  be  taught  and  number  of  pupils  to  be 
accommodated.  Character  of  academic  branches  to  be  taught.” 

“A  combination  school  and  factory  type.  Rooms  well  lighted 
and  ventilated.  Dressing  rooms  and  lockers  on  each  floor. 
Simple  finish  and  sanitary  details.” 


“Attractiveness  as  distinguished  from  factory  appearance. 
Make  layout  so  that  offices,  classrooms,  and  shops  are  arranged 
for  the  best  routing  of  material  and  projects.” 

“Factory  type.  Great  flexibility  in  the  interior.  Unit  con- 
struction. Materials  and  designs  such  as  will  make  it  possible 
to  utilize  the  construction  for  ‘project  work.’  Changeable  interior 
to  meet  new  conditions.  Simplicity  in  construction.  Factory 
facilities  for  routing  material.” 

“Concrete  construction  which  embodies  fire  protection, 
economy,  and  simplicity.  Large  rooms  for  shops.” 

“The  best  factory  design.” 

An  examination  of  these  replies  shows  that  the  con- 
sensus of  opinion  regarding  type  of  building  is  that  the 
building  should  have  “ flexibility.”  That  is  to  say,  it 
should  be  designed  so  as  to  be  capable  of  alteration  to 
meet  new  conditions  readily.  In  addition,  the  design 
should  be  such  as  to  permit  of  a maximum  of  utility 
for  the  purpose  in  view.  While  the  several  schools, 
having  in  mind  different  conditions,  differed  in  matters 
of  detail,  there  was  no  essential  divergency  of  opinion  on 
these  points. 

Building  and  Equipment  for  a Trade  or  Industrial 
School.  The  General  Plan.  — The  experienced  school 
architect  cannot  alone  solve  the  problem  of  combining 
the  school  and  the  factory.  It  will  be  necessary  for 
him  to  obtain  certain  specific  information  by  conferences 
with  the  school  authorities.  This  information  should 
include  — 

(a)  The  general  character  of  the  school. 

(b)  The  number  and  kind  of  trades  to  be  taught. 

(c)  The  number  of  pupils  the  school  shall  be  designed  to  ac- 
commodate. 

(d)  The  relative  time  to  be  given  to  shop,  related,  and  non- 
vocational  work. 

(e)  A list  of  the  equipment  to  be  installed. 

if)  The  amount  of  money  available  for  the  plant  and  equip- 
ment. 

(. g ) The  facilities  required  for  assembly  rooms,  gymnasiums, 
lunchrooms,  and  administrative  quarters. 

(h)  A general  scheme  for  the  floor  plan,  showing  the  arrange- 
ment and  location  of  rooms,  based  upon  efficient  teaching  and 
administration. 

In  addition,  there  should  be  frequent  conferences  be- 
tween the  architect,  the  principal,  and  the  shop  teacher, 
so  as  to  assure  a plan  based  upon  the  combined  experience 
of  the  builder,  the  school  administrator,  and  the  journey- 
man teacher. 

As  a final  check  upon  the  flexibility  of  the  building  for 
trade-school  purposes  and  upon  its  design  on  the  “ trade 
unit  ” basis,  the  plans  of  the  architect  should  be  care- 
fully checked  by  a comparison  with  other  schools  of  a 
similar  character,  and  with  the  best  industrial  plants. 
This  comparison  should  be  made  jointly  by  the  school 
authorities  and  the  architect,  and  may  be  made  from 
plans  obtained  from  other  schools  or  by  personal  visits 
and  conferences  with  school  officials  in  other  cities. 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  FOR  VOCATIONAL  SCHOOLS 


Experience  in  the  administration  of  trade  and  indus- 
trial schools  is  favorable  to  the  “ trade  unit  ” plan.  The 
design  of  the  unit  plan  provides  that  all  the  school  work 
shall  be  carried  out  and  organized  with  a particular 
trade  or  industry  in  mind.  Each  trade  should  be 
allotted  a given  portion  of  the  building,  and  all  instruc- 
tion connected  with  that  trade  should  be  carried  on 
within  the  department.  This  includes  the  shopwork 
and  related  science,  mathematics,  and  drawing.  As 
a means  of  securing  greater  “ flexibility,”  the  room  in 
which  the  related  instruction  is  given  should  be  near 
the  shops.  This  arrangement  will  enable  the  instructors 


5 

should  be  designed  with  a large  safety  factor  for  in- 
stalling additional  equipment.  Electric  light  and  power 
service  should  be  run  in  conduit  with  numerous  switch 
boxes  having  extra  capacity  and  extra  light  and  power 
outlets. 

Tool  and  stock  rooms  may  serve  two  or  more  shops. 
Rooms  for  applied  science,  drawing,  and  mathematics 
will  be  more  efficient  if  located  near  the  shop.  Ample 
provision  should  be  made  to  deliver  supplies  and  to 
remove  from  the  shops  the  finished  product. 

Windows  should  extend  nearly  to  the  ceiling,  and 
should  be  set  with  as  little  space  taken  up  by  mullions 


;oo'cf- 


DO  □ 


03  ■ DO 


Office  a Tool  Room 
partitions  glass  above 


» Dry  Grinder 

[fcjjJl1  (Should  be  connected 
Uv — JU  to  exhaust  system) 


Sensitive  Tool  'IInd 

Drill  Grinder 

□ □-  o 


[ ] 


Flaner 


Open  spoce  for 
large  jobs. 


5 Lothes  It*  to  16"x  6'0’‘ 

a no  d n 


SCALE 

"si“rr^r “-a 

Fig.  131.  — Typical  Shop  Equipped  foe  a Unit  Trade  Course  in  Forge  and  Machine  Shop. 


to  connect  the  practical  shopwork  with  the  related 
instruction,  and  will  make  available  much  of  the . shop 
equipment  for  laboratory  purposes. 

Experience  also  demonstrates  that  from  10  to  15 
pupils  constitute  an  average  class  in  shopwork,  and  from 
10  to  20  in  related  subjects ; also  that  the  school  should 
be  constructed  so  that  the  pupils  will  be  placed  in  situa- 
tions which  closely  resemble  the  conditions  of  the  trade 
or  industry.  To  do  this,  the  factory  type  of  school  build- 
ing constructed  on  a “ unit  basis  ” has  proven  to  be  the 
most  satisfactory. 

A much  larger  floor  space  will  be  required,  and 
more  light  and  ventilation  will  be  necessary  than  is 
common  to  school  buildings.  Factory  windows  and 
northern  saw-toothed  skylights  should  be  constructed 
whenever  possible.  Interior  partitions  should  be  of 
light  construction  so  as  to  be  easily  moved  for  the 
convenience  of  shops  and  classrooms.  The  floors 


as  possible.  The  area  of  the  glass  surface  should  in 
general  equal  one-fourth  of  the  floor  space. 

Since  the  interior  of  a vocational  school  resembles 
the  factory,  the  construction  will  be  less  expensive 
per  cubic  foot  than  the  general  school. 

A Typical  Shop.  — A concrete  example  of  the  fore- 
going statements  may  be  had  from  the  following  descrip- 
tion of  a typical  shop  : 

(a)  Size  : The  floor  space  should  be  from  1,500  to  5,000  square 
feet. 

( b ) Light : On  two  sides,  and  supplemented  by  skylights 
whenever  possible.  The  window-glass  area  should  not  be  less 
than  one-fourth  the  area  of  the  floor  space. 

(e)  Floors : Should  be  wood  or  wood  paving  blocks  in  all 
shops  where  edged  tools  are  a part  of  the  equipment. 

(d)  Walls  : Brick  unplastered  for  exterior  walls.  Tile  or  light 
frame  for  interior  partitions. 

(e)  Ceilings:  Vary  from  12  to  32  feet.  High  ceilings  for 
carpentry,  electrical  work,  and  plumbing. 


i66 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


(J)  Heating  and  ventilation : About  5 to  10  degrees  less  than 
for  usual  classrooms.  Ventilation  not  less  than  40  cubic  feet  of 
air  per  pupil  per  minute. 

(g)  Stock,  tool,  and  supply  rooms : Adequate  to  contain  full 
length  supplies.  These  rooms  may  be  combined  for  two  or  more 
shops.  Drying  rooms  for  lumber  and  glue  work  are  necessary 
for  woodworking  shops. 

(k)  Related  subjects  room : Located  close  to  shop  for  greater 
correlation  of  subject  matter  and  convenience  of  teacher. 

(i)  Electric  light  and  power : Extra  light  in  shops,  with  extra 
light  and  power  outlets  for  equipment. 

(j)  Plumbing : Toilet  and  washroom  facilities  should  be  ac- 
cessible to  all  shops.  One  water-closet  to  each  15  pupils;  one 
urinal  for  each  15  boys.  Four  lavatories,  and  one  drinking-foun- 
tain for  each  shop. 

(k)  Cases  for  storage : Provide  adequate  cases  for  storing  tools 
and  supplies. 

(l)  Blackboard : Each  shop  should  have  not  less  than  80 
square  feet  of  blackboard. 

(m)  Benches  and  fittings : Full  size  and  fitted  with  vises,  etc., 
as  in  a commercial  shop. 


General  Specifications 


Room 

Floor 

Area 

(Square 

Feet) 

Ceiling 
Height 
in  Feet 

Minimum 
Ratio 
Glass 
Surface 
to  Floor 
Area 

Kind  of 
Floor 

1 Electric 
Light  Out- 
let PER  IOO 
Square 
Feet 
(Floor 
Area 
Wattage) 

Average 
Tempera- 
ture in 
Zero 
Weather 

Machine  shop  . 

1,800-5,000 

12-14 

1:4 

Wood 

125 

Degrees 

60-65 

Carpentry  . . 

1,800-5,000 

18-32 

1:4 

Wood 

IOO  . 

60-65 

Masonry  . . . 

1,800-4,000 

13 

1:4 

Cement 

IOO 

60-65 

Sheet  metal  . . 

1,800-4,000 

13 

i : 4 

Wood  or 

IOO 

60-65 

Plumbing  . . 

1,500-4,000 

18-32 

1:4 

cement 

Cement 

IOO 

60-65 

Shop  electricity 

1,500-4,000 

18-32 

1 : 4 

Wood 

IOO 

65-70 

Automechanics . 

1,500-4,000 

13 

1 : 4 

Cement 

125 

60-65 

House  painting  . 

1,500-4,000 

13 

1 : 4 

Wood  or 

125 

65-70 

Related  science 

500-1,800 

13 

1 : 4 

cement 

Wood 

125 

70 

Mathematics 

400-  700 

13 

1 : S 

Wood 

80 

70 

Related  drawing 

500-  900 

13 

1 : 4 

Wood 

125 

70 

Non-vocational 
subjects  . . 

400-  700 

13 

1 = 5 

Wood 

80 

70 

This  is  not  intended  to  include  all  the  shops  which  may  be  provided. 


h- 


100  0 - 


forge  orrangemenf  some 
os  shown  in  F ig  j 


0ff.ee 

Tool  Room 

_ 

_y 

Bench 


Nofes:- 

N'lo^or  may  be 
locate d i«  "Tool 
Room,  or  o*h«r 
COnvemenf  poml 
Counter stioHs  moy 
be  turned  orouna, 
where  necessary, 
to  moKe  proper 
spacing  of  pulleys 
Simpler 


I 1 Cutter  ft  .Mochin, 

I 1 I Tool 

- |_JGr. nder 


J 


■Shopcr 


Fig.  131  a.  — Typical  Shop  Equipped  foe  Unit  Trade  Course  in  Forging  and  Machine  Shop. 


(n)  General  tools  and  machinery : Should  be  commercial  tools 
of  average  capacity  and  represent  the  industry  of  the  com- 
munity. 

(0)  Individual  tools : Usually  one  set  for  each  pupil  in  the 
class.  Edge  tools  should  be  individual.  Special  hand  tools  in 
lots  of  one  or  more  and  kept  in  tool  room. 

(p)  Red  Cross  cabinet : Containing  sterile  dressings  for  cuts 
and  wounds,  and  other  simple  first-aid  apparatus. 


1 Machine  Shop.  — A typical  machine  shop  should 
be  equipped  with  up-to-date  machines,  such  as  will 
enable  the  school  to  turn  out  productive  work  in  com- 
mercial quantities.  The  installation  of  equipment 
should  be  arranged  for  routing  the  work  from  one 
machine  to  another  with  the  greatest  efficiency.  Tool 
and  stock  rooms,  locker  and  wash  rooms,  should 


1 A number  of  typical  shop  floor  plans  have  been  prepared  and  submitted  to  teachers  and  Federal  agents,  each  of  whom  is  a specialist  in  one  or  more 
shop  subjects.  A room  containing  approximately  4400  square  feet  was  selected  as  a typical  floor  space.  The  installation  of  equipment  has  been 
indicated  in  each  plan,  and  partitions  in  most  instances  have  been  placed  which  divide  the  main  shop  into  auxiliary  shops  or  classrooms.  These 
partitions  should  be  of  light  construction,  of  a temporary  nature,  so  that  their  location  may  be  adjusted  without  great  expense.  In  all  cases  the 
equipment  was  placed  so  as  to  provide  for  the  routing  of  material  and  to  conserve  open  floor  spaces  for  use  in  productive  work. 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  FOR  VOCATIONAL  SCHOOLS 


167 


be  provided  to  accommodate  the  needs  of  the 
shop. 

The  machine  shop  should  be  located  on  the  ground 
floor,  and  near  other  shops  which  do  work  related  to 
machine-shop  practice.  When  the  plan  of  the  building 
will  permit,  saw-tooth  skylights  should  be  used,  as  well 
as  factory  windows. 

The  following  is  a brief  list  of  the  general  tools  which 
the  equipment  should  include  for  a class  of  10  to  15 

pupils : 


allied  trades.  Whenever  the  woodworking  industries 
of  the  community  are  large  enough,  unit  trades  in 
carpentry,  cabinetmaking,  mill  work,  etc.,  should  be 
established. 

Woodworking  shops  need  a large  amount  of  floor 
space.  They  should  contain  woodworking  machinery, 
carpenters’  benches,  and  from  1000  to  2000  square 
feet  of  floor  space  available  for  the  assembly  and  con- 
struction of  productive  projects.  The  installation  of 
the  woodworking  machinery  should  be  planned  when  the 


Fig.  132. — -Typical  Shop  Equipped  for  Unit  Trade  Course  in  Carpentry'  and  Cabinetmaking. 


6 8-foot  benches  with  37-inch  machinist  vises,  tops  built  up  of 
3-inch  stock  on  edge. 

6 metal-working  lathes  of  different  capacities  and  makes, 
including  at  least  one  turret  and  one  taper  turning  attach- 
ment. One  quick-change  gear  lathe  should  be  included. 
High-speed  and  carbon-steel  tools  should  be  provided. 
Many  of  these  can  be  made  in  the  shop. 

1 planer  with  a capacity  of  not  less  than  8 feet. 

1 shaper  not  less  than  16  inches. 

1 universal  milling  machine. 

1 back-geared  drill  press  — capacity  not  less  than  24  inches. 

1 two-wheel  grinder. 

1 forge  and  anvil,  TT  , 1 , 

r 1 Unless  otherwise  provided. 

1 annealing  furnace, 

1 bench  punch  and  shear. 

Sets  of  taps  and  dies,  and  hand  tools,  adequate  to  accommodate 
a class  of  10  to  15  pupils. 

Adequate  supplies  of  steel,  iron,  and  brass  castings,  for  use  in 
work  on  productive  projects. 

Value  of  equipment,  $5,000  to  $15,000. 

Annual  cost  of  supplies  per  pupil,  $10  to  $15. 

Carpentry  and  Cabinetmaking.  — The  following  is  a 
description  of  a typical  shop  for  carpentry  and  its 


room  is  designed,  so  that  provision  may  be  made  for 
shafting  and  for  arranging  the  machines  for  routing 
material  economically  from  one  machine  to  another. 
All  machines  should  be  connected  to  an  exhaust  system 
to  remove  the  shavings  and  sawdust.  The  exhaust 
system  may  be  motor-driven,  and  arrangements  made 
for  an  automatic  control  which  starts  the  exhaust 
motor  whenever  any  woodworking  machine  is  being 
operated. 

Tool  rooms,  lumber  rooms,  locker,  and  wash  rooms 
should  be  provided  in  the  plans. 

As  most  lumber  is  received  without  being  thoroughly 
kiln  dried,  it  is  desirable  to  have  a drying  room  fitted 
with  steam  coils  properly  ventilated,  in  which  to  store 
lumber  to  be  used  in  project  work. 

Woodworking  shops  also  need  a gluing  room,  in 
which  facilities  are  provided  for  heating  stock  and  warm- 
ing glue. 

The  selection  of  equipment  should  include  only  tools 
that  are  recognized  by  the  trade  as  standard. 


i68 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


For  io  to  15  pupils,  the  equipment  should  include: 

x 12-inch  saw  table,  1 

1  jointer,  ( Or  one  Universal  woodworker  if 

1 hollow  chisel  mortiser,  | floor  space  is  small. 

1 24-inch  planer,  ; 

1 power  sander. 

1 glue  pot. 

10  to  15  sets  of  hand  tools. 

Supplies  of  dimension  and  finish  lumber  for  productive  shop- 
work. 

Value  of  equipment,  $1,000  to  $3,000. 

Annual  cost  of  supplies  per  pupil,  $10  to  $15. 

Electrical.  — The  work  of  a general  electrical  shop 
includes  shopwork  in  house  wiring,  armature  and  field 
winding,  power-plant  operation,  telegraph  and  telephone, 


Equipment  for  electric  wiring  for  10  to  15  pupils: 

1 skeleton  house  constructed  of  full-sized  material. 

10  to  15  sets  of  hand  tools  (hammers,  pliers,  screwdrivers,  etc.). 

2 sets  of  brace  and  bits  with  angle  and  bit  extensions. 

1 standard  high-reading  ammeter. 

1 standard  low-reading  ammeter. 

1 standard  high-reading  voltmeter. 

1 standard  low-reading  voltmeter. 

2 motor-generator  sets. 

2 testing  magnetos. 

2 sets  of  stocks  and  dies. 

2 soldering  irons  and  torches. 

2 sets  of  pipe  cutters. 

3 annunciators. 

1 12-inch  or  14-inch  engine  lathe  with  screw-cutting  attach- 
ment. 


Open  Partition  * 

Booths  for  Wiring; 

(2  or  3 Stones) 

rwrrm  i m 

l Tilting  Bins 

1 I 

1 1 

^ | Pipe  Rc*cK 

1 I 

1 | 

"T 

— j-Tool  Window 

1 

1 

l 1 

1 

1 

1 

1 Tool  (X  Stock 

1 Room 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

L 

1 

1 I 
1 

1 

— Shelving  — 

Fig.  1 33.  — Typical  Shop  Equipped  fop  Unit  Trade  Course  in  Electrical  Trades. 


and  general  repair  work.  In  some  schools  it  will  be 
possible  to  have  separate  rooms  equipped  for  each  of 
these  occupations.  Each  shop  should  be  equipped  with 
the  usual  tool  and  locker  rooms,  and  in  addition  they 
should  be  supplied  with  adequate  electrical  power 
facilities  for  experimental  and  practice  work. 

Rooms  in  which  instruction  in  house  wiring  is  given 
will  need  a large  amount  of  floor  space  on  which  to  erect 
panel  partitions,  and  even  full-sized  buildings  for  practice 
wiring. 

In  the  construction  of  the  building  a large  number  of 
outlets  should  be  left  in  the  walls  and  floors  for  future 
electrical  connections.  These  should  be  connected  to  a 
switchboard  by  means  of  oversize  conduit,  so  as  to 
enable  future  changes  in  the  capacity  or  number  of  con- 
ductors. 


A stock  of  motor  and  generator  parts,  armatures,  transformers, 
and  magnets  for  wiring  practice. 

1 gas  furnace  and  soldering  irons. 

Benches  with  machinists’  vises  for  pupils’  use  in  practice 
work. 

Supplies  of  bell  wire,  new  code  rubber-covered  wire,  bells, 
push  buttons,  conduit,  metal  molding,  flexible  conduit,  duplex 
wire,  and  lamp  cord,  etc. 

Fittings  for  pipe  and  metal  molding,  outlet  boxes,  pull  boxes, 
switchboard  fittings,  solder,  and  flux,  etc. 

Value  of  equipment,  $1,000  to  $3,000. 

Annual  cost  of  supplies  per  pupil,  $10  to  S15. 

Printing.  — Rooms  to  be  utilized  for  instruction  in 
printing  should  be  lighted  on  two  sides  and  with  northern 
light  if  possible.  The  light  should  be  diffused  over  the 
entire  room,  and  the  glass  area  larger  than  that  furnished 
to  the  usual  room.  In  wiring  the  building  for  electric 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  FOR  VOCATIONAL  SCHOOLS 


169 


lights  ceiling  outlets  should  be  left  for  drop  cords  to 
type  cases. 

As  machines  in  the  printing  shop  are  motor  driven, 
it  is  desirable  to  locate  the  presses  so  that  wiring  may 
be  run  to  machines  through  concealed  conduit.  The 
advice  of  a skilled  pressman  should  be  obtained  in 
locating  the  machines.  If  the  equipment  is  to  include 
linotype  and  monotype  machines,  provision  should 
be  made  for  the  installation  of  these  machines  in  rooms 
apart  from  the  room  to  be  used  for  the  general  course 
in  printing. 


wood  finishing  to  have  a room  for  varnishing  that  may 
be  made  dust  proof,  and  which  is  supplied  with  good 
light,  heat,  and  ventilation. 

In  the  general  shop  cross  sections  of  house  partitions 
containing  walls,  ceiling,  door  and  window  openings 
should  be  constructed,  on  which  to  give  demonstrations 
and  practice  work.  As  productive  projects  brought 
into  this  shop  to  be  finished  will  necessarily  occupy 
a considerable  amount  of  floor  space,  a large  floor  area 
will  be  required,  as  well  as  additional  room  in  which 
to  store  the  finished  articles. 


Table 


Stitcher 

Punch 

Job 

Press 

Job 

Press 

2 3 A 5 6 7fl3'0 


Fig.  134.  — Typical  Shop  Equipped  pop  Unit  Trade  Course  in  Printing. 


Printing  equipment  for  8 to  12  pupils: 

6 double  cabinets  or  racks  containing  cases  for  job  and  news 
• type,  leads,  slugs,  rules,  and  spacing. 

1  imposing  stone,  32  by  60  inches. 

1 paper  cutter,  30  inches. 

2 job  presses,  not  less  than  10  by  15  inches. 

1  cylinder  press,  pony  size. 

1 proof  press. 

1 punch  machine. 

1 stitcher. 

Adequate  supplies,  such  as  type,  leads,  slugs,  rules,  spaces, 
sticks,  galleys,  chases,  leaders,  quads,  quoins,  furniture,  and  stock 
of  paper  for  productive  job  work. 

Value  of  equipment  (not  including  cylinder  press),  $1,000  to 
$10,000. 

Annual  cost  of  supplies  per  pupil,  $5  to  $10. 

House  Painting  and  Decorating.  — A room  fitted  up 
for  instruction  in  house  painting  and  wood  finishing 
should  be  well  ventilated,  well  lighted,  and  furnished 
with  a stock  room  that  is  fireproof.  It  is  necessary  in 


For  a class  of  10  to  15  pupils,  the  school  should  pro- 
vide : 

10  to  15  sets  of  good  brushes;  to  include  one  each  of : 2-inch 
varnish,  3-inch  varnish,  3-inch  shellac,  2-inch  stain,  3-inch  stain, 
2-inch  paint,  3-inch  paint,  4-inch  paint,  4-inch  flat  duster,  and 
3 assorted  sizes  of  sign-writers’  pencils. 

10  to  15  easels  for  color  and  drawing  work. 

3  each  of  6-foot  and  8-foot  step-ladders. 

2  each  16-foot  and  18-foot  extension  ladders. 

2 pairs  ladder  jacks. 

6 pairs  tilly  trusses  9 feet. 

1 lot  of  plank  for  scaffolding. 

15  putty  knives. 

Cases  with  metal  drawers  should  be  provided  as  follows : 
12  to  hold  s pounds  each  of  dry  or  pigment  color;  3 to  hold  20 
pounds  each  of  same. 

3 6o-gallon  metal  tanks  for  oil,  benzine,  and  turpentine. 

2 drop  cloths  24  by  36  feet. 

3 drop  cloths  4 feet  6 inches  by  32  feet. 

Adequate  supplies  of  drawing  paper,  cardboard,  paintbrushes, 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


170 


charcoal,  rest  sticks,  colors  dry  and  in  oil,  oils,  stains,  varnish, 
and  lead  for  practical  work. 

Value  of  equipment,  $400  to  $1500. 

Annual  cost  of  supplies  per  pupil,  $5  to  $10. 

Sheet  Metal.  — A room  fitted  up  for  a sheet-metal  shop 
needs  ample  floor  space.  Projects  made  of  sheet  metal 
often  require  a large  area  in  which  to  assemble  the  parts. 
As  pattern  drafting  is  an  essential  part  of  the  work 
in  the  sheet-metal  shop,  large  tables  on  which  to  de- 
velop and  lay  out  patterns  should  be  provided  as  a 


part  of  the  equipment.  Good  light  will  also  be  necessary 
for  this  work. 

For  a class  of  10  to  15  pupils,  the  equipment  should 
include : 

5 double  drafting  tables,  tops  42  by  54  inches. 

3 work  tables,  tops  48  by  96  inches. 

1 beading  machine. 

1 burring  machine. 

1 bench  plate. 

1 brake,  3 feet. 


Fig.  136. — Typical  Shop  Equipment  for  a Unit  Trade  Course  in  Sheet  Metal. 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  FOR  VOCATIONAL  SCHOOLS 


171 


1 brake,  8 feet. 

1 crimping  machine. 

1 beak  horn, 
x blow  horn. 

1 folder  machine. 

2 gas  furnaces. 

1 forming  machine. 

1 each  hollow,  round,  straight  mandrel. 

1 square  shears,  36  inches. 

1 circle  shears,  32  inches. 

1 double  seamer. 

1 turning  machine. 

1 wiring  machine. 

1 bench  punch  and  shear. 

10  to  15  sets  hand  tools,  and  miscellaneous  small  tools. 
Value  of  equipment,  $750  to  $2000. 

Annual  cost  of  supplies  per  pupil,  $5  to  $15. 


1 skeleton  of  a building  for  practice  work. 

5 plumbers’  kits. 

6 each  of  xo-inch  and  14-inch  pipe  wrenches. 

3 each  18-inch  and  24-inch  chain  tongs. 

2 each  24-inch  and  36-inch  chain  tongs. 

Sets  of  stocks  and  dies,  cutters,  and  supplies  for  lead  work. 

A supply  of  water,  gas,  and  lead  pipe,  fittings  and  plumbing 
fixtures  for  practice  work,  including  water-closets,  urinals,  lava- 
tories, sinks,  bath  tubs,  trap  vents,  and  drain  and  drainage  pipes. 

Value  of  equipment,  $1000  to  $2500. 

Annual  cost  of  supplies  per  pupil,  $10  to  $15. 

Pattern  Making.  — In  general  construction,  a pattern- 
making  shop  is  similar  to  a carpenter  shop.  Unless  the 
school  includes  a foundry,  a small  furnace  for  melting 
white  metal  or  brass  should  be  available.  This  should 


scale: 


Fig.  137.  — Typical  Shop  Equipped  for  a Unit  Trade  Course  in  Plumbing. 


Plumbing.  — In  designing  a room  for  plumbing, 
provision  should  be  made  for  more  than  the  average 
ceiling  height.  This  is  necessary  in  order  to  provide 
for  the  installation  of  plumbing  systems  in  practice 
houses  of  at  least  two  stories  and  basement.  In  some 
cases,  schools  have  arranged  for  two  floors  of  the  building 
to  be  given  to  plumbing,  and  cut  large  openings  in  the 
floors  through  which  to  extend  the  rough  work.  In  any 
case,  it  is  necessary  to  provide  500  to  700  square  feet 
of  earth  floor  space  for  installing  drainage  systems  in 
tile  and  cast  iron  pipe. 

For  a class  of  10  to  15  pupils,  the  equipment  should 
include : 

3  metal-topped  tables,  tops  J by  42  by  96  inches. 

12  melting  pots  with  gas  burners  (or  plumbers’  furnaces). 

2 plumbers’  gasoline  torches. 


be  in  a separate  room  with  molding  benches,  sand,  etc., 
for  making  test  runs  of  certain  patterns.  A pattern 
shop  usually  requires  large  storage  space  for  finished 
patterns.  These  should  be  in  a separate  room. 

A typical  equipment  includes  : 

Benches  for  10  to  15  pupils. 

1 band  saw  of  not  less  than  30  inches. 

1 8-inch  jointer  or  bench  planer. 

1 saw  table. 

1 pattern-maker’s  lathe. 

1 trimmer. 

3 wood-turning  lathes. 

1 glue  pot,  2 quarts  capacity. 

1 set  of  flasks  for  molding. 

2 sets  molder’s  small  tools. 

2 barrels  of  molding  sand. 

1 lot  of  white  metal. 

1 furnace  for  melting  white  metal. 


172 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


10  to  15  sets  of  hand  tools. 

A stock  of  white  pine  for  patterns. 

Value  of  equipment,  $800  to  $2000. 

Annual  cost  of  supplies  per  pupil,  $5  to  $10. 

Related  Subjects.  — As  the  vocational  industrial  shop 
differs  from  the  usual  manual  training  room,  so  the 
related  science  laboratory  differs  from  the  usual  physics 
or  chemistry  laboratory.  More  floor  space  must  be  pro- 
vided for  demonstration  in  applied  science.  The  course 
of  study  should  require  the  use  of  full  size  apparatus, 
such  as  block  and  tackle,  jack  screws,  derricks,  gasoline 
engines,  and  commercial  testing  machines,  as  well  as 
tables  and  apparatus  for  making  analyses  of  paints, 
oils,  fuels,  electrical  tests,  etc.,  which  may  be  related  to 
the  various  industrial  subjects. 


and  instruction  material  will  differ  in  the  two  types  of 
instruction. 

In  addition  to  the  usual  drawing  tables,  storage 
facilities  for  blue  prints  should  be  liberally  provided.  In 
the  factory  type  of  construction,  it  will  be  possible  to 
adjust  the  relative  amount  of  floor  space  between  shops, 
lecture  rooms,  and  rooms  for  related  subjects,  as  the 
school  develops. 

The  Lecture  or  Classroom  in  vocational  schools 
may  be  the  usual  classrooms  fitted  with  either  chairs 
or  school  desks,  and  located  away  from  the  noise  of  the 
shops. 

The  General  School.  — Whenever  plans  are  being 
made  for  giving  vocational  training  as  a department 
or  class  in  a general  school,  the  architect  should  incor- 
porate in  his  plan  the  same  provisions  for 
-|f|  shops  as  have  been  outlined  for  a factory 
Lk  building. 


Fig.  138.  — Worcester  Boys’  Trade  School,  Worcester,  Mass. 


The  Science  Laboratory  should  be  equipped  with  a 
projecting  lantern,  and  should  be  located  on  the  ground 
floor  or  provided  with  a freight  elevator  in  order  that 
testing  equipment  may  be  moved  in  and  out  of  the  room. 
In  wiring  the  room  for  light  and  power  service,  a switch- 
board should  be  installed  with  a large  capacity  for  experi- 
mental work  with  both -high  and  low  voltage. 

Storage  rooms  and  storage  cases  for  the  science  equip- 
ment should  be  provided  in  the  plans  for  the  building. 
These  can  be  constructed  with  temporary  partitions  and 
adjusted  from  time  to  time  to  meet  the  needs  of  the 
room. 

The  Related  Drawing  Room  need  not  differ  greatly 
from  the  usual  drawing  room  as  planned  for  high  schools. 
Dark  rooms  for  printing  and  developing  blue  prints 
and  the  installation  of  blue-printing  machines,  should 
be  available.  It  is  desirable  to  have  separate  rooms  for 
mechanical  and  architectural  drawing,  as  the  models 


Old  Buildings,  Factories,  or  Industrial 
Plants  as  Temporary  Quarters.  - — Old  build- 
ings or  industrial  plants  which  may  be 
used  for  vocational  schools  should  at  the 
best  be  regarded  as  temporary  quarters,  in 
which  to  develop  vocational  education  in 
— the  community.  Few  buildings  have  been 
constructed  in  the  past  which  may  be 
adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  productive  shop. 

It  is  often  desirable  for  the  community 
to  begin  vocational  schools  in  these  build- 
ings, in  order  that  a new  building  may  be 
more  efficiently  planned.  As  a rule,  school 
authorities  should  not  regard  old  buildings 
which  have  been  abandoned  or  disused  as 
fit  quarters  in  which  to  establish  voca- 
tional schools.  Where  such  schools  are 
established,  it  will  often  be  necessary  to  enlarge  rooms 
by  combining  two  or  three  and  removing  the  partitions. 
Quarters  obtained  in  industrial  plants  should  also  be 
regarded  as  temporary,  unless  the  plant  furnishes  oppor- 
tunities for  obtaining  practical  experience  in  the  indus- 
trial subject  for  which  the  school  is  organized. 

The  Part-time  School.  — The  conditions  under  which 
part-time  pupils  are  instructed  do  not  usually  require 
special  buildings,  although,  where  this  work  is  extensive, 
as  in  Milwaukee,  a special  building  will  in  time  result. 
The  all-day  trade  school  usually  has  all  the  facilities 
for  this  instruction.  It  is  impossible  at  this  time  to 
define  in  detail  all  of  the  varieties  of  part-time  classes 
which  may  be  organized  under  the  provisions  of  the 
Federal  act. 

The  Evening  Industrial  School.  — Evening  instruction 
can  be  given  only  in  such  subjects  as  will  increase  skill 
or  knowledge  in  the  occupation  in  which  the  worker  is 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  FOR  VOCATIONAL  SCHOOLS 


i73 


engaged  as  his  daily  employment,  or  as  will  lead  to  pro- 
motion or  advancement  in  that  work.  The  time  avail- 
able in  an  evening  school  is  so  short  that  it  is  impossible 
to  teach  a skilled  trade  to  any  one  unless  he  is  engaged  in 
daily  work  affording  him  opportunity  to  apply  the  skill 
or  knowledge  gained  in  the  evening  school,  or  unless 
the  daily  employment  gives  an  experience  which  will 
enable  the  worker,  with  the  knowledge  or  skill  acquired 
in  an  evening  school,  to 
secure  promotion  in  that 
occupation.  The  work 
can  be  most  effectively 
given  when  workers  in 
similar  or  allied  occupa- 
tions are  grouped  to- 
gether. 

The  all-day  school  is 
suitable  for  evening  in- 
struction if  sufficient  light 
is  provided.  Since  much 
of  the  instruction  in  the 
shops  is  trade  extension, 
the  equipment  must  in- 
clude commercial  tools 
and  machines. 

A Few  Type  Buildings. 

— At  different  points 
throughout  this  chapter 
will  be  found  illustrations 
showing  the  floor  plans 
and  elevations  of  a few 
of  the  buildings  used  in 
the  United  States  for  in- 
dustrial and  trade  educa- 
tion. It  was  deemed 
advisable  to  present  il- 
lustrations of  the  three 
different  types  of  building 
discussed  in  the  foregoing 
pages,  the  new  building 
built  for  the  purpose,  the 
shop  or  factory  adapted 
for  the  purpose,  and  the 
old  school  building  remodeled.  As  there  are  pronounced 
variations  in  each  type,  a number  of  illustrations  are 
given. 

No  attempt  has  been  made  to  include  all  or  any  con- 
siderable number  of  the  many  excellent  buildings  which 
are  to  an  increasing  degree  being  used  for  industrial 
and  trade  education.  A few  have  been  selected  for 
presentation  solely  from  the  point  of  view  of  their  useful- 
ness to  illustrate  the  different  types  and  variations  of 
types  of  buildings  used  in  the  country. 


In  order  that  these  illustrations  may  be  of  larger 
interest  and  helpfulness  to  those  studying  the  problems 
of  industrial  school  construction  and  equipment,  this 
section  of  the  chapter  gives  a brief  resume  of  the  main 
facts  about  each  school  presented. 

The  Worcester  Boys’  Trade  School,  Worcester,  Mass. 
History  and  Location.  — The  Worcester  Boys’  Trade 
School  was  established  in  February,  1910,  with  an  enroll- 
ment of  52  boys.  It  is 
located  one  block  from 
the  Worcester  City  Hall 
on  a tract  containing 
45,000  square  feet.  Ade- 
quate car  service  makes 
the  institution  accessible 
from  all  parts  of  the  city 
and  vicinity.  Natural 
light  and  ventilation  are 
not  obscured  or  interfered 
with  by  adjacent  build- 
ings. The  school  is  sup- 
ported by  public  funds. 

Buildings.  — Buildings 
especially  designed  for 
the  purpose  were  erected 
to  house  the  school.  The 
left  wing  of  the  main 
structure,  a recitation 
building  of  three  floors 
and  a basement,  and  a 
shop  of  three  floors,  was 
built  in  1910.  In  1913 
the  main  building  was 
constructed.  The  build- 
ings are  of  brick,  per- 
manent brick  and  tile 
partitions,  hardwood 
floors,  and  electric  lighted. 
The  main  building  con- 
tains the  gymnasium , 
electrical  and  steam  prac- 
tice departments,  two 
recitation  rooms,  ad- 
ministrative offices,  library,  drafting  room,  carpentry 
department,  and  paint  shop.  On  the  third  floor  is  the 
printing  department  and  assembly  hall.  Plans  for  future 
enlargement  of  the  institution  contemplate  the  erection 
of  buildings  as  large  again,  equipped  with  all  necessary 
machinery.  The  present  value  of  the  structures  now  in 
use,  including  heat  and  lighting  plant,  is  given  at 
$146,657.62.  Natural  light  and  ventilation  of  buildings 
are  ample. 

Classrooms  for  related  subjects  join  the  shops.  Other 


174 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


classrooms  are  apart  from  the  shops,  but  all  are  in  the 
same  building.  The  estimate  of  floor  space  varies  per 
pupil  for  the  different  departments,  being:  Machine 
shop,  ioo  feet;  electrical,  no  feet;  steam  power  plant, 
175  feet;  drafting  room,  50  feet;  printing,  152  feet; 


Fig.  140. — David  Ranken,  Jr.,  School  of  Mechanical  Trades. 

pattern  making,  149  feet;  cabinetmaking,  96  feet; 
carpentry,  130  feet;  painting,  214  feet. 

Equipment  and  Courses.  — Equipment  is  valued  at 
$61,099.28,  apportioned  as  follows:  Machine  shop, 
$32>27°-3I  i carpenter  shop,  $2440.53;  cabinet  shop, 
$3830. 51 ; pattern  shop,  $7414.01  ; paint  shop, 


$237.74;  electrical  department,  $6284.27;  drafting 
department,  $2071.77;  printing  department,  $6550.14. 

The  shop  student  capacity  is  : Machinist,  65  ; electri- 
cal, 20  ; steam  power  plant,  20  ; drafting,  44  ; printing, 
15;  pattern  making,  24;  cabinetmaking,  50;  painting, 
10;  carpentry,  16.  The  school  is  able  to  take  care  of 
twice  as  many  boys  as  the  capacity  of  the  shops  indicates, 
because  the  classes  are  so  arranged  that  it  takes  two 
weeks  to  complete  the  cycle  of  instruction.  One-ha  If  the 
pupils  are  in  the  shop  and  one-half  in  school  each  week. 

Miscellaneous  Data.  — There  is  a minimum  age  for  en- 
trance of  14  years.  All  courses  require  four  years  for 
completion,  and  there  are  42  weeks  in  the  school  year. 
No  part-time  instruction  is  given.  There  is  an  evening 
school  which  requires  52  sessions  for  all  except  the  gas- 
engine  course,  there  being  35  sessions  required  for  that. 
No  extension  work  is  conducted. 

The  David  Ranken,  Jr.,  School  of  Mechanical  Trades, 
St.  Louis,  Mo.  History  and  Location.  — This  insti- 
tution was  endowed  in  1907  with  an  initial  gift  of 
$1 ,500,000  by  the  philanthropist  whose  name  it  bears.  A 
subsequent  donation  brought  the  total  up  to  $3,000,000. 

The  terms  and  conditions  of  the  endowment  as  pre- 
scribed by  the  donor  are  that  it  “ is  to  be  used  for  train- 
ing and  fitting  boys  and  men  for  the  mechanical  and 
manual  trades  and  occupations  . . . who  shall  be 

skilled  in  their  respective  trades  and  occupations  and 
have  such  education  as  will  best  fit  them  to  serve  the 
community  and  the  state  in  such  occupations.”  The 
founder  believed  there  was  need  of  an  institution  to 
provide  education  in  ordinary  mechanical  trades  and 
to  appreciate  the  dignity  of  labor.  His  idea  was  that 
public  schools  and  other  educational  institutions  had 
“ not  only  failed  to  provide  training  in  mechanical 
trades,  but  had  tended  to  draw  boys  away  from  the 
consideration  of  them  by  the  creation  of  a prejudice 
against  manual  labor.  Boys  who  could  have  suc- 
ceeded as  mechanics  were,  in  consequence,  caused  to 
engage  in  pursuits  either  already  overcrowded  or  for 
which  they  had  no  aptitude.”  Mr.  Ranken  stipulated 
that  the  trades  taught  in  the  school  created  and  main- 
tained by  his  money  should  be  those  in  which  there  is  a 
demand  for  practical  workmen  in  the  community  and 
the  state. 

The  site  was  donated  by  the  founder.  It  is  300  by  600 
feet,  or  approximately  3 acres,  located  in  a residential 
part  of  the  city  of  St.  Louis  winch  is  rapidly  becoming 
industrial  in  character.  It  is  not,  and,  by  reason  of 
streets  on  all  sides,  cannot  be  overshadowed  or  crowded 
by  adjacent  buildings.  There  is  thus  an  assured  maxi- 
mum of  natural  light  and  ventilation. 

It  is  accessible  by  a good  car  service  reaching  all  parts 
of  the  community.  The  plant  at  present  covers  about 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  FOR  VOCATIONAL  SCHOOLS 


i75 


30  per  cent  of  the  ground.  The  remainder  is  available, 
and  ample  for  recreation  purposes  and  future  additions 
to  the  buildings. 

Buildings.  — In  1909  the  first  of  the  buildings  was 
completed.  It  is  a three-story  brick,  especially  designed 
for  the  purpose.  Careful  attention  was  paid  in  the 
plans  to  lighting,  heating,  and  ventilation.  Electric 
lighting  is  used  throughout.  It  has  brick  partitions, 
and  the  flooring  is  carbolithic  laid  on  cement,  except 
in  the  shops,  where  wood  block  is  used.  The  building 
was  erected  during  a period  when  material  was  cheap 
and  wages  lower  than  in  recent  years,  and  its  total  cost 
was  $170,000,  and  initial  equipment  valued  at  $9000. 

This  building  faces  Cook  Avenue,  and  contains  six 
shops,  a drafting  room,  science  room,  library,  classroom, 
and  administrative  offices. 

The  second  building  was  completed  in  1912,  and  was 
also  especially  designed  for  its  purposes.  It  is  of  brick, 
with  hollow  tile  partitions,  carbolithic  floors  laid  on 
cement,  except  in  shops,  these  being  of  wood  block.  This 
structure  is  modern  in  all  respects  and  well  suited  for 
its  functions.  The  completion  of  this  building  brought 
the  total  value  of  buildings  of  the  David  Ranken,  Jr., 
School  up  to  approximately  $500,000,  as  estimated  in 
19x8. 

Equipment  and  Courses.  — The  equipment  for  teach- 
ing trades  was  inventoried  in  April,  1918,  as:  Brick- 
laying, $1200;  painting,  $1000;  electrical,  $9000;  pre- 
paratory, $1600;  machine  shop,  $30,000;  plumbing, 
$3000;  pattern  shop,  $4000;  carpentry  shop,  $7500; 
science,  $3500;  total,  $60,800.  The  steam  engineering 
class  uses  boiler  and  engine  room  equipment  not  included 
in  the  above  figures. 

There  are  three  schools  — day,  evening,  and  day 
cooperative.  The  institution  “ aims  to  give  the  boy 
without  experience  training  similar  to  that  received 
by  the  apprentice ; to  the  apprentice  such  instruction 
as  will  round  out  his  shopwork ; and  to  give  to  the 
journeyman  information  concerning  his  trade  that 
is  not  given  in  his  shop.  It  also  aims  to  obtain  the 
cooperation  of  manufacturers  who  acknowledge  the 
limitations  of  shop  instruction,  and  who  will  send  their 
apprentices  to  the  school  to  study  the  theory  of  their 
trade.”  The  institution  is  therefore  intensely  practical. 
The  trades  instruction  is  almost  entirely  individual,  and 
pupils,  except  in  stationary  engineering,  may  enter 
at  any  time.  The  great  majority  of  the  pupils  in  the 
evening  school  are  actively  engaged  in  the  trade,  the 
theory  or  practice  of  which  is  taught  in  the  school. 

Requirements  for  Admission.  — For  admission,  boys 
must  be  white,  15  years  and  over,  who  have  completed 
the  sixth  grade  of  the  public  schools  or  its  equivalent. 
In  the  day  school,  exception  is  made  in  favor  of  boys 


14  years  of  age  who  have  completed  the  work  of  the 
sixth  grade  or  equivalent,  are  physically  qualified  for 
the  work,  and  exhibit  particular  aptitudes  for  trade 
instruction.  All  applicants  must  be  in  good  physical 
condition.  Any  candidate  with  trade  experience,  but 
who  lacks  the  educational  qualifications,  may  make  up 
the  latter  in  special  classes  formed ' by  the  school  for 
preparatory  instruction. 

Cooperation  of  Employers.  — The  cooperative  classes 
were  organized  at  the  suggestion  of  the  St.  Louis  branch 
of  the  National  Metal  Trades  Association  for  the  in- 
struction of  apprentices  in  the  machinists’  and  pattern- 
making trades.  The  association,  through  its  shop  su- 
perintendents, provides  complete  instruction  in  the  use 
of  tools  and  machines,  leaving  the  theoretical  instruc- 
tion to  the  school.  The  institution  holds  out  a standing 
invitation  to  employers  of  apprentices  to  avail  them- 
selves of  the  work  offered  in  the  cooperative  classes. 
A minimum  of  16  years  of  age  is  required  for  admis- 
sion. Employers  pay  $15  per  year  tuition  for  each 
apprentice,  and  at  the  same  time  pay  the  regular  wages 
for  time  spent  in  attendance  at  the  school. 

Associations  of  manufacturers,  contractors,  workmen, 
and  men  and  boys  who  are  employed  by  the  day  but 
attend  evening  classes,  have  all  shown  considerable 
appreciation  of  the  school.  Employers  whose  appren- 
tices are  in  the  cooperative  classes  have  expressed  them- 
selves as  pleased  with  results,  and  the  general  attitude 
of  the  public  toward  the  institution  is  that  of  cordial 
good  will  and  respect  for  its  work. 

Miscellaneous  Data.  — A nominal  tuition  is  charged 
in  order  to  cause  pupils  to  take  the  work  seriously  and 
appreciate  the  opportunity,  as  well  as  for  the  purpose 
of  eliminating  the  undesirables  with  no  definite  purpose, 
who  drift  in  and  out  of  absolutely  free  schools  without 
completing  any  course.  Pupils  are  required  to  provide 
their  own  drawing  instruments,  paper,  and  incidental 
material.  Tools  and  supplies  in  the  shops  are  furnished 
by  the  school. 

There  were  in  March,  1918,  a total  of  302  graduates 
of  the  day-school  regular  trade  courses,  and  90  gradu- 
ates of  the  part-time  courses.  The  total  enrollment  for 
the  day  school  was  1402;  part-time  students,  312; 
evening  students,  4000. 

The  school  year  for  day  pupils  covers  a period  of  46 
weeks,  divided  into  three  terms.  The  evening-school 
year  covers  two  terms  of  three  weeks  each,  beginning 
in  October  and  in  January. 

The  Williamson  Free  School  of  Mechanical  Trades, 
Williamson  School,  Pa.  History  and  Location.  — 
December  1,  1885,  Isaiah  U.  Williamson  founded  the 
school  which  bears  his  name.  On  October  21,  1891, 
the  institution,  with  an  endowment  of  about  $2,000,000, 


176 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


and  in  the  shops  the  partitions  are  of 
yellow  pine  placed  as  needs  arise.  Owing 
to  the  amount  of  land  possessed  by  the 
school,  the  campus  has  been  so  arranged 
that  each  building  has  a maximum  of  light, 
air,  and  distance  from  other  buildings.  In 
the  main  the  buildings  have  been  carefully 
designed  for  their  purpose,  and  have  met 
the  requirements  satisfactorily.  Some  of 
the  buildings  erected  by  the  students  are 
somewhat  pretentious,  of  pleasing  architec- 
ture, and  well  built.  Electricity  is  used 
for  lighting,  and  there  is  a central  power 
and  steam-heating  plant. 

Equipment  and  Courses.  — In  the  shops 
approximately  163  square  feet  of  floor 
space,  including  locker  and  wash  room,  is 
figured  per  pupil.  For  academic  work  ap- 
proximately 18  square  feet  of  floor  space  per 
pupil  is  figured.  In  the  drawing  room  45 
Fig.  141.  — Free  School  oe  Mechanical  Trades,  Williamson,  Pennsylvania.  square  feet  per  pupil  is  allotted — this,  how- 
ever, including  supply  room  and  blue-print 
room.  Classrooms  are  in  the  shops  for  shop  subjects,  and 
apart  from  the  shops  for  cultural  and  related  subjects. 

The  trades  taught  are  : Agriculture,  including  a prac- 
tical and  scientific  course  in  dairying,  horticulture, 
and  general  farming;  carpentry,  bricklaying,  includ- 
ing range,  furnace,  and  boiler  setting,  etc. ; the  ma- 
chine trade  in  its  usual  details ; operating  engineering, 
including  care  of  steam  and  electrical  appliances,  steam 
fitting,  etc. ; and  pattern  making.  The  shops  are  well 
equipped  for  trade  teaching. 


ings  being  devoted  to  agriculture  and  the 
teaching  of  agriculture.  The  site  is  a 
beautiful  one  and  well  suited  to  its  purpose. 

Buildings.  — A few  of  the  buildings  were 
acquired  with  the  land.  The  rest  have 
been  constructed  especially  for  the  pur- 
poses for  which  they  are  being  used,  and 
most  of  them  were  erected  by  student 
labor,  giving  practical  instruction  to  the 
students  of  the  various  trades  involved. 
The  buildings  are  of  brick,  concrete,  and 
wood ; floorings  are  of  wood  and  concrete, 


became  a reality  and  opened  its  doors  for  its  first  session. 
The  endowment  is  its  sole  support.  No  fees  of  any  sort 
are  charged. 

The  declared  purpose  of  the  founder  was  to  give  to 
poor  and  deserving  boys  a good  English  education ; 
to  train  them  in  habits  of  morality,  economy,  and  in- 
dustry ; and  to  teach  them  trades.  The  school  is 
distinctly  vocational,  and  only  for  pupils  who  intend  to 
follow  for  a livelihood  the  trades  taught  them  there. 
No  others  will  be  admitted. 

The  institution  is  located  at  Williamson 
School  Station  on  the  central  division  of 
the  Pennsylvania  Railroad,  about  16  miles 
from  the  Broad  Street  Station  in  Phila- 
delphia. The  Media  Short  Line  electric 
cars  from  the  Sixty-ninth  Street  Terminal, 

Philadelphia,  also  reach  the  property.  The 
school  owns  a tract  of  230  acres  of  land, 
that  part  not  in  use  for  campus  and  build- 


Fig.  142.  — Agricultural  Building,  Free  School  of  Mechanical  Trades. 
Williamson,  Pennsylvania. 


Jt 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  FOR  VOCATIONAL  SCHOOLS 


I77 


The  value  of  this  equipment  is  given  as : Machinist’s 
trade,  $26,000  ; carpentry,  $8320  ; pattern-making  trade, 
$12,870;  bricklaying,  $3100;  operating  engineering, 
$27,690;  scientific  agriculture,  $27,300;  total,  $116,280. 
Operating  engineering  students  receive  their  practical 
training  in  the  steam  and  electrical  plant  of  the  insti- 
tution, which  provides  all  heat,  light,  and  power  needed. 
Each  scholar  takes  but  one  of  the  trades  mentioned. 

Requirements  for  Admission.  — Graduates  of  the 
Williamson  School  have  a reputation  for  thoroughness, 
and  as  high  as  98  per  cent  of  the  members  of  a gradu- 
ating class  have  immediately  started  as  journeymen  at 
the  trades  taught  them.  Admissions  are 
made  in  April  of  each  year,  and  first  pref- 
erence is  given  to  boys  from  Philadelphia, 
or  Bucks,  Montgomery,  and  Delaware 
Counties,  Pa. ; second  to  those  from  else- 
where in  the  state ; third  to  those  from 
New  Jersey  ; and  finally  to  applicants  born 
elsewhere  in  the  United  States.  None  but 
natives  of  the  United  States  are  eligible 
for  admission.  Candidates  must  be  not 
less  than  16  nor  more  than  18  years  of 
age,  healthy,  able-bodied,  possessed  of 
natural  aptitude  and  liking  for  mechani- 
cal or  agricultural  work.  They  must  have 
sufficient  education  to  enter  readily  upon 
the  school  work. 

Applications  for  admission  considerably 
exceed  capacity  and  there  is  a waiting  list, 
for  which  boys  of  not  less  than  15  years  of 
age  and  upward  and  who  will  not  be  more 
than  18  at  the  next  admission  period  may 
qualify. 

Students  Are  Indentured.  — A prelimi- 
nary trial  is  given  applicants,  and  those 
who  are  found  satisfactory  are  bound  to  the 
trustees  as  indentured  apprentices  for  a 
term  of  three  years.  This  indenture  may  be 
canceled  by  the  trustees  at  any  time  for  incompetency, 
bad  conduct,  or  reasons  compelling  the  conclusion  that 
a boy  is  undesirable  for  future  support  and  education. 
The  scholars,  by  the  indenture,  are  obligated  to  con- 
form to  all  regulations  and  restrictions  of  the  board  of 
trustees  or  their  representatives ; and  all  right  of  claim 
to  control  them  during  the  period  they  remain  at  the 
school  is  lodged  with  the  trustees. 

Miscellaneous  Data.  — The  school  can  accommodate 
about  250  students.  Their  life  is  made  to  conform  as 
far  as  possible  to  good  family  standards  in  so  far  as 
living  quarters  are  concerned.  The  boys  are  divided 
into  families  of  24,  each  having  its  matron  and  its  own 
distinct  home  or  cottage,  cared  for  by  its  occupants. 


These  homes  contain  no  kitchens,  dining  rooms,  or 
laundries.  These,  as  well  as  the  dining  hall,  are  located 
in  other  buildings.  Special  attention  is  paid  to  the  moral 
training  of  the  students.  The  school  is  nonsectarian, 
but  each  student  is  required  on  entrance  to  designate 
his  denominational  preference  and  thereafter  to  attend 
service  regularly  at  its  nearest  place  of  worship.  A 
four  weeks’  vacation  in  summer  and  short  vacations  at 
Easter,  Fourth  of  July,  Thanksgiving,  and  Christmas 
are  given  to  students  deserving  them. 

The  Lathrop  School  of  Mechanical  Trades,  Kansas 
Cily,  Mo.  History  and  Location.  — The  Lathrop  School 


of  Mechanical  Trades  — a part  of  the  public-school 
system  of  Kansas  City,  Mo.  — was  organized  in  1911  as 
a boys’  industrial  school,  and  continued  as  such  until 
1916,  when  it  was  reorganized  into  a trade  school.  It 
was  housed  first  in  an  old  brick  school  building  erected 
in  1900.  The  site  is  well  located,  is  accessible  by  car 
lines  from  all  parts  of  the  city,  has  ample  natural  light 
and  ventilation,  and  is  not  overshadowed  or  crowded 
by  adjacent  buildings.  The  ground  is  277  by  168 
feet,  and  the  buildings  cover  about  75  per  cent  of  this 
area. 

Buildings.  — In  addition  to  the  old  main  building, 
a new  shop  building  of  modern  factory  type  is  being 
constructed  in  units  by  the  pupils  in  the  Building 


Fig.  143. — Lathrop  School  of  Mechanical  Trades,  Kansas  City,  Missouri. 


i?8 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Trades  Classes.  The  first  of  these  was  completed  in 
1916  and  the  second  in  1917.  Further  extensions 
will  be  erected  as  needed.  Both  are  constructed  of 
brick,  with  permanent  plastered  partitions.  The  total 
value  of  buildings  is  inventoried  at  $91,000,  not  includ- 
ing value  of  the  site. 

Equipment  and  Courses.  — The  equipment  is  valued 
at : Cabinetmaking,  $3300  ; electricity,  $1000  ; plumb- 
ing, $350;  painting,  $300;  printing,  $3500 ; carpentry, 
$200;  sheet  metal,  $600  ; total,  $9250. 

The  minimum  age  requirement  for  entrance  is  14 
years  for  all  courses,  and  each  trade  requires  2 years  of 
40  weeks  each. 


In  the  evening  school  electricity,  sign  writing,  cabi- 
netmaking, printing,  and  sheet-metal  working  are 
taught.  Two  terms  of  35  nights  each  are  required  per 
year.  Part-time  school  instruction  is  given  in  print- 
ing. 

Miscellaneous  Data.  -The  capacity  of  the  school  is 
given  as  follows  in  the  various  courses : Electricity, 
24;  carpentry,  24;  plumbing,  12;  painting,  24;  sheet- 
metal  working,  24;  total,  162.  Enrollment  March  1, 
1918,  was  reported  as:  Plumbing,  5;  sheet-metal 
working,  8 ; advanced  electricity,  24 ; cabinetmaking, 
14;  wood  turning,  16;  printing,  10;  painting,  15; 
elementary  electricity,  15  ; carpentry,  14  ; and  4 men  in 
the  evening  printing  class;  total,  125  pupils. 

The  William  Hood  Dunwoody  Industrial  Institute, 
Minneapolis,  Minn.  History  and  Location.  — By  the 
will  of  Mr.  William  Hood  Dunwoody,  a wealthy  flour 
manufacturer,  who  died  February  8,  1914,  approxi- 


mately $3,000,000  was  devised  for  the  purpose  of  es- 
tablishing an  industrial  school  which  should  be  free, 
without  restriction  of  race  or  color,  to  all  residents  of 
the  state  of  Minnesota  and  the  city  of  Minneapolis. 
Twelve  trustees  were  designated  by  the  will  to  start 
the  work  of  carrying  out  the  desire  of  the  donor.  They 
met  and  organized  themselves  into  a corporation.  The 
school  opened  in  December,  1914,  with  a registration 
of  80  students  in  four  trades.  The  quarters  occupied 
were  temporary.  In  1915  Mrs.  Dunwoody  died,  and 
by  her  will  left  an  additional  $2,000,000  to  the  school, 
thus  bringing  the  endowment  total  to  $5,000,000. 

The  trustees  bought  a 15-acre  tract  fronting  on  the 


parade  grounds,  in  Minneapolis,  upon  which  to  con- 
struct the  buildings  and  plant  of  the  new  institution, 
which  it  was  planned  to  make  as  near  ideal  as  possible. 
The  site  conforms  to  the  ideal.  It  is  sufficiently  large 
for  present  and  future  needs,  located  centrally,  acces- 
sible to  good  street  car  service,  and  in  a good  neighbor- 
hood. It  is  in  close  proximity  to  a public  playground, 
and  there  is  no  possibility  of  the  maximum  of  natural 
light  and  ventilation  being  interfered  with. 

When  work  began  in  December,  1914,  there  were  80 
students  and  fcur  trades  or  occupations  taught.  In 
January,  1915,  the  number  of  trades  was  increased  to 
seven  and  the  enrollment  to  175.  The  present  enroll- 
ment is  in  excess  of  650  and  the  capacity  1350,  with  lists 
of  subjects  taught  as  given  below. 

In  September,  1915,  the  day-school  enrollment  was 
increased  to  250;  and  in  October  a night  school  of  ap- 
proximately 1500  men  was  started.  Dull  season,  part- 


Fig.  144.  — William  Hood  Dunwoody  Industrial  Institute,  Minneapolis,  Minnesota. 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  FOR  VOCATIONAL  SCHOOLS 


179 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


i So 

time,  and  extension  classes  were  started  in  the  winter 
of  1915-1916.  Recruiting  men  in  the  Enlisted  Re- 
serve and  war  training  began  at  Dunwoody  in  April, 
1917.  The  school  moved  into  its  new  quarters  August 
1,  1917. 

During  the  war  all  the  regular  peace-time  activities 
of  the  school  were  continued  on  approximately  the  same 
basis  as  before  the  war ; all  war  work  was  taken  on  in 
addition.  The  war  work  included  training  of  enlisted 
men  in  the  navy  and  army  for  trade,  and  the  mechani- 
cal occupations.  It  also  included  the  training  of  con- 
scripted men  in  both  day  and  evening  school  work. 


by  two  passageways  on  each  floor,  one  at  the  front  of 
the  buildings  and  one  at  approximately  the  center. 
Future  plans  for  expansion  call  for  four  more  shop 
units,  an  auditorium,  administration  building,  gym- 
nasium, and  power  house.  A set  of  sketches  has  been 
made  for  the  complete  plan  of  10  buildings  and  athletic 
field,  equipment  for  them  to  be  provided  in  accordance 
with  the  industrial  demands  of  the  state. 

Equipment  and  Courses.  — Present  equipment  is 
valued  at : Automobile  department,  $10,000 ; baking 
and  laboratory,  $30,000 ; aeroplane  department, 
$10,500 ; machine  shop,  $30,000 ; power  laboratory, 


Buildings.  — The  new,  especially  designed  buildings 
of  the  institute  were  completed  in  1917  and  are  now 
occupied  and  in  use.  There  are  two  units  of  reinforced 
concrete  with  brick  facings,  each  75  feet  wide  by  285 
feet  long,  two  stories  high,  with  full  basement.  A 
total  of  1 25,000  square  feet  of  floor  space  is  thus  obtained, 
equivalent  to  a six-story  building  75  feet  wide  and  285 
feet  long.  Partitions  are  of  wood  and  glass,  temporarily 
placed  as  necessities  require ; fireproof  paint  is  used 
and  the  structures  are  made  fireproof.  Creosoted 
paving  blocks  are  used  as  flooring.  There  are  27  class- 
rooms, in  which  over  800  students  can  be  given  instruc- 
tion. The  classrooms  are  used  for  recitation  and  study 
purposes.  The  two  parallel  buildings  are  connected 


$15,000;  woodworking  department,  $10,000;  total. 
$141,500. 

The  day  courses  offered  by  the  school  are : Automo- 
bile work,  baking,  building  construction,  drawing  and 
design,  electricity,  gas  manufacturing,  heat  treatment, 
machine-shop  work,  plumbing,  printing,  radio  work, 
sheet-metal  trade,  slide  rule,  steam  fitting,  telephony, 
welding,  aviation  motors,  cooking,  carpenters,  copper- 
smiths, metal  workers,  blacksmiths,  vulcanizing,  pilots, 
quartermasters,  machinists’  mates,  and  Liberty  motor 
ignition  for  the  aviation  section  of  the  army. 

Evening  courses  are  offered  in : Automobile  repair 
and  construction,  building  construction  (including  car- 
pentry, mill-room  work,  building  foreman,  cost  esti- 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  FOR  VOCATIONAL  SCHOOLS 


181 


mating,  and  concrete  construction),  electricity  (general), 
gas  manufacture,  heat  treatment,  plumbing,  printing 
(composition,  press  work,  and  linotype  work),  sheet 
metal,  slide  rule,  steam  fitting,  and  telephony.  These 
courses  are  divided  into  short  units  of  14  to  30  lessons 
each. 

Evening  courses  running  through  the  entire  evening- 
school  term  of  50  lessons  are : Baking,  drawing  and  de- 
sign, building-construction  drafting,  sheet-metal  draft- 
ing, interior  decorating,  machine  drafting  and  design, 
machine-shop  subjects,  welding. 

Evening-school  courses  are  arranged  on  a basis  of  two 
hours  per  night,  two  nights  per  week.  Shop  courses  are 
arranged  four  hours  per  night,  one  night  per  week. 
The  length  of  the  evening- 
school  season  is  25  weeks, 
or  a total  of  100  hours. 

The  units  in  practically 
all  classes  are  arranged  to 
cover  a period  of  from 
two  to  three  years.  A 
certificate  is  issued  upon 
the  completion  of  any 
unit ; a diploma  is  issued 
upon  the  completion  of 
all  units  in  a course. 

Boys'  Technical  High 
School , Milwaukee,  Wis. 

History  and  Location.  — 

In  January,  1906,  some 
philanthropic  citizens 
interested  in  vocational 
education  founded  the 
Milwaukee  School  of 
Trades.  The  institution,  by  act  of  the  Wisconsin  Legis- 
lature, was  taken  in  and  became  a part  of  the  public- 
school  system  of  the  city  of  Milwaukee,  July  1,  1907, 
and  on  May  1,  1917,  the  name  was  changed  to  “ The 
Boys’  Technical  High  School.” 

The  site  is  centrally  located  in  a district  partly  resi- 
dential. It  is  314  by  158  feet,  and  so  situated  that  the 
natural  light  and  ventilation  are  not  obstructed,  over- 
shadowed, or  interfered  with  by  adjacent  buildings. 
It  is  near  the  manufacturing  center  of  the  city,  and  is 
accessible  by  eight  car  lines  from  different  parts  of  the 
community,  and  the  general  environment  is  good. 

Buildings.  — The  buildings  occupied  were  erected  for 
the  purpose  of  a technical  high  and  trade  school  in 
1911-1912.  In  1915  the  administration  building  was 
put  up,  and  in  1917-1918  the  new  west  wing  was  con- 
structed. The  buildings  are  of  reenforced  concrete, 
faced  with  brick,  and  with  hollow-tile  partitions ; the 
flooring,  except  in  corridors,  is  of  wood,  and  the  build- 


ings are  lighted  by  electricity.  Calculation  of  floor 
space  is  made  on  a basis  of  equipment.  Contemplated 
expansion  is  designed  to  afford  quarters  to  house  the 
printing  department  and  equipment,  as  well  as  the 
automobile  department  and  its  equipment.  A new 
“ East-wing  ” building  is  also  being  planned.  The 
value  of  buildings  is  given  as  $300,000. 

Equipment  and  Courses.  — Equipment  is  inventoried 
as  follows : Machine  and  tool  making,  $50,000 ; for 
the  pattern-making  trade,  $8000 ; electricians’  trade, 
$6500;  telegraphy,  $550;  carpentry  and  cabinetmak- 
ing trade,  $9600 ; plumbing  and  gas-fitting  trade, 
$8000;  mechanical-drafting  trade,  $1500;  architec- 
tural drafting,  $1500;  total,  $85,650. 

The  minimum  age  re- 
quirement is  16  years. 
Tuition  is  free  to  residents 
of  Milwaukee  under  20 
years  of  age,  except  that 
a breakage  fee  of  $5  is  re- 
quired as  a deposit.  Non- 
resident students  pay  $4 
tuition  per  month,  as  do 
resident  pupils  over  20 
years  of  age.  The  “ tech- 
nical-high ” course  re- 
quires six  years,  and  the 
trade  courses  two  years 
each  to  complete,  with  an 
average  of  eight  hours  per 
day  for  each  student.  No 
extension  work  is  given. 

The  courses  consist  of 
preparation  for  the  follow- 
ing trades : Machines  and  tool  making,  pattern  mak- 
ing, electrician,  telegraphy,  carpentry,  cabinetmaking, 
plumbing  and  gas  fitting,  mechanical  drafting,  and 
architectural  drafting. 

The  day  sessions  open  in  September  and  close  in 
June.  Evening  instruction  is  given  three  times  a week 
from  October  1 to  May  1 in  all  of  the  above-mentioned 
subjects.  When  24  regular  students  whose  individual 
programs  permit  of  it  sign  a petition  requesting  a sub- 
ject regularly  provided  in  other  Milwaukee  high  schools, 
that  subject  may  be  offered  in  the  technical  high  school. 
Mechanical  and  free-hand  drawing  are  taught  in  con- 
nection with  all  shop  courses,  and  at  all  times  each  stu- 
dent’s program  shall  include  at  least  one  shop  course. 
Persons  desiring  to  obtain  a trade  diploma  in  less  than 
four  years,  work  full  8 hours  per  day,  40  hours  per 
week. 

Miscellaneous  Data.  — The  enrollment  of  pupils  in 
1918  was:  Day  classes,  172;  night  classes,  244.  The 


5CALE-ffFH  I 1 f.  . 1FEET 


Fig.  148.  — Plans  of  Boys’  Technical  High  School,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 


182 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Fig.  149.  — Vocational  School,  New  Bedford,  Mass. 

management  states  that  by  employing  additional  in- 
structors and  using  the  shops  to  full  capacity  470 
pupils  could  be  accommodated  in  day  work  and  the  same 
number  for  the  night  classes. 

The  school  does  not  claim  to  turn  out  journeymen 
mechanics.  Its  aim  is  to  instruct  students  thoroughly 
in  as  short  a time  as  possible  in  all  the  fundamental 
principles  and  in  practice  of  the  trade  in  question.  In 
this  way  the  pupils  upon  graduation  possess  ability 
and  confidence  and  are  of  immediate  practical  value  to 
their  employers  and  receive  a fair  wage  at  once. 

The  New  Bedford  Vocational  School,  New 
Bedford , Mass.  History  and  Location.  — 

The  New  Bedford  Vocational  School  is 
part  of  the  Massachusetts  public-school 
system.  It  was  first  opened  in  1908,  and 
has  proved  a very  successful  venture  in 
practical  education. 

The  site  is  166  by  170  feet,  located  in 
an  industrial  district  in  the  center  of  the 
city.  Natural  light  and  ventilation  are 
not  obstructed  by  adjacent  buildings.  The 
site  was  chosen  on  account  of  its  acces- 
sibility by  car  lines  and  of  its  situation  in 
an  industrial  district. 

Buildings.  — The  type  of  the  main  build- 
ing is  an  old  frame  factory  building,  rented 
in  1910.  Some  additions  have  been  made 
to  the  plant  since  the  building  was  taken 
over : a two-story  frame  building  to  house 
the  gas  producer,  a two-story  addition  20 
by  24  feet  for  the  power  plant,  and  in  1915 


a three-story  addition  for  tool  and  locker 
rooms  for  machine  and  carpentry  depart- 
ments. Floorings  are  of  wood  and  con- 
crete. The  building  has  been  converted 
to  the  present  use  so  that  it  is  serviceable, 
even  if  lacking  in  many  respects.  It  is 
lighted  by  electricity.  Classrooms  are 
apart  from  the  shops.  Floor  space  per 
pupil  has  not  been  calculated,  owing  to 
the  makeshift  character  of  buildings. 

Equipment  and  Courses.  — The  value  of 
equipment  of  the  institution  is  given  as 
follows  : Machine  shop,  $19,000  ; carpenter 
shop,  $3000;  power  departments,  $11,000; 
electric  department,  $4000 ; homemaking 
department,  $5000  ; total,  $42,000. 

Capacity  of  school  is  given  as  follows: 
Machinery  pupils,  36  ; carpentry,  45  ; elec- 
trical, 36 ; steam  engineering,  20 ; home- 
making, 45  ; a total  of  182  pupils. 

Number  of  pupils  March  1,  1918,  were: 
Machinery,  day  class  31,  night  24;  carpentry,  day  8, 
night  12;  electrical,  day  32,  night  50;  steam  power, 
day  10,  night  32 ; homemaking,  day  32,  night  502 ; 
total,  day  students  113,  night  620.  There  are  81  pupils 
in  the  part-time  homemaking  course.  • 

Painting  and  decorating  are  to  be  added  in  the  near 
future  to  the  day  courses.  Evening  classes  for  women 
are  being  conducted  in  seven  sections  of  the  city,  and  this 
extension  work  is  scheduled  for  amplification. 

The  steam-power  course  is  three  years,  as  is  the 
“ homemaking  ” course.  Machinery,  carpentry,  and 


Fig.  150.  — Vocational  School,  New  Bedford,  Mass. 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  FOR  VOCATIONAL  SCHOOLS 


183 


electricity  require  four  years  each.  There  are  40  weeks 
in  the  school  year,  and  forty  courses  are  required,  for 
machinists,  carpentry,  steam  engineering,  sheet-metal 
drafting,  mechanical  drawing,  machinery,  mathematics, 
carpentry,  shop  drawing,  sewing,  cooking,  and 
millinery. 

The  Bayonne  Vocational  School,  Bayonne,  N.  J. 
History  and  Location.  — The  Bayonne  Vocational 
School  was  organized  September,  1911,  by  the  board  of 
education  of  the  city  of  Bayonne.  It  is  a public 
school,  half  the  cost  of  support  being  paid  by  the 


60  feet,  and  brings  the  total  machine-shop  area  to  3600 
square  feet.  Classrooms  are  apart  from  the  shops. 
The  total  value  of  buildings  is  given  as  $23,000. 

Equipment  and  Courses.  — The  value  of  equipment 
totals  $35,000,  apportioned  as  follows:  Machine  shops, 
$28,000;  woodworking,  $2000;  electric  wiring,  $2500; 
printing,  $1700;  mechanical  and  academic  drawing, 
$700. 

The  capacity  of  the  machine  shop  is  for  40  students 
at  one  time : Woodworking,  24 ; electric  wiring,  24 ; 
printing,  24  ; and  mechanical  drawing,  24. 


•GROUND-FLCWR-PLAN- 


• SECOND PLAN- 


Fig.  151. — Vocational  School,  Bayonne,  New  Jersey. 


•THIRD-  YLOOR-YLAH- 


municipality,  the  other  half  by  the  state.  The  loca- 
tion of  the  school  is  accessible  from  all  parts  of  the 
community. 

The  function  of  the  school  is  to  train  boys  to  enter  the 
industries  of  the  community  with  some  definite  prepara- 
tion for  earning  a living.  It  does  not  aim  to  turn  out 
journeyman  mechanics,  but  to  ascertain  what  trade  a 
boy  is  best  fitted  to  follow,  and  then  to  give  him  such  a 
foundation  as  will  fit  him  to  enter  that  trade  as  a su- 
perior apprentice. 

Buildings.  — The  main  building  of  the  school  plant 
was  erected  about  1875  as  a Y.  M.  C.  A.  structure. 
It  was  remodeled  for  a high  school  about  1908,  and 
again  remodeled  in  1911-19x2  for  occupancy  and  used  as 
a vocational  trade  school.  It  is  of  three-story  brick, 
with  brick  partitions.  There  is  a frame  annex  of  two 
stories,  built  for  a high  school,  and  in  1917  a one-story 
concrete  base  and  maple-floored  extension  to  the  me- 
chanical shop  was  constructed.  This  building  is  30  by 


The  daily  program  requires  three  hours  of  shopwork, 
two  hours  of  academic  work  (arithmetic,  history,  Eng- 
lish, etc.),  and  one  hour  of  mechanical  drawing,  making 
a school  day  of  six  hours. 

Employers  of  Bayonne  make  frequent  calls  upon  the 
institution  for  boys  to  enter  their  industries,  and  the 
number  of  calls  has  been  greater  than  the  school  has 
been  able  to  supply.  The  school  has  graduated  69 
boys,  over  90  per  cent  of  whom  are  engaged  in  the  trades 
for  which  they  were  trained. 

The  minimum  age  for  entrance  is  14  years.  A boy 
who  has  completed  the  eight  grades  in  the  elementary 
schools  can  graduate  from  the  vocational  school  in  two 
years ; otherwise  three  years  is  required.  Special 
academic  work  is  provided  for  pupils  who  are  not  grad- 
uates of  the  elementary  schools.  There  are  40  weeks 
in  the  school  year  for  the  day  school,  and  a minimum 
term  of  64  nights  per  year  in  the  evening  school,  in  which 
instruction  in  machine-shop  work,  pattern  making, 


184 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


carpentry,  electric  wiring,  and  mechanical  drawing 
is  provided.  No  extension  work  is  given.  The  school 
has  enrolled  over  900  pupils  in  the  day  courses.  In 
the  evening  schools 
over  1000  men  have 
received  technical 
instruction  definitely 
related  to  their  daily 
occupations. 

Shop  instruction 
is  individual  as  far 
as  possible,  thus  per- 
mitting each  pupil  to 
progress  as  rapidly 
as  he  is  capable  of 
doing.  Graduation  is  based  upon  proficiency  in  the 
shop,  rather  than  the  academic  course. 

Wentworth  Institute,  Boston,  Mass.  General  Plan. 
— The  buildings  of  Wentworth  Institute  which  have 
already  been  erected  (those  shown  in  figure  152,  except- 
ing the  power  plant  in  the  rear  of  them)  form  merely  a 
fagade  group  of  the  great  system  of  buildings  which  the 
directors  have  in  mind  for  the  future.  It  is  hoped  to 
build  back  over  the  grounds  to  the  rear  a plant  which 
shall  have,  at  its  smallest,  the  size  and  arrangement 
indicated  in  figure  153. 

The  conditions  which  will  control  this  development 
are  the  needs  of  the  youth  and  of  the  industries  of  the 
community,  with  the  emphasis  in  one  decade  on  one 
kind  of  work  and  on  another  in  the  next,  and  the 
introduction  of  new  trades  or  the  revision  of  old  ones  by 


Fig.  153. — Wentworth  Institute,  Boston,  Mass. 


new  progress  in  methods.  The  approach  from  the  park- 
way opposite  will  be  kept  impressive,  and  the  adminis- 
tration buildings  will  always  be  conveniently  located 

near  the  center  of 
the  group. 

Flexibility  of  Plan 
for  Buildings.  — To 
meet  these  condi- 
tions of  develop- 
ment the  plan  for 
buildings  has  had 
as  its  first  require- 
ment flexibility. 
This  flexibility  was 
gained  by  adopting 
a standard  building  “ unit  ” which  may  be  repeated 
again  and  again  in  various  locations  upon  the  grounds 
without  sacrificing  symmetry,  convenience  of  arrange- 
ment, or  of  connection  between  buildings. 

A great  variety  of  types  of  buildings  was  carefully 
studied.  The  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  each 
were  considered.  Finally,  there  was  adopted  a three- 
and-one-half-story  and  basement  building,  48  feet  wide 
by  144  feet  long,  divided  into  nine  equal  bays  of  16  feet 
each.  The  width  of  the  building  is  equal  to  the  length 
of  three  bays.  The  flexibility  of  the  scheme  results 


Fig.  154.  — Standard  Unit  Divided  tor  Instruction  in  Shops, 
Wentworth  Institute. 


i Reei 
1 Rc 

1 

tation 

om 

Recitation 

Room 

Lecture  Room 

Labratory  1 

M 

■ 

Ml 

Wash  Room 

Office 

Instrument 

Room 

1 Office 

Fig.  155.  — Plan  of  Standard  Unit  Divided  for  Recitation 
Rooms,  Wtentworth  Institute. 


Combination,  Wentworth  Institute. 


Fig.  152.  — Wentworth  Institute,  Boston,  Mass. 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  FOR  VOCATIONAL  SCHOOLS 


185 


not  only  from  the  previous  knowledge  of  the  size  of  the 
units  to  be  erected  in  any  relation  to  any  buildings  al- 
ready erected,  so  that  a unit  or  two  can  be  omitted  and 
building  proceed  at  a distance,  if  necessary,  but  it  results 
mainly  from  the  dimensions  themselves,  for  the  width  be- 
ing one-third  of  the  nine-bay  length  permits  a develop- 
ment into  a T-shaped  building  by  adding  a standard  unit 
or  a double  unit  as  a wing  in  the  center  of  the  rear,  or  it 
permits  a U-shaped  building  to  be  developed  by  extend- 
ing wings  of  single  or  double  units  at  the  rear  of  either 
end.  These  T and  U structures  may,  in  turn,  be  de- 
veloped into  rectangular  buildings  about  a single  or 
double  central  court.  These  possibilities  are  revealed 
by  figure  153.  The  nine  bays  also  make  it  possible  to 
have  either  one  entrance  in  the  center  of  the  building, 


Fig.  157.  — Floor  Plan  of  Power  Plant  Laboratory, 
Wentworth  Institute. 


or  two  entrances  symmetrically  located  near  either  end, 
without  having  a column  on  the  axis  of  the  entrance. 

In  the  case  of  Wentworth  Institute  sufficient  room  has 
been  provided  on  all  sides  of  the  group  of  buildings 
now  erected  to  permit  extension  in  any  direction ; for 
example,  the  wing  B,  in  figure  153,  can  be  extended  in 
length  forward  for  96  feet.  It  can  then  have  a second 
and  third  wing  parallel  to  the  wing  C extended  at  either 
end  of  it  for  a distance  of  96  feet ; and  these  two  wings 
may  be  connected  in  the  rear  by  another  building  run- 
ning parallel  to  B,  forming  a complete  rectangle  such  as 
has  already  been  mentioned,  with  two  courts  48  feet 
square.  Should  all  of  these  additions  be  made  to  this 
section  the  completed  structure  would  have  a floor 
space  equal  to  four  and  one-third  of  the  standard  units 
adopted.  It  is,  of  course,  not  necessary  to  complete 
the  whole  group,  nor  indeed  to  add  the  units  in  any  very 
definite  order.  The  great  variety  of  ways  in  which  the 
growth  can  take  place  shows  the  flexibility  of  the  plan. 

Connecting  the  Units  of  Building.  — When  the 
standard  units  are  juxtaposed  in  the  development  of  a 


court  group  of  buildings  no  connecting  links  are  neces- 
sary. But  between  such  groups  and  simple  units  such 
as,  for  example,  A and  B in  figure  153,  connection  must 
be  supplied.  At  Wentworth  Institute  this  is  secured  by 
a 12-foot  covered  passageway  on  the  first  floor  and  also 
in  the  basement,  between  adjoining  buildings  (figure 
153).  The  buildings  are  not  connected  on  other  floors. 
Thus  neither  lighting  nor  outlook  has  been  appreciably 
impaired,  nor  has  the  architectural  outline  been  de- 
stroyed. On  the  other  hand,  the  covered  passageway 
permits  the  centralization  of  washrooms,  locker  rooms, 
study  rooms,  etc. ; makes  it  unnecessary  to  face  the 
weather  in  going  from  building  to  building ; reduces  the 
distance  from  department  to  department ; and  facili- 
tates administrative  relationships  among  departments 
and  between  departments  and  the  general  offices.  By 
the  same  means  central  control  of  the  student  body  is 
assured.  Students  cannot  enter  or  leave  the  buildings 


Fig.  158.  — Main  Floor  Plan  of  Main  Building, 
Wentworth  Institute. 


without  passing  the  general  offices  in  the  main  build- 
ing. They  are  obliged  to  pass  the  bulletin  boards  at 
least  twice  daily.  Habitual  tardiness  is  easily  observed 
and  corrected  and  in  many  other  ways  more  effective 
and  efficient  control  is  obtained  than  would  be  possible 
in  buildings  separated  in  the  usual  way. 

Special  Advantages  of  the  Standard  Unit  Adopted.  — 
The  standard  unit  adopted  is  arranged  for  natural 
ventilation  through  outside  transoms,  glass  areas,  etc. 
The  buildings,  therefore,  are  not  dependent  for  fresh 
air  upon  an  intricate  ventilating  system,  which  is  sub- 
ject to  faulty  operation ; nor  is  there  danger  of  having 
at  some  time  an  ill-ventilated  building,  because  the 
system  is  too  expensive  to  operate,  as  in  the  cases  of 
several  recent  educational  structures. 

The  dimensions  of  the  unit  involve  a building  with  a 
single  row  of  columns  down  the  center  (figure  154).  The 
double  row  is  the  plan  upon  which  almost  all  school 
buildings  are  laid  out.  This  common  method  permits 
a wider  structure  than  the  single  row  of  columns  used  at 
Wentworth  Institute.  But  the  results  are  all  in  favor 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


1 86 

of  the  narrower  building.  A single  row  of  supports 
gives  as  wide  a floor  space  as  can  be  perfectly  lighted 
from  the  windows;  the  double  row  gives  an  area  too 
wide  for  good  lighting.  The  double  row  clutters  the 
area  with  a forest  of  pillars,  making  general  observation 
difficult  over  any  large  room  and  hampering  the  ar- 
rangement and  movement  of  equipment.  Moreover, 
the  single  row  of  supports,  permitting  a unit  of  48  feet 
wide  by  144  feet  long,  carries  floor  area  which  will  admit 
the  selection  of  a maximum  standard  size  of  shop  or 
laboratory.  This  maximum  standard  is  based  upon  the 
distance  over  which  an  instructor  can  control  a group  of 
students  without  unnecessary  movement  about  the  room 


Fig.  159.  — Ground-Floor,  West  Building,  Wentworth  Institute. 


for  purposes  of  observation  and  discipline.  This  stand- 
ard shop  is  in  the  general  proportion  of  50  by  100  feet. 

Among  the  advantages  which  accrue  from  the  adop- 
tion of  any  standard  unit  is  that  of  easy  and  simple 
adjustment  of  departments  when,  in  the  process  of 
growth  or  reorganization,  they  are  moved  from  build- 
ing to  building.  Furniture,  machines,  all  equipment 
which  fitted  in  one  shop  will  fit  in  another  of  the  same 
proportions.  The  equipment  which  stood  in  a certain 
corner  can  easily  be  disposed  in  the  new  quarters  in  an 
analogous  corner.  The  economy  of  time  and  effort 
which  is  made  in  this  regard  is  as  important  as  the 
economy  of  funds  through  not  having  to  purchase  sub- 
stitute equipment.  This  is  a very  considerable  saving. 
Wentworth  Institute  has  had  several  occasions  to  test 
it.  The  adjustment  of  the  plant  to  the  housing  and 
instruction  of  the  training  detachment  of  soldiers  has 
been  one  instance.  And  when  each  additional  build- 
ing was  finished  the  expansion  involved  a similar  ad- 
justment. For  instance,  the  drafting  courses’  equip- 


ment was  once  all  in  the  west  building ; then  all  of  it  was 
moved  to  the  main  building ; later  part  was  moved  on 
to  the  east  building,  when  that  was  completed.  Every 
piece  fits  in  its  new  place  and  no  substitution  purchases 
have  been  necessary. 

Expansion  and  readjustment  are  further  simplified 
by  the  fact  that  all  partitions  except  those  covering 
stairways  are  removable,  though  soundproof,  and  all 
rooms  may  be  thus  decreased  or  increased  in  size  to 
suit  immediate  uses.  By  this  scheme  fitness  alone 
need  be  consulted  in  placing  departments  in  new  quarters 
in  another  building.  If  the  floor  best  suited  for  a cer- 
tain department  which  uses  a large  shop  formerly  housed 


Fig.  160.  — First  Floor,  West  Building,  Wentworth  Institute. 


a group  of  recitation  rooms  and  offices,  the  temporary 
partitions  form  no  obstacle  to  placing  that  department 
on  that  floor.  (Compare  figure  154  and  figure  155.) 
By  virtue  of  this  removability  of  partitions  the  arrange- 
ment not  only  of  the  departments  with  relation  to  one 
another  but  within  the  department  becomes  highly 
flexible  and  makes  it  possible  for  the  institute  to  set  a 
high  standard  in  efficient  use  of  floor  space  and  in  its 
plan  for  simple  and  direct  travel  of  materials  and  workers. 

The  Arrangement  if  the  St  ndard  Unit  Floor.  — 
The  standard  unit  may  be  divided  for  instruction  in 
shop  practice  (figure  154)  or  it  may  be  divided  for  recita- 
tion rooms,  lecture  rooms,  etc.  (figure  155).  Where  large 
shops  or  large  laboratories  or  drawing  rooms  are  required, 
the  full  width  of  the  building  is  used,  and  the  rooms 
may  be  32  feet,  48  feet,  64  feet,  80  feet,  96  feet,  or  in 
feet  long,  as  desired.  When  recitation  or  lecture  rooms 
are  required,  a corridor  about  8 feet  wide  is  run  on  one 
side  of  the  center  row  of  columns,  making  rooms  24 
feet  wide  on  one  side  of  the  building,  and  about  15  or 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  FOR  VOCATIONAL  SCHOOLS 


187 


16  feet  wide  on  the  other.  Recitation  or  lecture  rooms  The  west  building  is  chiefly  a shop  building,  145 
are  naturally  made  24  by  32  feet  or  24  by  48  feet.  Both  feet  long  by  49  feet  wide,  with  four  high-posted  stories 
of  these  are  very  convenient  sizes.  The  narrow  space  and  a well-lighted  gallery  floor  for  workshops,  labora- 
on  the  other  side  of  the  corridor,  too,  divides  itself  tories,  and  classrooms ; and  a small  one-story  wing  ex- 
readily  into  offices  16  feet  square,  or  instrument  rooms,  tending  to  the  south  for  offices,  which  serves  also  as  the 
washrooms,  etc.,  16  by  32  feet,  or  16  by  48  feet.  It  passageway  to  and  from  the  main  building.  In  this 
would  be  difficult  to  select  dimensions  for  a standard  building  are,  on  the  top  story,  a large  shop  for  electric 
building  which  could  be  divided  more  readily  into  rooms  wiring,  a plumbing  shop  ; a pattern  shop,  with  stock 
of  convenient  sizes  for  all  sorts  of  purposes,  or  in  more  rooms,  tool  room,  offices,  etc.,  occupies  the  whole  of 
convenient  combinations.  the  second  floor  ; a machine  shop  of  equal  size  and  some- 

General  Review  of  Buildings.  — The  buildings  of  what  similar  appointments  occupies  the  first  floor ; be- 
Wentworth  Institute  may  be  conveniently  designated  as  low  are  a foundry  and  finishing  room,  with  rooms  for 
the  west  building  (right  of  photograph,  figure  152),  main 


building,  east  building  (left  of  photograph,  figure  152), 
and  the  power-plant  laboratory.  Of  these  the  west 
building  and  the  power  plant  were  finished  when  the 
school  opened  in  19x1  ; the  main  building  was  com- 
pleted in  1914;  and  the  east  building  in  1916. 

The  steam  power  plant  laboratory  is  about  80  feet 
square  and  is  located  to  the  rear  of  the  facade  group 
(figure  153). 

The  main  building  is  132  feet  long  by  66  feet  wide. 
It  contains  in  the  basement  a large  laboratory  about 
60  feet  square,  with  adjoining  offices,  for  electrical- 
power  practice  and  work  in  electrical  construction,  a 
second  large  laboratory  for  architectural  construction, 
and  a large  locker  room  and  a wash  room.  On  the 
main  floor  are  two  large  lecture  rooms  and  the  adminis- 
tration offices.  The  entire  second  floor  is  devoted  to 
construction  in  mechanical  and  architectural  drawing 
and  design.  On  the  third  floor  is  an  assembly  hall  and 
gallery.  The  remainder  of  the  third  floor  and  gallery  is 
bccupied  by  laboratories,  stock  rooms,  and  offices  for 
instruction  in  applied  science  and  practical  mechanics. 


Fig.  162.  — Pullman  Free  School  of  Manual  Training,  Pullman, 

Illinois. 


pattern  storage  and  supplies,  occupying  a floor  space  over 
50  by  100  feet.  There  is  also  a gallery  floor  for  cupola 
charging,  core  making,  brass  molding,  and  metal-pat- 
tern making  ; two  laboratories  for  industrial  chemistry  ; 
a blacksmith’s  shop  and  a hardening  plant ; and  a 
large  lecture  room  and  three  smaller  rooms  for  class 
exercises  and  recitations. 

The  east  building,  which  contains  about  45,000  square 
feet  of  floor  area,  provides  four  additional  classrooms, 
large  laboratories  for  strength  of  materials,  reenforced 
concrete,  and  building  materials.  It  also  provides 
two  shops  for  carpentry  and  house  building  and  three 
entire  floors  for  the  school  of  printing  and  the  graphic 
arts. 

The  Pullman  Free  School,  Pullman,  III.  — The  above 
plan  shows  the  elaborate  layout  of  the  Pullman  Free 
School  of  Manual  Training,  at  Pullman,  Illinois.  The 
site  is  located  in  South  Chicago,  and  is  near  many 
industries  as  well  as  near  the  homes  of  many  working 
people.  The  plant  occupies  a site  1250  feet  by  1250 
feet,  of  which  about  2 per  cent  is  included  in  buildings. 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


1 88 


Fig.  163.  — Pullman  Free  School  of  Manual  Training,  Pullman,  Illinois. 


The  buildings  are  situated  so  as  to  be  well  lighted 
and  ventilated.  The  grounds  are  arranged  to  afford 
athletic  and  recreational  opportunities. 

The  name  of  this  school  was  determined  by  the  terms 
of  the  will  of  George  M.  Pullman.  The  courses  ad- 
vertised include  cabinet  making,  trimming,  pattern 
making,  blacksmithing,  molding  and  casting,  machine 
shop  practice,  electrical  construction  and  installation, 
and  operative  engineering.  “ To  complete  any  one  of 
the  regular  courses  of  instruction,”  it  is  declared  in  the 
dedicatory  announcements,  published  September,  1916, 
“ will  require  from  four  to  six  years.  The  school  is  in 
session  forty-eight  weeks  of  the  year  for  five  days  each 
week  and  for  eight  hours  per  day.  During  the  first  two 
years  one-half  of  the  time 
is  devoted  to  academic 
studies,  including  English, 
history  and  mathematics ; 
the  other  half  to  draw- 
ing, shopwork,  and  labora- 
tory work.  With  young 
women,  shopwork  is  re- 
placed by  work  in  cooking 
and  sewing.” 

The  Boys'  Vocational 
School ,■ — ■ Newark , New 
Jersey.  History  and  De- 
velopment. — The  Boys’ 

Vocational  School  of 
Newark  was  established 
in  April,  1910,  as  an  ele- 
mentary industrial  school, 
with  an  initial  enrollment 
of  forty  boys.  Instruc- 


tion was  given  in  woodwork,  mechanical  drawing,  and 
complementary  academic  subjects. 

So  vital  was  the  need,  as  demonstrated,  for  an  insti- 
tution of  the  sort,  that  in  September,  1910,  the  school 
was  enlarged  to  accommodate  100  boys.  A course  in 
metal  working  was  added.  In  Septefnber,  1911,  courses 
in  electric  wiring  and  printing  were  included  in  the 
curriculum.  In  1914  a further  expansion  was  made, 
to  accommodate  an  additional  40  pupils.  A later  re- 
arrangement enabled  the  school  to  have  eight  classes 
and  take  care  of  160  pupils,  at  which  the  capacity  has 
remained.  A waiting  list  of  applicants  averages  180 
pupils.  This  number  was  250  in  April,  1918. 

The  school  was  established  for  boys  who  through 

necessity  or  otherwise 
chose  to  enter  the  indus- 
trial field  at  about  the  age 
of  sixteen,  and  who  have 
shown  ability  for  mechani- 
cal work.  The  main  ob- 
ject of  the  school  is  to 
prepare  boys  for  appren- 
ticeship to  the  mechanical 
trades,  and  is  in  no  way 
intended  as  a preparatory 
school  for  the  technical 
high  schools,  although  the 
course  of  study  is  so  ar- 
ranged that  entrance  to 
the  technical  high  school 
may  be  had  at  the  comple- 
tion of  the  course.  While 
a pupil  receives  a thorough 
preparation  in  trade  work.  | 


Fig.  164. — Wood-working  and  Forge  Shop,  Pullman  Free  School, 
Pullman,  Illinois. 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  FOR  VOCATIONAL  SCHOOLS 


189 


the  academic  side  is  thorough  also.  Applicants  must 
have  completed  live  years  of  grammar  school  work, 
have  in  mind  preparation  for  a mechanical  trade  and  ex- 
press a willingness  to  complete  the  three  years’  course. 
Promotions  are  made  by  subjects  and  not  by  grades. 

Present  Location — Equipment — Courses.  — The  first 
home  of  the  school  was  in  an  old  building  owned  by  the 
Board  of  Education, 
and  remodeled  for  vo- 
cational purposes  in 
1910.  The  shop  build- 
ing was  erected  in 
1848  as  an  elementary 
school.  The  academic 
department  is  in  an  ele- 
mentary school  erected 
in  1908.  The  buildings 
are  of  brick,  electric 
lighted,  wood  floors, 
no  partitions,  and  the 
whole  a makeshift. 

Equipment  for  the 
various  trade  subjects 
taught  is  inventoried 
as : Electricity,  $1 200 ; 
printing,  $2000 ; ma- 
chine work,  $6500 ; 
woodwork,  $2500; 
drafting,  $1000 ; total, 

$13,200.  Value  of 
buildings,  $12,000. 

Minimum  age  en- 
trance requirement  is 
13  years  and  for  a trade 
subject  14  years.  A 
general  course  is  given 
to  all  pupils  during  the 
first  two  years,  in  order 
to  determine  the  trade 
for  which  each  is  best 
adapted.  The  third 
year  is  given  to  spe- 
cialization in  the  trade 
or  occupation  for  which  the  pupil  has  shown  the  greatest 
aptitude.  By  this  method  the  occupation  best  suited 
to  the  taste  and  ability  of  the  pupil  is  found.  The 
courses  in  the  trades  require  two  years  each  in  electricity, 
printing,  machine  work,  woodwork,  and  drafting.  There 
are  48  weeks  in  the  school  year,  and  each  course  requires 
200  sessions.  No  extension  work  is  done,  but  evening 
courses  are  given.  Records  of  enrollment  March  1, 
1918,  show:  electricity,  day  pupils  46,  night  23;  print- 
ing, day  36,  night  17;  machine  work,  day  42,  night 


35;  woodwork,  day  36,  night  n ; drafting,  day  10, 
night  28. 

Placement  and  Demand  for  Graduates.  — The  school 
makes  a practice  of  placing  its  graduates  in  such  posi- 
tions as  are  considered  best  for  their  future  welfare. 
In  most  cases  the  salaries  are  higher  than  those  ordi- 
narily paid  non-trained  pupils,  and  in  many,  the  time 

of  apprenticeship  is 
shorter.  . In  1916,  100 
requests  were  made 
for  graduates  by  em- 
ployers, and  the  school 
was  able  to  supply 
only  about  one-third 
of  the  number  desired. 
Numerous  requests  are 
made  for  graduates  who 
have  been  out  of  school 
for  one  or  two  years. 
These  changes  have 
invariably  resulted  in 
higher  wages  or  promo- 
tions for  these  young 
men.  A Placement 
Committee,  composed 
of  the  faculty  of  the 
school,  attends  to  this 
important  end  of  the 
school  work. 

Need  for  Enlarge- 
ment of  Work  Demon- 
strated. — The  success 
of  the  school  caused 
much  attention  in  busi- 
ness circles  in  Newark 
— a most  important 
manufacturing  center. 
The  result  was  a con- 
certed action  of  busi- 
ness and  manufacturing 
interests,  which  pro- 
cured the  theme  of 
vocational  education  in 
that  city  to  be  gone  into  with  great  thoroughness.  A 
survey  or  “ overview  ” of  the  entire  subject  was  there- 
fore caused  to  be  conducted  for  the  Advisory  Committee 
of  the  Board  of  Education,  by  Mr.  Charles  H.  Winslow, 
member  of  the  Congressional  Committee  on  National 
Grants  in  Aid  of  Vocational  Education,  Director  of  the 
Vocational  Survey  of  Richmond,  Virginia,  The  Indiana 
State  Survey,  etc. 

As  a result  of  the  report  of  the  Advisory  Committee, 
the  Board  of  Education  has  taken  steps  to  meet  ade- 


Fig.  165.  — Pullman  Free  School,  Pullman,  Illinois. 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


190 

quately  the  situation  as  disclosed,  and  new  buildings 
are  to  be  constructed,  ample  for  the  present  and  future 
vocational  education  needs  of  the  community. 

Location  and  Site  of  New  Buildings.  — A site  225  by 
241  feet  within  the  industrial  center  of  the  city  has  been 
chosen  for  the  school.  The  plant,  as  projected,  will 
cover  95  per  cent  of  this  area.  Good  car  service  makes 
the  school  accessible  from  all  parts  of  the  city,  and  nat- 
ural light  and  ventilation  are  not  obstructed  by  adjacent 
buildings.  An  inquiry  was  conducted  to  locate  the 
present  residence  of  the  pupils,  and  for  this  purpose  the 
city  was  divided  into  four  districts.  The  data  obtained 


indicated  that  71.3  per  cent  of  the  pupils  lived  in  the 
section  (Sussex  Avenue  between  First  and  Second 
Streets)  which  has  been  recommended  as  the  proper 
location. 

Type  of  Building  Selected.  — Plans  drawn  for  the  new 
school  plant  show  the  selection  of  the  reenforced-con- 
crete  and  steel-sash  type  of  the  modern  manufacturing 
plant,  with  its  uniformity  of  interior  construction  and 
subordination  of  exterior  design  to  the  interior  struc- 
tural conditions.  Under  this  form,  maximum  lighting 
conditions  are  thus  assured,  as  well  as  perfect  ventila- 
tion and  proper  square-foot  space  per  pupil. 

The  plant  as  designed  will  accommodate  800  students, 


and  is  susceptible  of  being  added  to  on  the  unit  system 
as  future  needs  may  develop.  No  effort  has  been  spared 
to  obtain,  in  the  design  and  arrangement  of  plan,  the 
most  advanced  type  of  practical  school  construction. 

With  the  new  buildings  it  will  be  possible  to  con- 
siderably enlarge  the  number  of  subjects  and  trades 
taught,  and  to  provide  for  the  necessary  equipment,  its 
proper  housing  and  installation. 

Trade  and  Industrial  Schools  for  Girls.1  — The  history 
of  the  establishment  of  trade  and  industrial  schools 
for  girls  indicates  that  the  cost  of  buildings  and  equip- 
ment has  not  figured  as  a prohibitive  factor  in  the  in- 
auguration of  these  experiments- 
In  fact,  considerable  ingenuity  has 
marked  the  transformation  of  old 
school  buildings,  dwellings,  factory 
lofts,  and  business  buildings  into 
shops,  and  other  necessary  accom- 
modations for  trade  schools. 

A common  type  of  housing  for 
these  prospective  schools  is  found  in 
an  abandoned  grade  or  high  school 
building  which  is  remodeled  for 
this  purpose.  The  Trade  School  in 
Philadelphia,  the  Girls’  Vocational 
School  in  Minneapolis,  Minnesota, 
and  in  Newark,  New  Jersey,  are  of 
this  type. 

As  the  movement  for  girls’  techni- 
cal and  trade  schools  in  communities 
frequently  has  its  beginning  in  the 
activities  of  philanthropic  organ- 
izations interested  in  the  social, 
economic,  and  educational  well 
being  of  the  working  girl,  it  occa- 
sionally receives  an  estate  and 
housing  facilities  as  a heritage  or 
memorial  to  the  interests  of  some 
individual.  Such  is  the  case  of  the  Jane  Hayes  Gates 
Institute  in  Kansas  City,  Missouri.  Commodious  pri- 
vate homes  or  dwellings,  which  were  centrally  located 
but  which  because  of  the  growth  of  the  city  have  be- 
come undesirable  as  residence  property,  yet  remain  un- 
converted to  business  purposes,  are  found  housing  the 
Trade  School  for  Girls  both  in  Boston  and  Worcester. 

Some  of  the  schools  have  undergone  shifts  from  one 
type  of  building  to  another  in  adjusting  themselves 
to  an  increasing  enrollment.  A business  building  in  a 
down  town  district  has  certain  desirable  features  and 
has  been  used  both  in  Philadelphia,  New  York,  and  New 
Britain,  Conn. 


Fig.  166.  — Basement  Floor  Plan,  Vocational  School,  Newark,  New  Jersey. 


1 The  writer  is  indebted  to  Mrs.  Anna  L.  Burdick,  Special  Agent  for  Trade  or  Industrial  Education  for  Girls  and  Women,  Federal  Board  for 
Vocational  Education,  for  this  description. 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  FOR  VOCATIONAL  SCHOOLS 


191 


The  Francis  Nicholls  School  in  New  Orleans  was 
built  for  a ward  school,  but  was  made  an  Industrial 
School  on  petition  of  the  residents  of  the  district.  It 
was  opened  as  a Trade  School,  September  24,  1912. 
The  new  Manhattan  Trade  School  alone  was  opened 
for  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  built  — that  is,  trade 
training  for  girls. 

In  such  classes  as  dressmaking  and  millinery,  equip- 
ment should  be  adapted  to  the  size  of  the  pupils.  The 
height  of  chairs  and  tables  is  important.  Cutting 
tables  should  be  31  to  34  inches  high;  sewing  tables 
from  27  to  29  inches,  and  chairs  from  14  to 
17  inches  in  height  are  desirable.  Chairs  of 
the  same  height  may  be  used  if  footrests  are 
provided,  but  it  is  better  to  have  tables  and 
chairs  proportionate.  A good  general  rule 
for  the  height  of  the  table  is  that  it  should 
be  slightly  lower  than  the  elbows  of  the 
workers.  A rule  for  the  height  of  chairs  is 
that  they  should  allow  a position  with  the 
feet  firmly  resting  on  the  floor  and  the  knees 
slightly  higher  than  the  hips.  One  machine 
for  four  pupils  is  necessary  in  classes  which 
use  machine-sewing  in  making  garments. 

For  plain  sewing,  such  as  making  shirt 
waists,  house  dresses,  and  the  like,  one 
machine  to  three  pupils  is  desirable.  The 
number  of  machines  per  class  may  be  less 
than  one  to  three  or  four  persons  only  in 
courses  which  include  a great  deal  of  hand 
work. 

Large  equipment,  such  as  machines  and 
workroom  furnishings,  as  well  as  tools  or 
utensils  for  general  use,  should  be  supplied 
by  the  school.  Personal  “ tools,”  such  as 
shears,  pliers,  thimbles,  etc.,  may  be  pro- 
vided by  the  school  and  the  pupil  en- 
couraged to  purchase  the  same. 

Trade  extension  courses  cannot  be  satis- 
factorily carried  on  in  schoolrooms  equipped 
with  regulation  desks  and  chairs.  Such  rooms  are  not 
adapted  to  manual  work  and  the  furniture  is  too  cramped 
for  adult  pupils.  Equipment  for  trade  extension  courses 
should  be  the  same  as  in  business  establishments. 

This  brief  statement  relative  to  a few  of  these  schools 
sets  forth  experiences  which  may  be  considered  char- 
acteristic of  others. 

The  Manhattan  Trade  School.  — The  Manhattan 
Trade  School  was  established  in  November,  1902,  as 
the  result  of  a study  made  by  a group  of  people  inter- 
ested in  the  sociological,  economic,  and  educational 
status  of  the  young  working  girl  in  New  York  City. 
Private  initiative  is  responsible  for  the  founding  of  the 


school,  and  voluntary  contributions  for  the  maintenance 
during  the  experimental  stage. 

The  building  selected  for  the  school  was  a large  pri- 
vate house  at  233  West  14th  street,  which  was  equipped 
like  a factory,  and  could  comfortably  accommodate 
one  hundred  pupils.  In  June,  1906,  the  school  moved 
into  a new  business  building  at  209-213  East  23d  street, 
which  could  offer  daily  instruction  to  about  five  hun- 
dred girls.  The  location  was  chosen  because  of  its  ac- 
cessibility to  the  business  district  and  to  transporta- 
tion facilities.  The  institution  was  taken  over  by  the 


• F I R-J  T ■ F IOOH  *PLAN  * 

Fig.  167.  — Vocational  School,  Newark,  New  Jersey. 

public  school  system  September  1,  1910,  and  main- 
tained in  these  quarters  until  September,  1918.  The  new 
building  at  Twenty-second  and  Lexington  Avenue,  a few 
blocks  from  the  site  of  the  old  building,  was  opened  on 
September  9,  1918,  by  the  Department  of  Education. 
The  building  will  accommodate  1200  girls;  600  are  en- 
rolled at  present. 

The  first  floor  contains  a spacious  salesroom  with  at- 
tractive show  windows  on  Twenty-second  street  and  on 
Lexington  Avenue,  a restaurant  capable  of  accommo- 
dating about  seventy-five,  and  a well-equipped  kitchen. 
The  principal’s  office,  the  various  other  offices,  and  a 
lecture  hall  are  on  the  second  floor.  The  third  floor 


192 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  FOR  VOCATIONAL  SCHOOLS 


i93 


s divided  into  three  large  light  sewing  rooms,  a large 
stock  room,  and  plenty  of  wardrobe  space.  The  fourth 
floor  is  similar  to  the  third.  On  the  fifth  floor  are  four 
academic  rooms  and  two  other  rooms,  one  of  which  will 
probably  be  given  over  to  the  millinery  classes.  The 
sixth  floor  contains  rooms  which  it  is  likely  will  be  de- 
voted to  the  novelty  work,  art,  manicuring,  and  hair- 
dressing. The  dressmaking  and  fitting  rooms  are  on 
the  seventh  floor,  and  a spacious  power-machine  operat- 
ing room  and  a cutting  room  occupy  the  eighth  floor. 
On  the  ninth  floor  is  a large  lunch  room  for  the  girls 
and  a kitchen  where  they  will  undoubtedly  learn  to 
cook.  The  tenth  floor  contains  the  gymnasium,  lockers, 
and  shower  baths.  The  roof  also  is  unusually  at- 
tractive and  is  to  be. equipped  for  outdoor  athletics. 

Certain  trades,  or  combination  of  trades,  to  insure 
all-the-year-round  employment,  are  taught.  Among 
those  taught  now,  as  major  subjects,  always  carrying 
with  them  the  related  subjects,  are  dressmaking,  milli- 
nery, lamp-shade  making,  electric  power  machine  op- 
erating on  clothing,  embroidery,  and  straw ; pasting 
trades,  including  sample  mounting,  novelty  case  mak- 
ing, French  edge  making,  embroidery  design  and  per- 
forating of  embroidery  patterns,  laundry  work,  cafe- 
teria work,  manicuring,  and  shampooing.  The  last 
two  have  been  added  this  year  to  enable  the  girls  to 
care  for  themselves  properly.  In  all  work  special  em- 
phasis is  laid  on  the  necessity  for  the  trade  worker  to 
keep  in  good  physical  condition. 

By  the  sale  of  the  products,  though  not  an  end  in 
itself,  the  pupils  are  brought  in  touch  with  the  real  trade 
problems.  No  order  is  taken  unless  it  serves  the  edu- 
cational needs  of  the  class.  While  an  important  fea- 
ture from  the  standpoint  of  economy  in  cost,  its  educa- 
tional value  is  paramount.  Of  the  $20,000  received 
from  goods  in  the  year  1918,  $16,000  was  paid  for 
supplies. 

Milwaukee  Public  School  of  Trades  for  Girls.  — In 
July,  1909,  the  Milwaukee  Board  of  School  Directors 
authorized  the  establishment  of  a school  of  Trades  for 
Girls.  The  State  Normal  School  building,  vacated  dur- 
ing the  summer  of  1909,  was  chosen  for  the  location  of 
the  new  school  which  was  opened  on  December  6.  To 
the  original  building  a new  addition  has  been  added  to 
accommodate  the  large  number  of  applicants,  the  wait- 
ing list  running  as  high  as  200  names  at  a time.  Four 
hundred  girls  are  provided  for  in  the  building  at  the 
present  time. 

The  school  is  located  on  Wells  Street  and  occupies 
the  southern  half  of  the  block  between  Eighteenth  and 
Nineteenth  streets.  Transportation  lines  are  accessible 
and  close  connections  may  be  made  with  all  car  lines 
which  run  in  close  proximity  to  the  school. 


The  school  year  is  eleven  months  in  length.  Each 
weekly  schedule  consists  of  thirty-five  hours.  School 
hours  are  from  8.30  to  12.00  and  from  1.00  to  4.30  daily 
except  Saturday.  Approximately  two-fifths  of  the 
student’s  time  during  her  course  is  devoted  to  work 
supplemental  to  her  chosen  trade  and  vitally  essential 
to  the  skilled  worker.  The  remaining  three-fifths  is 
spent  in  actual  shop  practice.  One-half  of  the  time 
spent  in  the  shop  must  be  devoted  to  trade  work  for  the 
school  and  one-half  may  be  devoted  to  the  girl’s  own 
needs. 

Students  must  supply  their  own  drawing  instruments 
and  all  drawing  material,  and  the  small  tools  needed 
in  their  respective  trades,  such  as  scissors,  tape  line, 
needles,  emery,  etc. 

The  various  kinds  of  dressmaking  trades,  millinery, 
applied  art  and  design  have  been  selected  to  offer  for 
instruction.  Those  desiring  instruction  in  other  trades 
are  requested  to  make  application.  On  receipt  of  a 
sufficient  number  of  requests  to  make  it  evident  that 
the  demand  warrants  the  expense  of  equipment,  the 
school  will  consider  the  establishment  of  courses  in  the 
trades  desired.  Household  science  is  taught  as  a course 
supplemental  to  the  trades. 

The  Worcester  Massachusetts  Girls'  Trade  School. 

The  Worcester  Girls’  Trade  School  was  established 
September,  1911,  under  the  state  and  city  ordinance 
providing  for  Independent  Industrial  Schools  under 
the  management  and  control  of  a Board  of  Trustees. 

The  school  is  located  on  State  Street  at  the  corner  of 
Court  Hill.  It  may  be  reached  from  every  section  of 
the  city  direct  or  by  transfer.  A remodeled  dwelling 
provides  for  office,  salesroom,  power-machine  operating 
room,  and  lunch  room  on  the  first  floor.  The  dress- 
making shops  are  on  the  second  and  the  art  and 
design  classes  are  on  the  third  floor.  A separate 
dwelling  is  maintained  for  the  four-year  home-making 
courses. 

By  the  generosity  of  David  Fanning  of  the  Worcester 
Corset  Company  this  school  has  received  a gift  of 
$100,000  in  recognition  of  its  work. 

The  school  year  is  42  weeks  in  length  and  maintains 
a summer  session  of  six  weeks.  The  day  school  is  open 
from  8.30  to  12.00  a.m.  and  from  1.00  to  4.45  p.m. 
every  day  except  Saturday.  The  evening  school  ses- 
sion is  24  weeks.  Classes  meet  Monday  and  Wednes- 
day or  Tuesday  and  Thursday  from  7.30  to  9.30  p.m. 
The  courses  consist  of  short  units  of  millinery  and  sew- 
ing which  leads  to  dressmaking.  A four-year  course  in 
home-making  is  offered  and  two-year  trade  courses  in 
dressmaking,  millinery,  power-machine  operating,  and 
cookery,  together  with  allied  and  supplementary  sub- 
jects. Every  girl’s  program  includes  : 


194 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


One  trade 22  to  25  hours  per  week 

Cooking 3 “ “ “ 

Art 3 to  42  “ “ “ 

Academic  subjects  ....  3 to  \\  “ “ “ 

Gymnastics i|  “ “ “ 

Jane  Hayes  Gates  Institute.  — The  Jane  Hayes  Gates 
Institute  is  a Home  Economics  and  Trade  School  for 
girls  and  women  under  the  direction  of  the  Kansas  City 
Board  of  Education. 

The  house  is  particularly  well  suited  for  this  purpose. 
Trade  efficiency  and  good -home-making  is  the  ideal  of 

Jane  Mayes  Ga+es  Insfi+u+e 
J Jtf  Floor 


all  instruction.  The  rooms  to  the  right  and  left  of  the 
doorway  on  the  first  floor  are  used  as  dressmaking  anti 
millinery  laboratories.  Lockers,  irons  and  ironing 
boards,  tables  and  chairs  have  been  installed.  The 
dining-room  and  kitchen  are  used  for  the  preparation 
and  serving  of  the  lunch.  The  kitchen  is  large  enough 
for  several  student  armchairs,  so  a demonstration  can 
be  given  there.  The  second  floor  has  two  domestic 
science  laboratories  perfectly  appointed  in  every  way. 
Another  room  is  given  over  to  the  Industrial  Art  classes, 
another  for  the  academic  work,  another  for  a cloak 
room,  and  another  a rest  room,  which  serves  also  as  a 
demonstration  bedroom. 


The  courses  are  planned  to  suit  the  needs  of  different 
classes  of  students,  among  whom  is  the  girl  who  has  just 
finished  the  elementary  school  and  wishes  to  prepare 
herself  for  a definite  line  of  trade  work.  The  girls  have 
the  choice  of  two  two-year  courses,  millinery  or  dress- 
making. These  courses  comprise  fifteen  hours’  work  in 
the  laboratory,  which  is  conducted  as  a shop,  three 
hours  English,  three  hours  mathematics,  two  hours  of 
physiology  and  sanitation  and  textiles,  four  hours  of 
industrial  art,  one  hour  gymnasium,  and  three  hours  of 
cookery.  The  fifteen  hours  a week  shopwork  consists 

Jane  Haves  Gates  Institute 
Z-  Floor 


in  making  certain  required  articles  of  clothing  which 
are  chosen  as  representing  the  different  problems  which 
are  encountered  in  the  dressmaking  and  millinery  fields. 
An  effort  is  made  to  develop  judgment  and  taste  as  well 
as  technique.  The  art  work  shows  the  use  of  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  design  in  the  designing  of  clothing 
and  house  furnishings.  Line,  spacing,  and  color  are 
studied  with  a special  reference  to  the  personality  of 
the  individual  for  whom  the  garment  is  designed.  Color 
harmonies  are  worked  out  in  various  kinds  and  tex- 
tures of  materials  suitable  for  blouses,  dresses,  suits, 
draperies,  and  wall  coverings.  Plaids  and  striped 
materials  suitable  for  the  different  types  of  figures  are 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  FOR  VOCATIONAL  SCHOOLS 


I95 


studied.  In  sketching,  the  emphasis  is  placed  on  de- 
sign rather  than  drawing. 

The  course  in  cookery  is  planned  to  teach  the  different 
methods  of  food  preparation  and  the  principles  under- 
lying them.  Besides  this,  each  student  takes  her  turn 
in  the  lunch  room,  where  she  has  charge  of  the  purchas- 
ing, preparation,  and  serving  of  meals.  The  keeping  of 
household  accounts,  division  of  income,  making  house- 
hold budgets  are  taught.  There  is  a school  garden 
which  gives  the  girls  some  experience  in  production  of 
food  materials  as  well  as  supplying  school  cookery 
classes. 

The  second  group  of  students  consists  of  girls  to 
whom  the  regular  high  school  course  does  not  appeal. 
These  girls  are  particularly  interested  in  the  home 
problems  and  select  courses  which  deal  with  the  scientific 
solution  of  these. 

In  addition  to  these  two  groups  the  school  offers 
special  courses  in  Commercial  Art,  which  prepares 
women  to  enter  employment  in  the  advertisement  de- 
partment of  our  business  houses,  in  millinery,  dressmak- 
ing, cookery,  and  home  management.  The  courses  last 
named  are  based  on  the  home  problems  that  every 
woman  faces  sooner  or  later,  and  have  been  so  popular 
that  it  has  proven  to  the  directors  of  the  school  that 
there  is  a tremendous  need  and  desire  of  the  women  of 
the  city  to  learn  to  do  their  part  of  the  world’s  work 
efficiently. 

III.  Buildings  and  Equipment 

Types  of  Schools.  — -Vocational  agriculture  instruction 
is  now  being  given  in  three  types  of  secondary  schools : 
(i)  Separate  agricultural  schools,  including  congressional 
district,  county,  and  privately  endowed  agricultural 
schools ; (2)  consolidated  rural  schools ; and  (3)  small 
city  and  town  high  schools. 

The  Vocational  Education  Act  of  1917,  which  ap- 
propriates Federal  funds  for  the  promotion  of  agri- 
cultural instruction  in  schools  of  less  than  college  grade, 
provides  assistance  for  approved  work  in  schools  of  all 
three  types  under  public  supervision  and  control. 

The  act  does  not  permit  the  expenditure  of  Federal 
moneys  for  plant  or  equipment  for  the  schools  established 
or  in  part  supported  by  the  act,  yet  through  the  pro- 
vision which  requires  approval  by  the  Federal  Board  of 
standards  for  plant,  equipment,  and  maintenance,  the 
Federal  and  State  Boards  for  Vocational  Education  are 
interested  in  these  problems,  and  increased  attention 
will  undoubtedly  be  given  to  them  by  communities 
and  persons  interested  in  introducing,  providing  facili- 
ties for,  or  carrying  on  such  instruction. 

The  act  mentions  and  provides  for  part-time  and 
evening  as  well  as  all-day  vocational  schools,  but  build- 


ings which  meet  the  needs  of  all-day  agricultural  in- 
struction will  usually  be  satisfactory  for  part-time 
and  evening  classes  and  will  not  be  discussed  separately 
here. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  character  and  extent  of  build- 
ings and  equipment  needed  for  the  most  effective  con- 
duct of  vocational  agriculture  instruction  must  differ 
with  the  type  of  school. 

The  main  business  of  the  separate  agricultural  school 
is  to  give  vocational  instruction  in  agriculture.  In  the 
consolidated  rural  school  and  in  the  small  city  or  town 
high  school,  vocational  instruction  in  agriculture  exists 
as  a single  department  of  a general  school. 

Separate  agricultural  schools  commonly  serve  much 
larger  areas  than  do  the  consolidated  rural  and  small 
city  and  town  high  schools.  The  majority  of  their 
pupils  live  away  from  home,  while  probably  all  of  the 
agricultural  pupils  of  the  consolidated  rural  high  school 
and  the  majority  of  the  agricultural  pupils  of  the  small 
city  or  town  high  school  live  at  home. 

Separate  agricultural  schools  ordinarily  have  a num- 
ber of  agricultural  teachers  and  give  numerous  strictly 
agricultural  courses.  In  the  case  of  the  consolidated 
rural  and  small  town  or  city  high  school  there  is  com- 
monly but  one  agricultural  teacher,  and  the  number  of 
agricultural  courses  given  is  necessarily  limited  by  this 
fact. 

Types  of  Buildings.  — It  is  evident  from  the  above 
facts  that  the  separate  agricultural  school  must  have  a 
more  extensive  equipment  in  land,  buildings,  laboratory 
and  shop  facilities  and  apparatus,  and  in  general  farm 
equipment  than  is  needed  for  the  consolidated  rural  or 
small  city  or  town  high  school.  As  a matter  of  fact, 
most  of  these  schools  own  farms  of  from  twenty  to  sev- 
eral hundred  acres  and  have  from  one  to  several  build- 
ings devoted  entirely  to  agricultural  instruction ; where 
consolidated  rural  high  schools  serve  a large  number  of 
school  districts  they  sometimes  have  separate  agricul- 
tural buildings  and  considerable  land.  But  ordinarily 
they,  like  the  small  city  or  town  high  school  in  which 
agriculture  is  taught,  have  but  little  land  and  but  one 
general  school  building,  of  which  a part  is  devoted  to 
agricultural  instruction. 

The  number  and  kinds  of  buildings  needed  for  the 
separate  agricultural  school  vary  according  to  condi- 
tions. Besides  the  main  school  building  or  buildings, 
various  farm  buildings  will  be  needed,  the  number  and 
sizes  depending  upon  the  size  of  the  school  farm,  the 
kind  of  farming,  and  the  course  of  study.  Barns  will 
be  needed  for  work  animals;  sheds  for  stock,  hog  houses, 
poultry  houses,  etc.,  must  be  provided  where  animal 
husbandry  is  emphasized.  Glass  houses  will  be  needed 
in  truck  and  certain  horticultural  districts.  Granaries, 


iq6 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


cribs,  etc.  will  be  needed  in  grain  districts.  Provision 
for  housing  farm  implements  must  be  made  wherever 
there  is  a school  farm  or  exhibit  collections  of  imple- 
ments. 

In  the  case  of  separate  Congressional  District  Agri- 
cultural Schools  and  other  similar  schools  serving  a 
large  area,  some  provision  must  be  made  for  the  housing 
and  boarding  of  pupils  who  come  from  a distance.  Where 
both  boys  and  girls  attend  these  schools,  additional 


adopted  with  very  satisfactory  results  in  certain  special 
and  county  agricultural  schools  in  the  East,  and  might 
well  be  more  widely  used  for  similar  institutions.  Its 
chief  feature  is  the  “ arena  ” or  inner  court,  within  the 
walls  of  the  school  building.  Doors  large  enough  to 
drive  in  teams,  stock,  bring  in  pieces  of  machinery,  etc., 
are  provided.  It  is  so  arranged  that  it  can  conveniently 
be  used  for  local  fairs  or  exhibits,  showing  agricultural 
displays  of  farm  crops,  canned  and  preserved  products, 


Fihst  Floor,  Plan 
Smith  Agricultural  School 

Northampton,  Mass. 

Fig.  172. 


dormitory  facilities  must  be  provided.  Even  where 
the  boys  and  girls  do  not  live  in  dormitories  belonging 
to  the  school  the  responsibility  for  their  supervision 
rests  upon  the  school.  There  is,  therefore,  a natural 
tendency  toward  general  provision  of  dormitories  for 
schools  where  the  pupils  cannot  go  home  at  night,  as 
this  decreases  supervision  difficulties  besides  present- 
ing other  obvious  advantages. 

Smith  Agricultural  School. — -One  excellent  type  of 
school  building  for  a separate  agricultural  school  is 
shown  in  the  plan  of  Smith  Agricultural  School,  at 
Northampton,  Mass,  (figure  172).  This  type  has  been 


etc.  It  may  also  be  used  for  community  gatherings, 
demonstrations,  lectures,  etc.  The  social  and  agricul- 
tural teaching  advantages  of  such  an  arrangement  for  a 
separate  agricultural  school  in  a rural  community  are 
apparent. 

In  addition  to  a main  school  building  and  the  neces- 
sary farm  buildings,  the  separate  agricultural  school 
frequently  has  from  one  to  several  other  school  build- 
ings, as  for  example,  a special  farm  mechanics  build- 
ing, a dairy  building,  etc.  The  number,  nature,  and 
size  of  these  special  buildings  will  be  determined  largely 
by  the  local  and  individual  conditions  of  each  school. 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  FOR  VOCATIONAL  SCHOOLS 


I97 


The  general  plan  of  such  special  buildings  for  use  in 
vocational  agriculture  instruction  will  become  more 
and  more  closely  standardized  as  the  conditions  for 
most  efficient  instruction  in  dairy  work,  farm  mechanics, 
and  other  special  agricultural  subjects  instruction  are 
worked  out  and  agreed  upon. 

In  the  case  of  the  consolidated  rural  high  school  and 
the  small  city  or  town  high  school,  instruction  in  agri- 
culture is  ordinarily  given  in  the  same  building  with 
other  high  school  instruction.  In  some  cases  grammar 
and  elementary  grades  are  even  housed  under  this  same 
roof.  In  the  case  of  these  schools,  then,  provision  for 
vocational  agriculture  should  consist  in  adding,  be- 
sides the  usual  science  laboratories,  an  agricultural 
laboratory  and  an  agricultural  recitation  room.  One 
satisfactory  plan  for  such  rooms  is  shown  in  figure  173, 
the  agricultural  laboratory  of  the  Logan  County  High 
School  at  Sterling,  Colorado. 

Plan  of  Combination  Laboratory  and  Recitation  Room. 
— For  the  very  small  school  a combination  of  labora- 
tory and  recitation  room  may  be  satisfactorily  used. 
Where  possible,  it  is  an  advantage  to  have  the  agri- 
cultural laboratory  on  the  ground  floor,  so  that  the 
students  may  easily  pass  in  and  out  at  any  time  with- 
out disturbing  other  classes,  and  that  illustrative  ma- 
terial may  readily  be  brought  to  and  taken  from  the 
laboratory. 

If  farm  mechanics  instruction  is  given,  it  is  desirable, 
when  possible,  that  it  be  given  in  a separate  building, 
whatever  the  type  of  school.  If  it  is  given  in  the  same 
building  with  other  school  instruction,  it  is  difficult 
to  prevent  the  noise  necessarily  incident  to  the  work 
from  disturbing  the  other  school  work.  Ideally,  there 
should  probably  be  a separate  room  for  the  carpentry, 


□□□□□□□□□□a 


□□□□□□□□□□□ 
Lecture  Room 

□□□□□□□□□□a 

□□□□□□□□□□a 


■ 111 


Demonstration 

u 

Laboratory 

Table 

Soil  qrinder  r 

0 Cream  ^1 1 

Separator  YJ 


Agricultural  Laboratory 


The:  Logan  County  Industrial 
High  School 

STERLING,  COLORADO. 

Fig.  173. 


Arts 


Shelves  for  books  & demonstrational  material 

1 * * ■»"  11 

Laboratory  apparatus  &<  supplies 

® Sink 

Fig.  174.  — Plan  of  Combination  Laboratory  and  Recitation  Room,  Logan 
County  Industrial  Arts  High  School. 


for  the  blacksmi thing,  and  for  the  toggery.  But  though 
this  can  often  be  provided  for  in  Congressional  District 
and  County  High  Schools,  the  other  classes  of  schools  will 
usually  have  to  be  content  with  more  modest  quarters. 

IS  l/o  p Building,  Sterling,  Cclo.  — One  type 
of  separate  shop  building  is  shown  in  figure 
175,  that  of  the  Logan  County  High  School 
at  Sterling,  Colorado. 

A Combination  Shop  Suggested.  — Where 
it  is  not  possible  to  have  a separate  building 
for  shopwork,  a room  in  another  building, 
possibly  even  in  the  basement  of  the  school 
building  proper,  may  have  to  suffice  tempo- 
rarily at  least.  New  York  bulletin  626 
suggests  the  following  shop  room : 

“Under  average  conditions  the  room  for  shop- 
work  can  be  found.  It  should  be  at  least  16  by  24 
feet  in  area,  well  lighted,  and  preferably  with  a 
south  exposure.  Rooms  not  already  suitable  for 
the  purpose  may  often  be  made  so  at  small  expense. 
If  absolutely  necessary,  a basement  room  may  be 
fitted  up.  In  this  case  additional  windows  will 
frequently  be  needed.  Under  the  row  of  windows 
there  should  be  a continuous  bench,  preferably 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


198 


The:  Logan  County  Industrial  Arts 
High  School 


■5T  E.TM-1NG  , COLORADO. 

Fig.  175. 

built  of  two-inch  planks.  This  bench  ought  to  be  24  to  30  inches 
wide.  It  should  be  provided  with  wood  vises,  at  intervals  of 
S feet. 

“ At  the  end  of  the  bench  nearest  the  forge  and  anvil  there  should 
be  one  blacksmith’s  iron  or  machinist’s  swivel  vise.  A good 
grindstone,  mounted  by  the  pupils,  can  be  placed  conveniently, 
and  vertical  cabinets  for  the  tools  belonging  to  the  school  can  be 
built  by  the  first  class  from  their  own  designs.  Some  open  space 
should  be  reserved  in  the  middle  of  the  room  for  the  use  of  saw- 
horses, for  setting  up  work  in  course  of  construction,  and  for 
testing  the  operation  of  machinists.  The  forge 
should  be  so  placed  as  to  exhaust  the  smoke 
and  gases  into  the  regular  furnace  stack  when 
possible. 

“The  ceiling  of  the  room  should  be  properly 
prepared  to  deaden  the  sound  of  work  done  in 
the  shop.  The  under  side  of  floor  joists  over- 
head should  be  sheathed  with  ‘deadening  felt,’ 
and  this  covered  by  a tight  wooden  ceiling  or  by 
lathing  and  plastering.  Metallic  ceiling  should 
not  be  used,  because  of  its  sound-conducting 
properties. 

“ The  floor  should  be  of  wood  except  around 
the  forge  and  anvil.  Cement  floors  are  cold 
and  hard  on  the  pupil’s  feet.  An  edged  tool 
may  be  spoiled  by  dropping  on  a cement  floor. 

If  cement  foundation  is  used,  the  corner  de- 
signed for  the  forge  may  be  left  uncovered  when 
the  wood  floor  is  laid.  If  the  room  to  be  used 
as  a shop  already  has  a wood  floor,  a covering  of 
zinc,  tin  or  galvanized  iron  should  be  placed  in  the 
corner  where  the  forge  and  anvil  are  to  stand.” 


Figure  176  shows  a combination  shop  which  may  be 
made  to  give  satisfactory  service  in  a small  school. 

Since  the  majority  of  the  agricultural  pupils  of  the 
consolidated  rural  high  school  and  the  small  town  high 
school  live  at  home  and  can  carry  on  supervised  practi- 
cal work  there,  such  schools  will  ordinarily  own  but  little 
land  for  agricultural  uses.  They  will  therefore  need 
but  few  farm  buildings,  farm  implements,  etc.,  compared 
with  the  separate  agricultural  schools.  Primary  factors 
in  determining  what  these  shall  be  will  be  the  amount 
of  land  owned  or  leased  for  agricultural  purposes,  and 
the  character  of  the  crops  grown. 

As  has  been  indicated,  agricultural  schools  will  have  a 
series  of  agricultural  laboratories  and  recitation  rooms, — 
as  for  example  a farm  crops  laboratory,  a horticulture 
laboratory,  etc.  In  the  smaller  schools  where  voca- 
tional agriculture  is  taught,  there  may  be  but  one  agri- 
cultural laboratory,  used  for  different  classes.  In  this 
case  it  must  be  fitted  up  to  meet  the  various  needs. 

There  must  be  laboratory  tables  suitable  for  the 
kinds  of  work  undertaken,  with  gas,  sinks,  running 
water,  etc.  Where  there  must  be  a single  combination 
recitation  and  laboratory7  room,  flat- topped  tables  and 
chairs  with  suitable  cases  for  apparatus  and  supplies 
must  be  provided.  There  should  be  cabinet  cases  for 
demonstration  material,  grains,  seeds,  feeds,  fertilizers, 
etc. 

Unless  the  school  has  ample  space  in  its  library  room 
or  rooms  for  the  shelving  and  care  of  agricultural  books, 
bulletins,  and  magazines,  provision  must  be  made  for 
them  in  the  agricultural  laboratory,  or  recitation  room. 
There  should  be  abundant  storage  room  for  illustrative 
collections,  extra  pieces  of  apparatus  and  supplies. 
There  must  be  suitable  provision  for  the  storage  and 
for  the  display  of  soil  service  maps,  charts,  pictures 


Fig.  176. 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  FOR  VOCATIONAL  SCHOOLS 


199 


of  live  stock  of  the  various  kinds,  and  other  illustrative 
material. 

Discussion  of  the  special  apparatus  and  equipment 
desirable  for  use  in  connection  with  the  different  agri- 
cultural courses  involves  so  many  considerations  that 
it  cannot  be  adequately  treated  in  a few  pages.  It 
will  therefore  not  be  touched  upon  here. 


sible,  skilled  worker  in  at  least  four  or  five  skilled 
occupations ; under  emergency  conditions  this  number 
may  be  greatly  increased.  In  addition,  she  is  usually 
joint  owner  and  manager  of  the  whole  enterprise,  and 
she  must  be  skilled  in  household  management. 

Schools  offering  vocational  instruction  in  home  eco- 
nomics should  provide  for  three  types  of  workrooms. 


Basement  Plan 

Nlw  Shop  Building  fop  Smith  Agricultural  School. 

Northampton,  Mass. 

Fig.  177. 


IV.  Home  Economics 

Purpose  of  Vocational  Home  Economics  Schools.'  — 

Home  economics  as  a vocational  subject  has  for  its  con- 
trolling purpose  the  preparation  of  girls  and  women  for 
useful  employment  as  home-makers  and  as  house 
daughters  engaged  in  the  occupations  and  management 
of  the  home,  preparation  for  useful  employment  in  an 
occupation  which  is  a composite  of  undifferentiated  occu- 
pations requiring  various  forms  of  skill  and  of  related 
knowledge.  Such  employment  may  or  may  not  be  wage 
earning  employment.  It  is  wage  earning  employment 
for  household  assistants.  It  is  not  wage  earning  employ- 
ment in  the  general  acceptance  of  the  term  for  home- 
makers who  are  at  the  same  time  workers  and  managers 
in  their  respective  enterprises.  As  such  they  have  need 
for  forms  of  vocational  education  especially  adapted 
to  meet  their  needs  both  as  workers  and  as  managers. 

Home-making  Activities.  — Home-making  is  both  a 
social  and  a business  enterprise.  Under  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances the  efficient  home-maker  must  be  a respon- 


First,  adequate  space  and  equipment  for  instruction 
and  laboratory  practice  in  all  of  the  home  activities, 
such  as  housekeeping,  garment  making,  dressmaking, 
food  study  and  cookery,  serving  of  meals,  laundry, 
home  nursing,  and  the  care  of  children. 

Second,  adequate  space  and  equipment  for  instruc- 
tion and  laboratory  practice  in  the  related  sciences  and 
art  which  are  fundamental  to  a proper  understanding 
and  application  of  home-making  processes.  These  will 
include  such  subjects  as  general  science,  applied  physi- 
ology and  home  nursing,  household  chemistry,  house- 
hold physics  and  applied  drawing  and  design,  costume 
design,  house  furnishing  and  decorating. 

Third,  there  should  be  adequate  space  and  equipment 
for  the  non-vocational  or  general  academic  subjects. 

Schools  Teaching  Home  Economics. — Vocational 
home-making  is  offered  in  three  kinds  of  schools,  namely, 
day  schools,  part-time  schools,  and  evening  schools.  The 
type  of  instruction  does  not  vary  materially  in  these 
three  kinds  of  schools,  and  the  plant  and  equipment 
which  is  best  designed  for  efficient  work  in  the  day 


1 Prepared  by  Miss  Anna  E.  Richardson,  Acting  Assistant  Director  for  Home  Economics,  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education. 


200 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


schools  will  serve  for  work  in  part-time  and  evening 
schools.  For  the  purpose  of  this  article  only  the  day 
school  will  be  discussed. 

Types  of  All-Day  Schools.  — All-day  schools  are  of 
two  types,  separate  home-making  schools  which  provide 
equipment  and  space  for  the  entire  vocational  and  non- 
vocational  curriculum,  and  home-making  departments 
of  trade  schools,  general  elementary,  and  high  schools 
where  space  and  equipment  is  provided  for  the  home  eco- 
nomics subjects  but  where  the  classrooms  of  the  general 
school  are  used  for  the  work  in  applied  science  and  art 
and  the  non-vocational  subjects. 

Separate  Schools  of  Home-making  have  been  housed 
in  whatever  type  of  building  was  available.  The  types 
of  building  in  common  use  are  old  school  buildings  and 
remodeled  homes.  The  Newark  Girls’  Vocational  School 
is  a fair  representative  of  the  first  type,  and  the  Essex 
County  School  at  Bloomfield,  New  Jersey,  is  a repre- 
sentative of  the  use  of  the  second  type  of  building. 

For  the  separate  school  the  remodeled  house  is  more 
desirable  if  the  vocational  class  is  not  too  large.  It 
provides  the  opportunity  for  work  under  approximately 
home  conditions,  as  the  house  may  be  furnished  as  a 
home  and  all  of  the  home-making  activities  provided 
for.  Unfortunately  most  of  the  homes  so  used  are  very 
large,  old-fashioned  houses  with  the  inconvenience  of 
large  rooms,  waste  spaces,  and  poorly  planned  working 
areas. 

Home-making  Departments  of  Trade  Schools.- — The 
home-making  departments  of  the  trade  school,  as  for  ex- 
ample the  Worcester  Trade  School,  Worcester,  Massa- 
chusetts, and  the  Jane  Hayes  Gates  School,  Kansas 
City,  Missouri  (see  figures  170  and  17 1,  page  194)  offer 
the  opportunity  for  equipment  which  approximates  trade 
equipment.  Some  of  these  departments  are  fitted  up 
with  laboratory  kitchens  and  sewing-rooms,  but  more 
often  the  sewing-rooms  are  equipped  for  shopwork  and 
the  food  preparation  is  a part  of  the  lunch  room  work. 
The  equipment  for  technical  home  economics  is  good, 
but  in  such  departments  the  equipment  for  related  art 
and  science  is  apt  to  be  inadequate. 

Home-making  Departments  of  Elementary  or  Secondary 
Schools.  — When  home-making  is  a department  of  the 
general  public  schools,  we  usually  find  the  laboratory 
type  of  equipment,  the  extent  of  space  and  equipment 
depending  upon  the  school.  In  the  best  schools  the 
kitchen  laboratory  is  fitted  with  individual  work-tables 
to  accommodate  15  to  20  students.  A dining-room  is 
furnished  for  the  serving  of  meals  and  adequate  storage 
and  pantry  space  is  provided.  The  sewing-room  is 
fitted  with  tables  and  chairs  of  the  right  height  for 
comfort  in  sewing  and  cutting.  In  many  of  the  schools, 
housekeeping  apartments  are  provided  in  addition, 


which  are  used  for  class  instruction  in  home  manage- 
ment, home  nursing,  and  house  furnishing  and  decorat- 
ing. The  school  science  laboratories  are  used  for  the 
related  science  instruction,  and  the  regular  classrooms 
for  the  non-vocational  work.  This  type  of  equipment 
is  common  to  home  economics  departments  throughout 
the  country,  and  is  discussed  at  length  in  another  sec- 
tion of  this  book.  Unmodified,  the  straight  laboratory 
equipment  is  apt  to  be  too  formal,  too  remote  from  the 
home  activities  of  the  girl  and  is  one  of  the  reasons  why 
much  of  the  home  economics  as  given  does  not  produce 
independent  home  workers. 

Modifications  of  Equipment.  — The  recognition  of  the 
fact  that,  if  instruction  in  vocational  home-making  is 
to  be  effective,  it  must  be  carried  on  under  as  nearly 
normal  conditions  as  possible,  coupled  with  the  fact 
that  most  of  this  training  must  be  given  in  the  schools, 
as  it  is  impossible  to  provide  home-making  training  for 
each  girl  in  her  own  home,  has  led  to  various  modifica- 
tions of  the  school  equipment. 

The  usual  floor  space  devoted  to  Home  Economics 
does  not  permit  the  instruction  to  partake  of  the  ac- 
tivities of  the  home  to  a sufficient  degree.  In  the  be- 
ginning, equipments  were  installed  in  vacated  class- 
rooms or  in  unused  basement  space  and  were  limited  to 
small  composite  tables  containing  the  stove  and  equip- 
ment, for  the  use  of  the  pupils. 

In  a High  School. — With  the  advent  of  vocational 
home  economics  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  increase 
to  a considerable  degree  the  floor  space  available.  The 
plan  suggested  in  figure  178  is  intended  to  be  incorpo- 
rated in  the  general  plan  for  a cosmopolitan  high  school 
as  a department  for  vocational  home  economics.  The 
architect  will  find  it  necessary  to  apply  this  suggestion 
to  local  conditions.  It  may  not  be  possible  to  allot  to 
this  department  the  floor  area  shown.  On  the  other  hand, 
in  some  buildings  additional  space  may  be  available. 

In  this  plan  the  entire  space  covering  4400  square 
feet  is  divided  by  partitions  about  nine  feet  high,  into 
sewing-room,  fitting  room,  four  unit  kitchens,  rest  room, 
laundry,  storerooms,  and  an  apartment,  made  up  of 
dining-room,  kitchen,  bedroom,  and  bath.  The  sewing- 
room  is  amply  provided  with  sewing  tables  2'  S''  high, 
comfortable  chairs,  hinged  ironing  boards  and  ade- 
quate locker  space,  and  has  adjoining  storage  and  fitting 
rooms. 

The  apartment  may  be  used  for  various  home  man- 
agement problems,  service  of  meals,  care  of  the  house, 
home  nursing,  and  house  planning,  furnishing,  and 
decorating.  The  kitchen  of  the  apartment  is  fitted  up 
as  a convenient  home  kitchen  and  the  arrangement  is 
planned  to  save  time  and  energy  in  manipulative  pro- 
cesses. This  kitchen,  with  the  other  units,  is  used  for 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  FOR  VOCATIONAL  SCHOOLS 


201 


class  work,  three  to  five  students  in  a kitchen,  depend- 
ing upon  the  number  of  students  in  the  class.  The 
kitchens  differ  slightly  in  size  and  equipment,  so  as  to 
allow  for  some  experimentation  as  to  the  most  effective 
arrangement.  Ample  space  is  allowed  outside  of  the 
units  for  chairs  and  a blackboard  where  the  class  may 
be  assembled,  without  loss  of  time,  for  explanations, 
discussions,  and  instruction.  This  is  a very  important 
feature,  often  neglected  in  schools  with  unit  kitchen 
equipment.  The  open  alcove  adjoining  the  apartment 
kitchen  may  be  fitted  up  as  a rest  room  or  a sitting 
room.  This  provides  for  a place  to  read  or  work  and 
gives  further  opportunity  for  working  out  problems  in 
decorating,  furnishing,  and  care. 

It  has  been  found  that  a class  of  from  ten  to  twenty 
pupils  composes  a working  group  under  one  instructor. 
The  plan  as  suggested  will  ordinarily  provide  instruc- 
tion for  as  many  as  sixty  pupils  under  the  direction  of 
three  teachers. 


As  a means  of  greater  flexibility,  the  rooms  should  be 
designed  with  all  interior  dividing  partitions  of  light 
construction  and  extending  only  nine  feet  above  the 
floor,  with  open  ceilings.  The  partitions  should  be  con- 
structed so  that  the  walls  may  be  decorated  in  keeping 
with  similar  rooms  in  the  home.  The  interior  parti- 
tions between  the  “ unit  rooms  ” and  the  open  space 
have  in  most  cases  been  omitted  in  order  that  the  in- 
structor may  have  an  opportunity  to  supervise  the 
work  of  the  pupils  more  readily. 

Essential  Points.  Light.  — All  “ unit  rooms  ” and 
floor  space  for  general  instruction  should  be  well  lighted 
by  natural  light.  The  rooms  should  be  wired  for  the 
usual  artificial  light  as  specified  elsewhere  in  this  chap- 
ter. In  addition,  extra  service  outlets  should  be  ex- 
tended to  the  equipment  in  each  of  the  unit  rooms. 

Floors.  — All  floors  should  be  of  wood,  or,  if  of  con- 
crete, covered  with  battleship  linoleum. 

Interior  Partitions  should  be  constructed  of  light 


202 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


frame  work  covered  either  with  plaster  or  compo  board, 
so  that  the  walls  may  be  decorated  similarly  to  the 
home.  Doors  should  be  hung  on  the  openings  in  the 
bedroom,  bathroom,  fitting  room,  storage  rooms,  and 
laundry.  In  the  partition  separating  the  dining-room 
and  kitchen  a combination  buffet  and  kitchen  cabinet 
should  be  constructed.  This  should  be  flush  with  the 
wall  on  the  dining-room  side,  above  the  counter  shelf, 
and  fitting  with  a sliding  door  permitting  the  passage  of 
articles  from  the  kitchen  to  the  dining-room. 

Ceilings.  — The  usual  height  ceiling,  from  n to  13 
feet,  is  satisfactory. 

Heating  and  Ventilation  should  correspond  to  the 
usual  requirements  for  school  buildings. 

Supply  Rooms.  — In  the  supply  rooms,  adequate 
shelving  should  be  placed  for  the  storage  of  a consider- 
able quantity  of  material.  For  the  storage  of  dresses, 


large  built-in  cabinets  with  sliding  doors  in  which  dresses 
can  hang  at  full  length,  should  be  provided.  Individual 
pupil’s  lockers  should  also  be  constructed  in  the  sewing 
room  as  indicated.  These  should  be  equipped  with 
individual  locks,  fitted  with  a master  key. 

Equipment.  — The  plan  should  show  the  installa- 
tion of  all  equipment,  so  that  service  and  plumbing 
outlets  may  be  extended  to  the  fixtures.  The  equip- 
ment should  be  similar  to  that  used  in  the  average 
home,  and  should  be  selected  of  the  best  makes  so  as  to 
stand  considerable  usage.  A four-hole  gas  range  with 
baking  and  broiling  ovens  should  be  placed  in  each 
kitchen.  The  kitchen  sink,  whenever  possible,  should 
be  fitted  with  a double  drain  board.  While  a porcelain 
drain  board  is  more  desirable  for  sanitary  reasons,  ex- 
perience shows  that  a wooden  drain  board  is  more 
serviceable.  All  kitchen  sinks,  drain  boards,  etc.,  should 
be  installed  so  that  the  working  surface  is  from  36  to  38 
inches  above  the  floor.  Each  kitchen  should  include  a 
kitchen  cabinet,  preferably  a built-in  combination 
work  table  with  shelves  and  a storage  space  below. 


The  laundry  equipment  should  include  two  batteries 
of  three  tubs  each  for  washing  purposes.  These  should 
be  connected  to  hot  and  cold  water  with  the  hot-water 
heater  in  the  room.  A family  electric  washing  machine 
and  a 42-inch  electrically  operated  mangle  and  electric 
irons  should  be  included  in  the  equipment.  The  electric 
wiring  should  provide  convenient  service  outlets  for  this 
equipment.  At  least  five  ironing-boards  should  be 
provided.  These  should  be  so  attached  to  the  wall 
that  they  may  be  raised  to  an  upright  position  when  not 
in  use.  A clothes  dryer  connected  to  steam  coils  is  an 
essential  part  of  the  equipment.  Simple  home  equip- 
ments should  also  be  used  and  comparison  made  as  to 
their  relative  efficiency. 

A much  simpler  plan  for  the  unit  kitchen  is  illus- 
trated in  figure  179.  This  shows  the  main  laboratory 
space  divided  by  partitions  into  three  average  size 
kitchens  equipped  as  home  kitchens.  It  is  recognized 
by  every  one  that  the  most  valuable  experience  is  ob- 
tained when  the  pupils  are  engaged  in  production  under 
the  same  conditions  that  exist  in  the  factory,  the  home, 
or  on  the  farm. 

For  the  sake  of  economy  and  the  stimulus  that  comes 
from  the  preparation  of  a product  which  is  to  be  used, 
some  method  must  be  devised  for  using  the  dishes  pre- 
pared in  the  school  kitchen.  Most*  modern  schools 
include  a lunch  room,  and  the  product  of  the  home  eco- 
nomics department  may  be  used  there. 

Since  most  lunch  rooms  are  located  on  the  first  floor, 
and  as  a rule  the  home  economics  department  on  the 
second  or  third  floor  of  the  building,  a dumb-waiter 
connecting  the  two  is  a necessary  addition  to  the  equip- 
ment. 

The  practice  house  is  an  extension  of  the  plan  to  pro- 
vide home  equipment  in  the  school  for  instruction  in 
home  economics.  In  most  cases  the  girls  do  not  live 
in  the  house,  but  the  usual  home-making  activities  are 
carried  on,  including  preparation  of  the  noon  meal, 
laundry,  house  cleaning,  etc.  This,  in  combination 
with  the  school  equipment,  provides  for  each  girl  an 
opportunity  to  do  independently  the  work  of  the  home 
for  a definite  period  of  several  weeks  or  more. 

Cafeterias  and  lunch  rooms  are  other  means  of  fur- 
nishing vocational  experience  under  normal  conditions. 
Such  experience  is  of  great  value  when  the  preparation 
of  the  lunch  is  made  an  educational  project.  Most 
careful  planning  is  necessary,  however,  to  see  that  the 
positions  are  changed  frequently  enough,  so  that  the  work 
does  not  degenerate  into  routing  practical  work. 

Standards  in  the  Selection  and  Equipment  of  Rooms 
for  Home  Economics  Instruction.  — In  utilizing  an  old 
building  or  in  planning  a new  one,  there  are  certain 
fundamental  standards  which  are  of  importance  in 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  FOR  VOCATIONAL  SCHOOLS 


203 


choosing  and  equipping  rooms  for  home-making  in- 
struction, which  should  be  taken  into  account  by  the 
architect.  These  deal  with  location,  size,  shape,  light- 
ing, ventilation,  floor  materials,  and  wall  finishes. 

Location.  — ■ The  school  kitchen  should  be  a corner 
room ; the  cross  drafts  eliminate  odors  and  provide  ven- 
tilation. The  corner  should  be  chosen  which  shade, 
prevailing  winds,  or  other  local  conditions  make  coolest. 
The  first  floor  is  to  be  preferred,  as  it  is  more  accessible 
for  supplies  and  the  removal  of  waste.  This  should  not 
be  a basement  room,  as  a basement  room  seldom  pro- 
vides adequate  light,  ventilation  or  other  opportunities 
for  healthful  work.  The  top  floor  of  the  building  pre- 
vents odors  from  spreading  through  the  building,  and  is 
satisfactory  if  the  building  is  not  more  than  three  stories, 
or  if  there  is  good  storage  space  so  that  supplies  may  be 
purchased  in  large  quantities,  and  adequate  elevator 
service  is  available. 

Good  light  is  an  essential  for  the  rooms  where  sew- 
ing is  taught ; therefore  a north  exposure  should  be 
used  if  possible  since  it  provides  the  best  light.  The 
location  of  the  rooms  for  the  other  home-making  ac- 
tivities is  not  so  important.  The  rooms  should,  how- 
ever, be  planned  in  relation  to  each  other  so  that  the 
work  done  can  be  accomplished  at  the  least  expenditure 
of  time  and  effort. 

Size.  — The  size  of  the  rooms  will  be  determined  by 
the  number  of  pupils  to  be  taught  and  the  use  of  the 
room,  whether  or  not  it  is  to  be  used  for  only  one  home- 
making  activity  or  for  a combination  work  room. 
Twenty  students  should  be  the  maximum  number  taught 
in  a vocational  class,  and  fewer  are  desirable.  The 


working  area  per  pupil  in  either  food  or  clothing  classes 
should  be  about  30  square  feet  distributed  in  a rectan- 
gular space  of  about  30  feet  by  25  feet.  There  should 
be  aisle  space  of  not  less  than  three  feet  in  width  and 
ample  storage  space  for  all  equipment. 

A square  or  slightly  rectangular  room  is  best  fitted 
for  a kitchen,  dining  room,  or  pantry.  For  a sewing- 
room  a narrow  room  is  best,  as  it  allows  the  light  to 
come  from  one  side  and  fall  all  the  way  across  the 
room. 

Lighting.  — The  rooms  should  be  well  lighted,  the 
glass  area  should  be  not  less  than  one-fourth  the  floor 
area.  Good  artificial  lighting  should  be  provided, 
conforming  to  the  usual  standards  for  artificial  lighting, 
that  is,  it  should  be  adequate,  suitably  placed  and 
easily  available.  For  sewing  the  same  standards  as 
for  cooking  should  prevail  with  more  allowance  for  the 
adjustability  of  artificial  lights  and  in  general  with  more 
emphasis  placed  on  light. 

Ventilation  should  be  as  nearly  as  possible  perfect,  to 
insure  both  the  health  and  comfort  of  the  students. 
If  a ventilating  system  is  not  in  use  in  the  building, 
ventilation  must  be  secured  by  windows  opening  at 
both  top  and  bottom,  and  the  school  kitchen  should 
have  windows  on  two  sides  of  the  room. 

Wall  finishes  will  be  determined  by  the  location  and 
use  of  the  room.  In  general  they  should  be  light-col- 
ored and  easily  cleaned. 

All  plans  for  home  economics  departments  should 
be  submitted  by  the  architect  to  a well-qualified  home 
economics  teacher.  This  will  insure  the  equipment 
being  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  school. 


CHAPTER  IX 


THE  HYGIENE  OF  SCHOOLS 

By  Robert  T.  Legge,  M.D.,  Professor  of  Hygiene  and  University  Physician  in  the  University  of  California , Berkeley, 
California;  Fellow  of  American  College  of  Surgeons ; Captain,  Medical  Corps,  U.  S.  Army. 

Ventilation.  Odors.  Temperature.  Humidity.  Air  Currents.  Bacteria.  Dust.  Heating.  Lighting.  Desks.  Plumbing. 

Open  Air  Schools.  Health  and  Safety  Welfare. 


The  Hygiene  of  Schools 

A volume  of  this  sort,  prepared  by  specialists,  each 
of  whom  deals  with  problems  from  his  own  standpoint, 
be  it  aesthetic,  economic,  or  some  other,  would  be  incom- 
plete without  a chapter  on  school  hygiene.  The  subject 
is  obviously  very  important,  for  it  deals  with  the 
health  of  the  occupants  of  schoolrooms  and  buildings. 
Scientific  knowledge  gathered  from  research  and  clinical 
observations  in  many  places  is  available,  and  it  must  be 
applied  to  modern  schoolhouses,  in  order  that  these 
shall  conform  to  certain  requirements  and  standards. 
Many  studies  of  the  situation  have  been  made  in  various 
states  by  educational  and  public  health  officials,  and  it 
is  the  general  opinion  of  such  observers  that  one-half  of 
the  schoolhouses  in  this  country  should  be  destroyed 
on  account  of  their  unsanitary  character.  Despite 
such  opinion  school  authorities  and  trustees  continue 
to  erect  highly  unsuitable  school  buildings  without 
consulting  specialists  whose  services  in  the  premises 
are  indispensable  for  the  safeguarding  of  public  health. 
Of  the  many  problems  that  are  to  be  considered,  those  of 
health  and  safety  are  first  in  importance ; second  are 
those  of  convenience  and  the  promotion  of  comfort. 
Attention  to  these  makes  the  pupils’  and  teachers’ 
workshop  liveable  and  makes  possible  the  elimination  of 
much  lost  motion,  and  at  the  same  time  conduces  to 
happiness  and  intellectual  development. 

It  is  the  purpose  of  the  writer  to  present  the  important 
hygienic  factors  necessary  in  the  modern  scientifically 
constructed  schoolhouses. 

Ventilation.- — Ventilation  may  be  defined  as  the 
changing  or  removal  of  confined  air,  charged  with  chemical 
or  physical  impurities,  by  normal  outside  air.  To  dis- 
cuss this  very  important  subject  from  a hygienic  stand- 
point, we  must  be  familiar  with  the  chemical  and  physical 


properties  of  air,  the  physiology  of  respiration  and 
circulation,  as  well  as  the  effect  of  ventilation  upon  the 
cutaneous  and  nervous  systems.  It  required  twTo  com- 
missions on  ventilation  in  this  country  to  solve  this 
problem,  and  their  labors  have  not  yet  been  completed.1 
Normal  or  pure  air,  which  is  more  characteristic  of 
rural  than  of  urban  districts,  is  composed  of  a mixture 
of  gases,  consisting  by  volume  approximately  of  20.65 
parts  of  oxygen,  77.11  parts  of  nitrogen,  0.79  part  argon, 
0.03  part  of  carbon  dioxide,  and  1.4  parts  of  aqueous 
vapor.  There  are  traces  of  other  gases  which  are,  how- 
ever, for  our  purposes,  of  slight  importance.  Changes 
in  the  composition  of  air  are  produced  by  the  presence 
of  human  beings  when  confined  within  close  quarters, 
as  each  person  so  confined  exhales  at  each  breath  4.4  per 
cent  of  carbon  dioxide,  thereby  increasing  the  amount  of 
this  gas  and  diminishing  the  relative  amount  of  oxygen 
present.  At  the  same  time  moisture  and  heat  are 
eliminated  from  the  lungs  and  skin,  thereby  increasing 
respectively  the  humidity  and  the  temperature.  In 
this  manner  odors  and  bacteria  are  exhaled  into  the  air. 
the  combination  producing  the  so-called  “ crowd  air." 
Changes  in  air,  due  to  combustion,  are  produced  by 
heating  and  illuminating  devices,  such  as  the  different 
sorts  of  gas  and  oil  lamps  and  stoves. 

Old  ideas  of  ventilation  were  based  principally  on  the 
carbon  dioxide  content  of  the  air,  and  were  proposed  by 
Pettenkoffer.  Some  of  our  text  books  to-day  continue 
to  publish  methods  of  testing  for  the  amount  of  carbon 
dioxide  present  and  give  as  the  upper  limit  .06  per  cent 
as  the  standard  for  good  health,  and  an  increase  ovei 
that  of  from  four  to  ten  per  cent  as  the  beginning  of  the 
danger  point.1  At  each  expiration  the  amount  of  oxygei 
exhaled  is  about  16  per  cent  of  the  expired  air,  the  differ 
ence  between  the  21  per  cent  of  normal  air  and  the  i( 
per  cent  mentioned  having  been  taken  up  by  the  htemo 


1 See  Reports  of  New  York  Commission  on  Ventilation,  American  Journal  Public  Health,  February,  1914. 

204 


THE  HYGIENE  OF  SCHOOLS 


205 


globin  of  the  blood.  Yet  vitiation  due  to  an  increase  of 
C02  and  the  decrease  of  oxygen  has  been  proved  of  minor 
importance.1 

Odors.  — Odors  which  emanate  from  persons  are  the 
result  of  organic  matter  passed  off  in  vapor  from  the 
lungs,  mouth,  skin,  and  cavities  of  the  body.  These 
odors,  prevalent  in  “ crowd  air,”  are  unpleasant  and  at 
times  nauseating  but,  ac- 
cording to  Winslow,  have 
never  proved  injurious.1 
They  bear  about  the  same 
relation  to  health,  as  far  as 
danger  is  concerned,  as 
sewer  gases  which  were 
once  believed  to  be  so 
menacing. 

Temperature.  — Tem- 
perature varies  according 
to  climate,  altitude,  seasons, 
etc.,  but  the  body  heat 
remains  about  the  same, 

98.4  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

People  adjust  their  diet, 
clothing,  housing  and  exer- 
cise to  these  conditions. 

The  temperature  of  a room 
should  not  exceed  70  de- 
grees Fahrenheit,  prefer- 
ably 68  degrees.  When  a 
confined  space  is  overheated 
it  produces  vaso-motor  dis- 
turbances in  the  peripheral 
circulation  of  the  skin  of 
the  occupant,  which  gives 
relief  to  the  body  heat  radi- 
ation. As  Haldane  2 and 
Winslow 1 state,  too  high 
a temperature  is  injurious  to  health  if  maintained, 
as  it  lowers  efficiency,  causes  fatigue,  lassitude,  and 
anaemia,  decreases  metabolism,  and  produces  a pre- 
disposition to  acute  and  chronic  diseases.  These  condi- 
tions are  intensified  when  a high  relative  humidity 
is  also  present.  Every  schoolroom  should  have  an  ac- 
curate thermometer  suspended  about  two  and  one-half 
feet  from  the  floor  in  the  middle  of  the  room,  and 
not  near  a heating  device.  The  use  of  a thermostat 
for  regulating  heating  appliances  is  ideal  for  main- 
taining a uniform  artificial  heat  to  comply  with  the 
above  standards. 

Humidity.  — Humidity  is  a great  factor  in  the  ques- 
tion of  confined  air  and  the  subject  of  ventilation.  An 


excess  humidity  exerts  the  same  influence  upon  the 
vaso-motor  cutaneous  system  as  excessive  temperature. 
We  are  familiar  with  the  experience  of  depressing  hot 
days  when  the  atmosphere  is  filled  with  moisture  and  our 
clothing  feels  “ sticky.”  This  condition  illustrates  how 
the  internal  heat,  in  its  attempt  to  radiate  from  the 
body,  brings  into  play  the  activity  of  the  sweat  glands 
of  the  skin,  producing  perspiration  which,  under  ordi- 
nary circumstances,  evaporates  and  reduces  the  body 
temperature.  When  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere 
is  raised,  the  amount  of  moisture  contained  in  it  increases 
and  it  may  become  saturated.  In  overheated  rooms, 

when  the  air  is  exces- 
sively dry,  we  note  how 
the  moisture  is  extracted, 
particularly  from  our 
noses.  Thus,  in  a short 
time,  the  mucous  mem- 
branes become  dry,  and 
in  the  attempt  to  over- 
come this  condition  a 
congestion  is  experi- 
enced, which  easily  de- 
velops an  infection  and 
a cold  in  the  head  may 
be  the  result. 

The  wet-bulb  psychro- 
meter  is  an  instrument 
every  school  should  pos- 
sess for  determining  the 
temperature  and  relative 
humidity  of  the  room. 
When  the  dry  bulb  ther- 
mometer is  at  68  degrees, 
the  wet  bulb  should 
register  not  more  than 
66  degrees.  Authorities 
have  stated  that  the  minimum  amount  of  humidity 
should  be  35  per  cent  and  that  the  desirable  per- 
centage of  relative  humidity  should  range  between  40 
and  60  per  cent. 

Increased  temperature  with  a relatively  high  humidity 
is  unhygienic.  If  maintained  it  causes  depression  and 
fatigue,  decrease  of  resistance  and  metabolism,  thereby 
predisposing  its  occupants  to  acute  and  chronic  diseases. 
Moisture  may  be  imparted  to  the  air  by  exposing  pans 
of  water  on  radiators,  or  by  a humidifier  which  exposes 
to  the  air,  as  it  passes  through  the  registers,  a surface  of 
cotton  wicking  communicating  with  the  reservoir  of 
water. 


Fig.  180. — Sling  Psychrometf.r. 


Fig.  181. — Wet  Bulb  Psychrometer. 


1 See  E.  A.  Winslow : Scientific  Basis  for  Ventilation  Standards. 

2 Haldane,  Second  Report  of  Departmental  Committee  on  Humidity  and  Ventilation  in  Cotton  Weaving  Sheds. 


206 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Air  Currents.  — These  are  undoubtedly  of  the  greatest 
importance  in  the  matter  of  ventilation,  as  they  keep 
the  air  in  motion,  thereby  preventing  its  stagnation 
about  our  bodies.  They  play  an  important  role  in  the 
peripheral  circulation  of  the  skin  by  causing  evaporation 
of  the  moisture  from  its  surface.  Every  one  has  experi- 
enced how  refreshing  it  feels  to  leave  a close  or  warm 
room  for  a breath  of  outdoor  fresh  air.  It  awakens  our  in- 
tellects by  relieving  and  regulating  the  heat  mechanism 
of  our  bodies  by  producing  radiation  and  evaporation 
from  the  skin.  In  a room  overheated  by  steam  radiators, 
the  air  soon  becomes  scorched  and  is  usually  stagnant. 

When  air  currents  are  colder  than  the  air  that  sur- 
rounds our  body  we  experience  a draft  which  is  not  felt 
in  the  open.  In  the  mechanical  or  natural  methods 
of  ventilation  the  air  movement  when  delivered  three 
and  one-half  feet  a second  produces  a draft. 

As  the  surface  vessels  contract,  the  blood 
is  sent  internally  and  radiation  is  reduced 
to  a minimum.  That  drafts  cause  “ colds  ” 
is  a worn-out  theory,  although  with  persons 
who  coddle  themselves  and  live  sedentary 
lives  indoors,  a draft  may  impinge  upon  a 
small  area  of  the  body  and  produce  an 
effect  upon  .the  vascular  system  which, 
being  unable  to  adjust  itself,  reacts  and 
produces  a congestion,  as  for  example  in 
the  nose  or  muscles.  School  children  should 
be  well  exercised,  taught  the  value  of  cold 
baths,  fresh  air,  less  clothing  than  usual 
and  proper  food.  Under  such  conditions  the  vaso- 
motor system  will  react  automatically  and  the  danger 
of  drafts  will  be  obviated.  To  sum  up  the  question,  as 
Professor  Lees  tersely  expresses  it,  “ It  is  not  a chemical 
but  a physical,  and  not  a pulmonary  but  a cutaneous 
problem.”  People  who  are  always  “catching  colds  ” 
from  fresh  air  or  drafts  do  not  require  more  clothing, 
or  warmer  houses,  but  a doctor  to  determine  whether 
an  infected  tonsil,  bad  teeth,  or  other  local  infection  is 
not  responsible  for  the  trouble. 

Bacteria.  — Bacteria  are  found  in  larger  numbers  in 
ill-  than  in  well-ventilated  rooms,  but  the  danger  of 
infection  from  these  is  practically  nil.1  When  persons 
are  infected  it  usually  results  from  coming  into  contact 
with  the  exhalations  of  a diseased  person  through 
coughing  and  sneezing.  Moisture  is  disseminated  in 
the  air  with  disease  germs.  This  is  known  as  the 
“ droplet  ” method  of  infection,  and  is  by  far  the  greatest 
factor  in  producing  respiratory  diseases,  such  as  colds, 
measles,  tonsillitis,  etc.,  etc. 

Noxious  irritating  gases  and  smoke  play  an  impor- 
tant role  in  the  question  of  ventilation  in  industrial 


hygiene,  but  the  small  amount  of  chalk  and  floor  dust 
of  a schoolroom  hardly  plays  any  role  as  a factor  in  ill 
health.  Ready  methods  of  detection  which  are  always 
at  hand  to  determine  when  a confined  space  is  not 
properly  ventilated  are  afforded  by  the  presence  of  odors, 
yawning,  headache,  and  even  nausea.  External  ventila- 
tion is  important  and  should  always  be  considered  when 
selecting  a site  for  a school  building.  There  should  be 
large  grounds,  bordering  on  streets  or  parks,  at  a sufficient 
distance  from  tall  buildings,  smoke  stacks,  and  factories. 

To  summarize,  ventilation  must  comply  with  the 
following  requirements : 

1.  An  interchange  of  pure  air  from  without  to  dilute 
the  products  of  respiration  and  vitiation. 

2.  The  maintenance  of  a proper  temperature,  of  from 
65  to  68  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

3.  A supply  of  the  proper  percentage  of 
humidity,  which  is  considered  to  be  be- 
tween 50  and  65  per  cent. 

4.  A gentle  motion  of  the  air  is  essential. 

5.  Freedom  from  dust,  odors,  bacteria, 
and  gases. 

6.  Removal  of  the  products  of  combus- 
tion. 

The  most  satisfactory  method  for  the  ven- 
tilation of  schoolrooms  is  by  means  of  open 
windows.  The  ideal  method  is  by  cross 
ventilation,  which  affords  motion  and  inter- 
change of  pure  air.  In  some  of  our  old 
text  books  4we  find  ‘reference  made  to  the 
use  of  window  boards,  window  pane  ventilators,  and 
other  devices  to  retail  the  air.  Such  methods  are  entirely 
inadequate.  If  the  air  from  without  is  too  cold,  artificial 
heat  delivered  from  within  should  counterbalance  this 
discomfort,  a principle  always  observed  in  open  air 
schools  and  hospitals.  The  thermometer  and  thermostat 
to  regulate  temperature,  the  psychrometer  to  determine 
the  humidity,  and  the  anemometer  to  measure  the  air 
currents  should  be  familiar  instruments  in  every  school. 
Every  teacher  should  be  taught  to  understand  their 
use  properly,  as  well  as  the  principles  of  heating  and 
ventilation. 

When  mechanical  heating  and  ventilating  devices 
are  installed,  as  explained  in  another  chapter,  the 
accepted  standards  must  conform  to  certain  require- 
ments. It  is  universally  conceded  that  an  adult  requires 
from  1800  to  2400  cubic  feet  of  fresh  air  hourly.  The 
minimum  amount  of  air  entering  the  room  for  each 
person  should  be  not  less  than  30  cubic  feet  per  minute. 
The  air  enters  the  vent  which  has  deflectors  pointing 
upward.  These  are  located  eight  feet  from  the  floor  and 


ANEMOMETER- 

Fig.  182. 


1 Winslow  and  Klieger. 


THE  HYGIENE  OF  SCHOOLS 


207 


measure  approximately  two  feet  square,  with  a slightly 
larger  outlet  near  the  floor.  Such  an  opening  is  sufficient 
to  take  care  of  the  modern  school  room  of  forty  pupils, 
permitting  a velocity  of  air  entering  as  measured  by  the 
anemometer  of  from  350  to  400  feet  every  minute.  The 
ducts  to  each  room  of  forty  pupils  should  be  at  least  four 
square  feet  in  cross  section,  so  as  to  keep  the  velocity 
within  them  down  below  400  feet  per  minute.  To  deter- 
mine air  circulation  an  anemometer  is  moved  over  slowly 
the  area  of  the  vent,  and  is  timed  by  a watch  while  the 
velocity  of  the  air  entering  is  read  on  the  dial.  The 
determination  is  finally  made  by  multiplying  the  reading 
by  the  number  of  square  feet  in  the  opening  for  sixty 
seconds.  This  should  equal  the  quantity  entering  and 
be  then  divided  by  the  number  of  pupils,  giving  the 
amount  for  each  person.  For  example,  three  hundred 
feet  times  four  feet  equals  twelve  hundred  feet,  divided 
by  forty  pupils  equals  thirty  cubic  feet  per  minute. 
High  temperature,  imperfect  humidity,  motionless  air 
in  rooms  where  the  occupants  are  physically  inactive 
are  the  factors  which  are  responsible  for  vitiated  atmo- 
sphere. This  is  a school  problem  of  great  importance 
and  magnitude,  for  it  is  reasonable  to  presume  that  a 
child  in  such  an  atmosphere  is  dull  and  nervous  and, 
in  consequence,  robbed  of  his  power  of  concentration. 
Window  ventilation  is,  after  all,  the  easiest  and  best 
method  of  flushing  a room  with  pure  air,  and  is  far 
superior  to  any  mechanical  heating  or  ventilating  con- 
trivance which  supplies  “ canned  air.”  The  New  York 
Health  Department  after  careful  investigation  found  that 
in  classrooms  with  closed  windows  and  ventilated  with 
mechanical  methods,  children  were  more  subject  to 
respiratory  diseases  than  were  children  in  classrooms 
kept  at  the  same  or  lower  temperature  and  ventilated 
wholly  by  open  windows.1 

Dust.  — Dust  as  a factor  in  aerial  infections  in  school- 
rooms is  practically  nil,  as  has  been  proven  by  experi- 
ments. Probably  the  only  pathogenic  organisms  likely 
to  be  transmitted  are  pus  cocci  and  tuberculosis.  Most 
of  the  communicable  diseases  are  transmitted,  as  already 
stated,  by  infected  persons,  carriers,  and  convalescents, 
whose  exhalations  from  coughing  and  sneezing  spray 
into  a small  zone  about  their  bodies  small  droplets 
carrying  disease  organisms  which,  when  inhaled  by 
another,  produce  disease  in  him  or  her.  It  may  be 
relied  upon  that  this  is  the  usual  course  of  infection  and 
by  direct  contact,  as  from  a common  drinking  cup,  and 
not  from  chalkdust  or  dirty  floors. 

In  this  age  of  hardwood  floors  or  battleship  linoleum 
coverings,  school  floors  can  easily  be  kept  clean  by 
pneumatic  sweepers,  oil  mops  or  brush  brooms.  When 
the  latter  is  used,  a small  amount  of  sawdust,  previously 

1 New  York  Board  of  Health  Report. 


moistened  and  sprinkled  over  the  floor  area,  will  elimi- 
nate the  dust  hazard.  Here  may  be  given  an  instance 
of  the  benefit  of  the  filtering  of  large  volumes  of  air 
introduced  into  a building  when  mechanical  ventila- 
tion is  installed.  The  air  is  drawn  into  and  through  a 
system  of  cotton  bags  about  thirty  feet  in  length  in  which 
the  dirt  and  dust  are  retained.  About  a peck  a month 
is  thus  collected  and  consists  principally  of  organic 
and  inorganic  matter  found  in  all  street  dust. 

Heating.  — - While  it  is  true  that  a proper  heating  and 
ventilating  system,  installed  by  a scientific  engineer, 
is  capable  of  delivering  any  temperature,  humidity,  air 
volume,  and  movement  desired,  yet  in  practice,  due 
to  the  ignorance  of  the  custodians  who  are  supposed  to 
operate  these  contrivances,  the  final  results  have  not 
been  satisfactory.  With  such  a record  of  failure  the 
old  tried-out  system  of  open  windows,  combined  with 
radiators,  and  known  as  the  direct  system,  has  been  found 
to  be  the  most  satisfactory,  even  though  it  cannot  be 
said  to  be  perfect. 

The  problems  confronted  by  the  engineer  in  arti- 
ficial heating  and  ventilation  are  many.  First  he  must 
take  into  consideration  the  three  hundred  heat  units 
and  one  and  one- third  ounces  of  water  each  pupil  elimi- 
nates per  hour.  Then  there  is  the  question  of  the  ex- 
change of  fresh  air,  amounting  to  thirty  cubic  feet  per 
minute,  determined  as  necessary  to  relieve  each  pupil  of 
the  heat  envelope  which  surrounds  his  body.  The  ques- 
tions of  heat,  drafts,  odors,  dust,  humidification,  air  cool- 
ing and  washing,  as  well  as  the  economic  factors  of  labor, 
fuel,  water,  fan  power,  installations,  etc.,  are  to  be 
studied.  It  is  the  consensus  of  opinion  that  the  most 
efficient  and  economical  method  of  supplying  and  ex- 
hausting the  air  required  by  school  buildings  is  by  the 
use  of  fans. 

Kimball  states : 

“With  the  vapor,  atmospheric,  modulating,  and  vacuum 
systems  the  use  of  the  intermediate  acting  thermostat  is  most 
desirable,  because  it  regulates  the  supply  of  steam  to  the  radiators 
and  the  movements  of  the  mixing  dampers  in  a graduated  manner 
in  accordance  with  the  demands  for  heating.  Thus  in  mild 
weather  but  little  steam  is  admitted  to  the  radiators,  and  the 
position  of  the  mixing  damper  is  changed  but  slightly,  with  more 
steam  being  admitted  to  the  radiators  and  a greater  change  in 
position  of  the  mixing  damper  occurring  as  the  outside  tempera- 
ture becomes  lower,  the  full  quantity  of  steam  being  admitted  to 
the  radiator  during  extremely  cold  weather  only.  Such  a method 
goes  far  towards  eliminating  the  overheating  of  the  room  and 
discomfiture  of  the  pupils  sitting  near  the  radiators.2 

Heating  is  a question  which  goes  hand  in  hand  with 
ventilation  and  is  discussed  under  Chapter  XXV.  The 
purpose  of  this  statement  is  not  to  ascribe  merit  to  one 
system  or  to  another,  for  as  yet,  in  the  writer’s  opinion, 


2 Kimball : Heating  and  V entilating' of  High  Schools , Bruce  Publishing  Co.,  1919. 


208 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


the  ideal  heating  and  ventilating  systems  have  been  not  passing  through  clean  glass  loses  four  per  cent,  and 
perfected.  through  soiled  glass,  from  thirty  to  seventy  per  cent  of 

Lighting.  — Sunshine  destroys  bacteria.  It  adds  cheer-  its  intensity.1 
fulness  and  comfort  to  the  room  and  automatically  The  chapter  on  classrooms  contains  a comprehensive 
encourages  cleanliness.  While  it  is  true  that  natural  discussion  of  the  size  of  classrooms  for  the  elementary, 
light  is  not  always  uniform,  on  account  of  the  changing  junior,  and  regular  high  schools.  The  proper  ceiling 
seasons  of  the  year,  architects  and  hygienists  are  in  heights  are  also  shown  diagrammatically  for  rooms  of 
accord  in  stating  that  the  ratio  of  window  space  to  different  widths  in  order  to  obtain  the  most  favorable 
floor  surface  should  be  at  least  one  square  foot  of  glass  lighting  for  all  the  desk  tops.  From  the  data  presented 
to  five  of  floor  space.  The  modern  schoolroom,  to  be  in  that  chapter  it  is  evident  that  to  establish  arbitrarily 

sizes  of  classrooms,  without  taking  into  consideration 
other  facts,  is  like  prescribing  a cure-all  for  special  cases. 
For  instance,  besides  knowing  the  number  of  pupils  that 
are  to  occupy  the  room,  it  is  necessary  also  to  know  the 
number  of  rows  of  desks  that  are  to  form  the  seating 
arrangement,  also  the  grade  of  the  school.  School 
authorities  should  take  into  consideration  the  scientific 
facts  now  at  hand  for  school  building.  For  it  is  a physical 
and  economic  waste  to  make  classrooms  all  of  the  same 
size.  The  following  sizes  are  given  for  classrooms  which 
will  give  the  best  conditions  for  lighting,  hearing,  and 
vision : 

A.  Elementary  schools,  grades  I to  VI  inclusive.  Classrooms 
of  five  rows  of  desks  (in  the  width)  and  of  40  pupils,  width  20'  o", 
length  30'  o",  height  12'  o". 

B.  Elementary  schools,  grades  I to  VIII  inclusive,  classrooms 
of  five  rows  of  desks  and  40  pupils,  width  21'  o",  length  31'  6", 
height  13'  o". 

C.  Junior  high  schools,  grades  VII  to  IX  inclusive,  classrooms 
of  five  rows  of  desks  and  35  pupils,  width  22'  o",  length  30'  o", 
height  13'  o". 

D.  Junior  high  schools  for  classrooms  of  six  rows  and  36 
pupils,  width  25'  o",  length  27'  o",  height  14'  o". 

E.  High  schools,  classrooms  of  five  rows  and  30  pupils,  width 
22'  o",  length  27'  o",  height  13'  o". 

F.  High  schools,  classrooms  of  six  rows  and  30  pupils,  width 
25'  o",  length  25'  o",  height  14'  o". 

(The  above  measurements  do  not  include  space  for  wardrobes.) 

The  walls  of  the  schoolroom  should  receive  careful 
attention,  not  only  for  the  purpose  of  adding  cheerful- 
ness to  the  room  where  the  acquisition  of  knowledge 
evenly  lighted,  should  have  a battery  of  windows,  pref-  and  ideals  is  to  be  encouraged,  but  also  to  make  the  atmos- 
erably  on  one  side  of  the  room,  so  arranged  that  the  phere  healthful  and  restful  and  to  add  warmth  and  light 
top  of  the  window  reaches  within  six  inches  of  the  to  the  surroundings.  The  tints  that  harmonize  with 
ceiling,  and,  with  a ratio  of  glass  to  floor  space  as  above  most  woods  are  the  soft  tones  of  buff,  yellow,  and 
stated,  adequate  illumination  is  secured.  East,  south-  orange,  which  improve  the  lighting  effects  without 
east,  west,  and  northern  exposures  afford  the  best  light-  causing  glare  and  the  resultant  eye  strain.  The  color 
ing  effects.  The  seating  capacity  should  be  arranged  of  the  ceilings  should  usually  be  of  a lighter  tint,  which 
so  that  the  rays  of  light  pass  over  the  left  shoulder  of  will  reflect  the  greatest  amount  of  soft  light.  On  bright 
the  pupil,  thus  overcoming  cross  shadows  and  conse-  days  the  use  of  shades  becomes  necessary  to  eliminate 
quent  eye  strain.  To  maintain  uniform  illumination  the  glare.  The  best  shades  are  Venetian  blinds  or  the 
other  factors  must  also  be  considered.  Tall  buildings,  roller  translucent  shades  of  an  ecru  color, 
trees,  and  smoke  from  chimneys  intercept  light.  The  Desks.  — - How  very  little  attention  is  given  to  the 
same  is  true  of  dirty  windows,  as  it  is  known  that  light  place  where  the  growing  child  is  confined  for  several 

1 Geyser : Loss  of  Light. 


C O R_  Ik.  1 D O fL 

PUN  SHOWING  FORMATION  OF 
TYE,  - STRAIN  - PRTVUTIVE,-  DRSICS  AND  SUTS 
AS  APPLIED  TO  A TYPICAL  CLASS  RIM.  ' 

5 c 1 Ll  . 


UtVATiON  Of  TYL-STUIN  - PJU,VE,NTIVt‘  DRSICS  & SLATS 

S C « L L, 


INVLNTtD  BY  JOHN  J.  DONOVAN  - ARCHITECT 
OAK.LAND-  • CALIfOLNIA 

PROTECTED  &Y  THE,  PATENT  , uws 

Fig.  183. 


THE  HYGIENE  OF  SCHOOLS 


209 


hours  each  day ! It  is  a matter  that  should  concern  all 
interested  in  health  and  education,  if  they  wish  to  pre- 
vent eye  strain  and  postural  defects.  The  question 
of  first  importance  is  to  provide  adjustable  desks,  so 
that  the  desk  and  seat  fit  the  child,  and  not  attempt  the 
opposite.  At  each  school  term  the  duty  of  the  teacher 
should  be  to  assign  each  pupil  to  a perfectly  adjusted  seat 
and  desk.  Hygienic  requirements  for  a proper  adjustable 
desk  are  as  follows  : the  top  of  the  desk  should  be  on  an 
incl'ne  of  not  more  than  fifteen  degrees  and  about  fifteen 


C O Y L t D O (L 


PLAN  SHOWING  FORJAATION  Of 
•EYE-STRAIN  -PREVENTIVE'  MOVABLE  CHAIR.  DESIOS 
AS  APPLIED  TO  A TYPICAL  CLASS  ROOM 

o ,s  c A *•  A. 


LLLVATION  Of  ’LYE, -STRAIN  - PREVENTIVE'  MOVABLE  CHAIR.  DE,SRS 

scut 


INVENTED  BY  JOHN  J DONOVAN  - ARCHITECT 
OAK-LAND  • CALITOR.NI1 

HCT£,CT£,D  M THE,  PATE.N  T LAWS 

Fig.  184. 


The  seat  when  adjusted  to  the  child  forms  a right  angle 
of  the  thigh  with  the  legs,  the  pelvis  resting  slightly 
backward  in  a concave  seat  to  keep  the  pupil  from 
sliding  forward  while  the  feet  are  being  wholly  supported 
on  the  floor.  To  overcome  fatigue  the  seat  should  have 
a back  reaching  below  the  child’s  shoulder  blades  and 
arranged  to  support  the  small  of  the  back.  The  author 
of  this  book  has  invented  an  adjustable  rhomboidal 
form  of  desk  with  certain  orig’nal  features  which  enables 


/Z1ZZZZZZZZZ2Z2Z7/ 

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C O R.  A I D O A 


PLAN  SHOWING  FORMATION  OF 
'EYE  • STRAIN  • PREVENTIVE"  DESKS  AND  SEATS 
AS  APPLIED  TO  A TYPICAL  CLASS  ROOM. 

sent 


ADJUSTABLE 


ELEVATION  OF  “EYE- STRAIN  • PREVENTIVE"  DESKS  & SEATS 

J C A.  L E ^ 


INVENTED  BY  JOHN  J.  DONOVAN  • ARC 
•OAKLAND  • CALIFORNIA- 
■PP.OTECTED  BY  THE.  PATENT  l,kWS 

Fig.  185. 


inches  from  the  eye.  This  allows  sufficient  slope  for  a 
proper  posture  for  vertical  writing  and  permits  the  eye 
to  fall  nearly  perpendicularly  upon  the  printed  page. 
The  light  should  be  over  the  left  shoulder,  as  has  been 
already  stated.  Desk  tops  should  be  free  from  unnecessary 
gloss  and  should  overhang  the  front  of  the  seat  from 
one  to  two  inches.  The  height  of  the  desk  should  be 
sufficient  to  allow  the  forearm  to  rest  comfortably  without 
much  resting  on  the  elbows,  so  that  the  scholar  will  not 
be  required  to  bend  down  to  write.  When  the  desk 
is  too  high,  the  arm  is  raised,  tending  to  produce  a lateral 
curvature  of  the  spine  known  as  scoliosis.  When  the 
desk  is  too  low  the  shoulders  are  stooped.  The  distance 
between  the  back  of  the  seat  and  the  edge  of  the  desk 
should  permit  sufficient  room  not  to  press  the  abdomen. 


the  pupils  to  sit  at  a pronounced  angle  removed  from  the 
glare  of  the  window  lighting  and,  at  the  same  time, 
permits  a more  direct  view  of  the  teacher  and  obviates 
the  turning  of  the  pupil’s  head  or  the  change  of  his 
position. 

Plumbing.  — In  our  city  schools,  where  running 
water  and  sewerage  facilities  are  available,  this  subject 
should  be  given  attention.  It  is  a maxim  that  the  best 
is  the  cheapest.  The  so-called  sanitary  plumbing  is 
controlled  and  inspected  by  the  authorities  as  to  drain- 
age, traps,  vents,  etc.,  but  the  placing  of  the  fixtures, 
whether  they  be  installed  in  the  basement  or  on  the 
different  floors,  is  a matter  which  should  be  given  some 
consideration. 


210 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


The  better  method  is  to  distribute  the  toilets  on  the 
different  floors,  especially  if  the  building  is  of  more 
than  two  stories.  The  division  should  in  general  be 
according  to  the  following  order,  five-eighths  of  the  total 
number  on  the  ground  floor,  and  the  remaining  three- 
eighths  distributed  on  the  floors  above.  The  ground 
floor  toilet  rooms  should  be  adjacent  to  the  playrooms 
and  directly  accessible  to  the  play  yards.  It  is  obvious 
that  the  greater  number  of  toilets  should  be  installed 
on  the  ground  floor,  as  the  pupils  in  the  elementary 
schools  are  marched  to  the  ground  floor  at  the  end  of 
each  session,  and  it  is  at  this  time  that  the  greatest 
necessity  for  toilet  service  is  reached.  It  is  just  as 
obvious  that  pupils  should  not  be  compelled  to  walk 


Fig.  186. — Protected  Type  of  Drinking  Fountain 

down  and  up  two  or  three  flights  of  stairs  during  class 
hours  in  order  to  use  the  toilet  rooms.  Therefore  each 
floor  should  have  its  toilet  rooms  for  boys  and  for  girls. 

Toilet  rooms  should  be  of  hard  plaster  or  tiled  walls, 
and  the  floors  made  of  asphalt,  tile,  terrazza,  or  some 
other  impervious  material.  The  important  necessity 
in  arranging  toilet  rooms  is  to  have  outside  screened 
window  ventilation  and  to  keep  them  dry  and  clean. 
They  too  should  be  built  of  impervious  materials.  The 
number  of  toilets  required  by  girls  should  be  in  the 
proportion  of  one  for  every  twenty,  while  for  boys  one 
in  twenty-five  is  all  that  is  required.1  The  danger  of 
infection  from  toilet  seats  in  schools  is  practically  nil, 
but  this  fact  should  not  be  made  an  excuse  for  not  clean- 
ing them  frequently.  There  are  many  so-called  disinfec- 
tants on  the  market,  which  claim  to  destroy  all  kinds 
of  germs,  but  their  only  merit  is  their  deodorizing  power. 

All  toilet  rooms  should  be  mechanically  ventilated  by 
allowing  fresh  air  to  enter  through , the  open  windows 
and  the  foul  air  to  be  removed  through  a raised  vent 
in  back  of  the  water  closet  fixture.  The  back  vent  has 
an  area  of  about  eleven  square  inches  and  protrudes 


into  the  utility  chamber  back  of  the  fixtures.  Con- 
nected with  the  chamber  there  is  usually  an  under- 
ground duct  leading  to  a suction  fan  which  draws  the 
air  from  the  toilet  rooms  and  expels  it  into  the  open  air 
above  the  roof.  This  ventilation  is  also  extended  to 
the  urinals  by  connecting  3"  vent  pipe  to  the  urinal  waste 
just  above  the  trap  and  projecting  it  6"  above  the  floor 
of  the  utility  chamber.  This  chamber  is  likewise  con- 
nected to  the  exhaust  fan.  By  this  means  of  exhaust 
ventilation  the  movement  of  the  air  of  the  toilet  room  is 
always  downwards  and  through  the  fixtures.  The  sys- 
tem is  fully  illustrated  in  the  chapter  on  plumbing.  It 
should  be  noted,  however,  that  very  often  custodians 
of  schools  will  shut  down  the  fans  in  order  to  save  a 
slight  expense  in  their  operation.  This  should 
not  be  tolerated,  as  it  endangers  health  merely 
for  a small  saving  in  money. 

In  the  boys’  toilet  room  upright  urinals,  con- 
cave, of  vitreous  china,  with  the  drain  at  the 
floor  and  having  an  automatic  flush,  are  the  most 
sanitary.  The  number  installed  should  be  one 
for  each  twenty-five  boys.  The  urinals  should 
be  scrubbed  daily  with  brushes  and  can  be  de- 
odorized with  a Solution  of  chlorinated  lime  or  of 
creolin,  in  the  proportion  of  four  ounces  of  the 
chemical  to  a gallon  of  water. 

The  number  of  lavatories  should  be  about  one 
to  every  fifty  pupils.  They  should  be  equipped 
with  a water-pressure  closing  valve.  This  oper- 
ates by  pressing  downward  a lever,  and  as  the 
flow  of  water  can  be  regulated  to  run  from  ten  seconds 
to  a longer  period  it  enables  the  child  to  cleanse  his 
hands  without  having  to  touch  the  metal  a second  time. 

When  the  old  roller  towel  and  the  common  drinking 
cup,  the  two  evils  responsible  for  most  disease  dissemi- 
nation among  school  children,  were  legally  condemned  in 
most  states,  it  became  necessary  to  devise  sanitary 
substitutes.  Even  the  first  sanitary  drinking  fountain 
had  to  undergo  changes  on  account  of  epidemics  being 
traced  to  its  faulty  construction.  In  the  first  designs 
that  were  invented,  the  nozzles  were  not  protected,  and 
the  consumer  touched  his  lips  to  the  same,  thereby 
making  possible  the  infection  of  the  water  supply,  as 
borne  out  by  investigations  recently  conducted  at  the 
University  of  Minnesota.2  Figure  No.  186  shows  the 
protected  type  of  drinking  fountain  nozzle.  The  water 
flows  in  the  form  of  an  arc  from  which  the  consumer 
drinks  without  contaminating  it.  This  type  of  drinking 
fountain  illustrates  the  most  sanitary  drinking  fixture 
on  the  market. 

The  number  of  drinking  fountains  should  be  appor- 
tioned about  as  follows : for  schools  of  more  than  five 


1 Rules:  Minnesota  Department  of  Education,  School  Buildings,  1918 


2 U.  S.  Public  Health  Reports. 


THE  HYGIENE  OF  SCHOOLS 


211 


hundred  pupils  there  should  be  placed  in  the  playrooms 
and  play  yards  one  for  about  every  seventy  pupils,  and, 
for  schools  of  less  than  five  hundred  pupils,  the  ratio 
should  be  materially  increased.  In  addition  to  those 
for  the  playrooms  and  play  yards  there  should  be  two 
separate  fountains  of  single  jets  placed  in  the  corridors 
of  each  floor  of  the  building.  This  will  be  more  conven- 
ient and  save  time  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  and  will 
benefit  the  discipline  of  the  school.  It  is  a good  plan  to 
have  these  isolated  fountains  connected  to  wet  fire 
standpipes  as  indicators  of  the  conditions  of  these  lines 
for  immediate  service. 


Fig.  187.  — Boy  Drinking  from  Unprotected  Type  of 
Drinking  Fountain. 


Open-air  Schools.  — Since  the  open-air  school  move- 
ment was  first  started  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  in  1908, 
and  the  successful  promotion  and  standardization  of 
these  methods  by  the  McCormick  Memorial  Fund  at 
Chicago,  it  has  progressed  beyond  the  realm  of  the 
faddist.  These  schools  have  been  organized  all  over 
the  country,  irrespective  of  climatic  conditions.  The 
aim  of  the  open-air  school  was  primarily  to  educate,  in 
the  fresh  air,  children  who  were  weak  or  diseased.  Thus 
cases  of  bone  and  pulmonary  tuberculosis,  glandular 
enlargements,  cardiac  diseases,  debilitated  and  anaemic, 
as  well  as  underfed,  children  were  treated.  Every  new 
schoolhouse  should  have  at  least  one  room  built  especially 
for  an  open-air  class.  This  classroom  should  be  located 
so  as  to  possess  a southern  and  an  eastern  exposure  and 
should  be  provided  with  casement  windows  which  admit 
the  maximum  amount  of  fresh  air  and  sunshine.  A room 


originally  built  for  this  purpose  has  advantages  over 
roof  classrooms,  on  account  of  the  provision  afforded 
against  inclement  weather. 

The  temperature  of  these  rooms  should  never  be  per- 
mitted to  rise  above  fifty  degrees  Fahrenheit,  provided 
the  outdoor  temperature  is  below  this.  Much  lower 
temperature  can  be  tolerated  by  children,  provided  winds 
are  controlled  by  partially  closing  them  out,  as  occasion 
demands.  Steam  radiators  offer  the  ideal  method  of 
heating  when  the  temperature  is  very  low.  At  the 
McCormick  Open  Air  School  Esquimaux  suits  and 


Fig.  188.  — Boy  Drinking  from  a Protected  Type  of 
Drinking  Fountain. 


sleeping  bags  form  a part  of  each  child’s  equipment 
for  keeping  warm.  The  next  factor  in  the  success- 
ful care  of  this  class,  of  children  is  to  provide  in  an 
adjoining  room  facilities  for  preparing  nourishment. 
Such  a room  may  serve  also  as  a laboratory  for  do- 
mestic science  classes,  and  may  develop  into  an  im- 
portant feature  for  the  promotion  of  the  “ penny 
lunch  ” movement  which  is  gaining  advocates  in  our 
largest  cities. 

Lunches  can  be  provided  here  as  well  as  the  ten  and 
three  o’clock  extra  feedings.  The  classroom  may  be 
used  as  a rest  room  at  the  period  between  eleven  and 
twelve  by  providing  the  necessary  folding  cots  and 
blankets.  In  many  of  our  larger  cities  a special  room 
is  set  aside  for  this  purpose.  As  fatigue  must  be  over- 
come, the  rest  period  is  essential  for  success.  The 


212 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Mr.  John  J.  Donovan,  Architect. 


Fig.  189.  — Open  Air  Classroom,  Leland  Stanford  Jr.  University  Elementary  School,  Palo  Alto,  California. 


staff  consists  of  a teacher,  school  nurse,  maid,  and  the 
visiting  doctor.  Not  more  than  twenty-five  pupils 
should  be  entered  in  each  class.  The  teacher  should 
be  thoroughly  in  sympathy  with  the  movement  and 
possess  a special  knowledge  of  hygiene  and  physical 
education.  The  resident  nurse  records  daily  tem- 
perature, takes  measurements  and  weight,  and  inspects 
for  disease,  cleanliness,  and  proper  clothing.  She  also 
visits  the  homes  of  her  pupils,  instructs  the  parents, 
follows  up  cases  and  recommends  for  operations  and 
treatment.  The  medical  inspector  makes  periodical 
physical  examinations,  recommends  and  informs  parents 
of  the  necessity  of  remedying  defective  teeth,  enlarged 
tonsils,  and  adenoids.  The  benefits  of  the  open-air 
school  from  an  educational  standpoint  are  that  these 
children  progress  more  rapidly  and  their  attendance  and 
deportment  are  better.  The  physical  results  are  that 
their  nutrition  and  weight  improves,  the  haemoglobin 
scale  advances,  arrested  cases  of  tuberculosis  have  no 
relapses,  and  the  nervous  and  cardiac  cases  improve 
markedly.  Such  a record  of  success  should  make  it 


compulsory  for  each  school  to  possess  one  or  more  of 
these  open-air  classrooms. 

Figure  191  shows  an  economical  arrangement  for  an 
open-air  suite  which  is  applicable  to  any  school  building. 
This  is  arranged  so  that  two  classes  may  be  maintained 
— one  studying  while  the  other  is  reclining,  and  alter- 
nating in  the  use  of  the  room.  The  wardrobe  off  room  A 
is  for  girls,  with  its  shower  and  toilet  facilities  and  a 
storage  space  for  lockers  containing  the  sleeping  bags 
and  clothing.  Similarly  the  wardrobe  off  room  B is 
for  the  boys.  It  should  be  noted  that  such  a plan,  if 
adopted,  should  be  placed  on  the  top  floor  of  the  build- 
ing. This  scheme  will  provide  for  the  two  classes  without 
any  great  additional  cost  over  that  of  two  regular  class- 
rooms. 

Health  and  Safety  Welfare.  — The  necessity  of  safe- 
guarding the  health  and  well-being  of  our  children  should 
be  indelibly  impressed  upon  the  minds  of  the  public 
servants  of  the  people.  If  every  teacher  and  every 
custodian  of  our  schools  had  had  a course  in  school 
and  child  hygiene  they  would  automatically  develop 


Mr.  Wm.  Templeton  J ofinson.  Architect. 

Fig.  190.  — Open  Air  Classroom,  Francis  W.  Parker  Elementary  School,  San  Diego,  California. 


into  custodians  of  the  public  health.  We  desire  that  our 
children  shall  learn  the  fundamental  laws  of  personal 
health  and  practice  them  while  in  school,  for  it  is  at  this 
impressionable  age  that  their  ideas  become  deeply 
ingrained,  and  they  will  not  later  tolerate  inadequate 
facilities  in  their  homes  or  workshops. 

Every  teacher  should  be  a diagnostician  of  health. 
When  a child  deviates  from  the  normal  he  should  become 
a suspect  of  disease.  With  such  a knowledge,  how  easy 
it  is  to  suppress  an  epidemic  by  sending  a suspected 
child  home  before  it  has  had  an  opportunity  to  infect 
others.  It  should  be  the  teacher’s  duty  to  observe 
1 whether  a child  is  becoming  blind  for  want  of  proper 
glasses  or  deaf  on  account  of  adenoids  or  enlarged 
tonsils.  Many  a defect  taken  in  time  has  been  thus 
remedied  easily,  and  cases  of  communicable  disease 
discovered  and  isolated.  The  employment  of  a school 
doctor,  dentist,  and  nurse  is  an  economic  asset  to  every 
school  community.  When  the  state  by  authority  is 


given  the  right  to  compel  attendance  at  school,  it  also 
has  the  added  duty  and  responsibility  of  insisting  that 
no  harm  shall  come  to  those  who  go  there.  By  the 
assumption  of  this  responsibility  practical  health  super- 
vision will  have  been  accomplished. 

In  Chapter  I,  “ Sites  and  Grounds,”  it  is  pointed  out 
that  the  intermediate  or  junior  high  school  should  be 
the  center  of  an  area  containing  a number  of  elementary 
schools.  Geographically  this  is  the  proper  place  to 
locate  the  general  school  clinic,  as  shown  in  figure  192. 
For  it  would  then  serve  the  maximum  number  of  children 
most  conveniently.  The  central  clinics  should  care  for 
the  medical  needs  of  about  fifteen  or  eighteen  schools 
of  a total  enrollment  of  about  nine  to  twelve  thousand 
pupils.  Accordingly,  in  a city  of  two  hundred  thousand 
population  and  having  a school  enrollment  of  about 
thirty  thousand,  there  should  be  two  or  three  such 
clinics. 


•PLAN  OF  AN  OPtfl  Allb  CLASS  ROOM-  UNIT  • • V 1E,W  OF  LOCKlLS- 


ii-Q  PU3L1C  SCHOOL  CLINIC-  w ///////, 


2l6 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


jr  ‘ 

js— 

h~— " 

Fig.  193. — University  of  California’s  Dental  Clinic. 


The  purpose  of  the  school  clinic  is  to  make  physical 
examination  of  the  school  children  of  the  district,  to 
protect  the  healthy  from  the  unhealthy,  thereby  pre- 
venting communicable  diseases,  to  discover  eye  strain, 
deafness,  defective  teeth,  diseased  tonsils,  and  adenoids, 
and  to  recommend  to  the  parents  measures  for  their 
relief.  Often  by  such  examination  incipient  tuberculosis, 
anaemia,  malnutrition  and  cardiac  cases,  which  have  been 
overlooked  by  the  parents  or  the  family  physician,  are 
noticed,  and  by  proper  treatment  and  open-air  schools 
a future  citizen  is  saved  for  the  state.  Mental  defec- 
tives and  stammerers  also  are  thus  located  and  assigned 
to  special  classes. 

All  children  after  convalescing  from  an  infectious 
disease,  before  being  allowed  to  return  to  school,  could 
be  “ cleared  ” or  granted  permits  from  the  clinic.  By 
cooperating  with  the  Board  of  Health  communicable 
diseases  would  be  reported  and  epidemics  controlled  or 
prevented.  It  is  surprising  how  many  cases  of  myopia, 
squint,  and  infectious  eye  diseases  are  discovered  upon 
periodical  medical  examinations.  Such  children  are 


usually  behind  in  their  class  work  and  would  suffer  im- 
paired vision  or  lose  it  for  want  of  glasses  and  proper 
treatment.  The  same  is  true  of  discharging  ears,  leading 
to  deafness,  enlarged  glands,  defective  mouths  and 
speech,  and  focal  infections,  the  results  of  diseased  teeth, 
tonsils,  and  adenoids.  Many  of  our  large  cities  have 
free  dental  clinics  for  school  children,  given  by  philan- 
thropists, notably  the  Forsyth  at  Boston,  Massachu- 
setts. 

The  plan  for  a model  public  school  clinic,  as  shown 
above,  may  be  arranged  to  suit  the  conditions  of  the 
school  site.  It  may  be  annexed  to  the  main  building 
or  be  located  on  the  ground  floor  or  in  a special  build- 
ing. The  pupil  enters  at  one  end  of  the  clinic  and 
applies  at  the  office  for  assignment,  and  then  waits 
his  or  her  turn  in  the  waiting  room.  The  records  of 
all  the  pupils  of  the  districts  are  kept  in  the  office ; a 
spot  map  hangs  on  the  wall  showing  the  various  squares 
of  the  city,  with  colored  pins  inserted  to  indicate  such 
prevalent  contagious  diseases  as  are  daily  reported 
by  the  health  officer.  The  nurses’  room  off  the  corridor 


THE  HYGIENE  OF  SCHOOLS 


217 


is  for  their  private  use.  Here  the  district  school  and 
duty  nurse  reports  and  receives  orders.  Adjoining  is  a 
room  where  nurses  may  conduct  special  examinations 
or  use  for  any  other  purpose  deemed  advisable.  The 
eye  clinic,  which  is  used  for  testing  the  hearing  as  well 
as  the  eyes,  is  arranged  with  floor  markings  of  one  to 
twenty  feet  from  the  Snellen  test  card,  affording  a rapid 
and  accurate  means  of  recording  vision.  The  normal 
vision,  being  twenty  feet  from  the  card,  reads  20/ 2oths, 
while  a child  standing  on  the  ten-foot  mark,  and  able 
to  see  clearly  the  lines  of  letters,  would  have  10/  2oths, 
or  half  vision. 

For  hearing,  the  examiner  may  use  the  same  floor  scale. 
The  child  stands  twenty  feet  away,  one  ear  turned 
directly  toward  the  examiner,  the  other  ear  having  been 
stopped  up  so  as  to  admit  no  sound.  The  examiner 
whispers  in  an  audible  tone  of  voice.  If  the  child  hears 
at  this  distance  of  twenty  feet,  his  hearing  is  normal 
and  is  recorded  as  20/ 2oths.  If  unable  to  hear  what  is 
said,  he  moves  nearer  until  able  to  distinguish  the  words 
spoken,  and  his  hearing  is  recorded  at  that  distance, 
as,  for  example,  i6/2oths.  A dark  room  for  special  eye 
cases  is  off  the  clinic.  The  testing  rooms  may  be  used 
also  for  vaccinations,  examining  for  vermin,  prevalent 
infectious  diseases,  or  as  a small  classroom  for  hygiene 
talks  and  conferences. 

No  school  clinic  is  complete  without  a dental  depart- 
ment for  the  examination  and  care  of  the  teeth.  Accord- 
ing to  Gulick  and  Ayers  from  80  per  cent  to  96  per  cent 
of  school  children  require  dental  attention.1  The  Uni- 
versity of  California  installed  two  chairs  with  complete 
outfits,  costing  about  $1600,  and  engaged  two  full  time 
dental  surgeons  who  keep  the  hours  completely  filled 
during  visiting  periods.2 


The  school  doctor  has  his  private  room  for  special 
examinations  and  conferences  with  parents,  also  an  op- 
erating room  with  the  special  rooms  necessary  for  high- 
class  work,  such  as  a laboratory,  and  anesthesia  rooms 
adjoining  it.  The  operating  room  is  for  the  purpose 
of  administrating  first  aids,  for  vaccination  dressings, 
and  for  tonsil  and  adenoid  operations.  A rest  room 
containing  a few  beds  for  emergency  cases,  waiting 
to  be  sent  home  for  the  family  physician  to  attend,  or 
for  cases  of  fainting  or  minor  injuries,  as  well  as  for 
tonsil  operation  patients,  is  also  provided.  The  modern 
school  built  to-day  must  be  planned  to  remain  modern 
to-morrow,  as  we  all  agree  that  grandfather’s  school  was 
never  built  to  furnish  the  curriculum  and  appurtenances 
of  modern  health  and  education. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

I.  See  Reports  of  the  New  York  Commission  on  Ventila- 
tion ; American  Journal  Public  Health , February, 
I9i5- 

II.  E.  A.  Winslow:  Scientific  Basis  for  Ventilation  Standards. 

III.  Haldane:  Second  Report  of  Departmental  Committee 

on  Humidity  and  Ventilation  in  Cotton  Weaving 
Sheds. 

IV.  Winslow  and  Klieger : American  Public  Health  Journal, 

1912. 

V.  Canned  Air  versus  Fresh  Air.  Bulletin  New  York  Depart- 
ment of  Health,  March  9,  1918. 

VI.  Kimball:  Heating  and  Ventilating  of  High  Schools. 

VII.  Geyser:  Loss  of  Light. 

VIII.  Rules : Minnesota  Department  of  Education,  School 
Buildings,  1918. 

IX.  LTnited  States  Public  Health  Reports,  Drinking  Fountains. 

X.  Gulick  and  Ayers  : Medical  Inspection  of  Schools. 

XI.  Robert  T.  Legge : Students'  Health  and  Insurance  at  the 
University  of  California. 


Gulick  and  Ayers,  Medical  Inspection  of  Schools. 


- Health  Insurance,  University  of  California,  by  Robert  T.  Legge,  M.D. 


CHAPTER  X 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

By  Jay  B.  Nash,  A.B.,  Assistant  State  Supervisor  of  Physical  Education,  California 

Introduction.  Need  of  Physical  Education.  History  of  Physical  Education.  Rise  of  the  Playground  Movement.  New  Era  in 
Physical  Education,  1914-1918.  State  Laws.  Definition  and  Aims  of  Physical  Education.  Periods  of  Leadership  and  Instruction 
in  Physical  Education.  Phases  of  Physical  Education.  Physical  Education  in  the  Curricu’um.  The  Physical  Education  Plant. 
The  Indoor  Gymnasium.  Room  for  Corrective  Gymnastics.  Game  Room.  Swimming-Pools.  Outdoor  or  Semi-outdoor  Gymnasium. 
The  Play  Yard.  Elementary  School.  Intermediate  School.  High  School. 


Introduction.  Need  of  Physical  Education.  — A 

number  of  circumstances  have  brought  out  in  the  past 
decade  the  great  need  for  physical  education  in  our 
public  schools.  Perhaps  the  greatest  revelation  was  due 
to  the  examinations  of  men  for  entrance  into  the  army 
in  our  country,  as  well  as  in  all  other  countries  engaged  in 
the  World  War  of  1914-1918.  The  following  statistics 
give  the  number  of  men  rejected  for  service  in  the  army 


in  one  large  section  of  the  United  States. 

Total  called  3,082,946 

Total  examined  by  local  boards 2,510,706 

Total  rejected 730.756 

Per  cent  of  those  rejected  after  examination  29.11 

Add  5.8  per  cent  of  number  sent  rejected  at 
cantonments 33.19 


Eugene  Lyman  Fisk,  Medical  Director  of  the  Life 
Extension  Institute,  New  York  City,  writing  in  the 
American  Medical  Association  Journal  for  February 
2,  1918,  says:  “The  most  superficial  analysis  shows 
very  clearly  that  at  least  sixty  per  cent  of  these  rejected 
men  owe  their  impairments  either  to  ignorance  or 
neglect.  The  man  who  has  a remediable  defect  and 
hides  behind  it  is  really  a slacker,  although  he  may 
not  be  conscious  of  it.  Forty  per  cent  of  the  men  be- 
tween the  ages  of  21  and  31  are  physically  unfit.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  the  majority  of  these  men 
were  not  declined  because  of  surgical  defects.  They 
need  physical  training  and  hygiene  and  proper  diet.” 

Another  evidence  of  the  need  for  physical  education 
is  brought  out  by  Provost  Marshal  General  Crowder, 
who  says : “ Perhaps  the  most  glaring  fault  noted  in 
aspirants  to  the  Officers’  Reserve  Corps  and  one  that 
might  be  corrected  by  proper  attention  in  our  high 
schools,  preparatory  schools  and  colleges,  might  be 
characterized  by  the  general  word  ‘ Slouchiness  ’ . . . 


“At  military  camps  throughout  the  country  mental 
alertness,  accuracy  in  thinking  and  acting,  clearness 
in  enunciation,  sureness  and  ease  of  carriage  and  bear- 
ing must  be  insisted  upon  for  two  reasons  — that  success 
may  be  asserted  as  nearly  as  human  effort  can  guarantee 
it  with  the  material  and  means  at  hand,  and  that  price- 
less human  lives  may  not  be  criminally  sacrificed.  Only 
by  the  possession  of  the  qualities  referred  to  does  one 
become  a natural  leader.”  1 

Another  cause  for  the  rise  in  the  physical  education 
movement  has  been  the  rapid  development  in  the  use 
of  machinery  for  all  types  of  work  in  city  and  country, 
together  with  the  movement  toward  the  concentration 
of  our  population  in  large  cities.  The  physical  exercise 
in  connection  with  our  daily  work  has  become  less  and 
less  and  the  strain  which  has  been  put  upon  the  workers 
by  speeded  up  production  has  become  greater  and  greater. 
Use  of  the  small  muscles  rather  than  the  big  muscles  in 
this  finer  type  of  work  necessitated  by  greater  coordina- 
tion has  been  a contributory  cause.  The  results  are 
beginning  to  show  in  the  effect  upon  the  health  and 
efficiency  of  our  people.  The  need  for  vigorous  physical 
activity  is  being  felt  by  all,  and  the  feeling  is  growing 
that  these  activities  must  be  guided  through  the  school 
years  of  a child  in  order  that  proper  health  habits  may 
be  established. 

A concrete  example  of  the  strain  which  modern 
civilization  is  placing  upon  the  individual  is  shown  in 
the  heavy  increase  in  nervous  diseases  in  the  past  decade. 
This  has  been  accompanied  by  a very  decided  decrease 
in  the  number  of  contagious  diseases.  This  seems  to 
be  an  indication  that  although  we  are  mastering  the 
diseases  that  are  spread  by  infection,  we  are  failing  to 
cope  with  those  which  are  caused  by  high  nervous  strain. 
It  would  probably  be  impossible  for  any  one  cause  to 


1 Extracts  from  letter  written  by  the  Adjutant  General’s  office,  Washington,  August  28th,  1917. 

218 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


219 


be  assigned  for  this  increase  in  nervous  diseases,  but  it 
seems  reasonable  to  assume  that  the  high  strain  of 
working  long  hours  indoors  under  nerve-racking  condi- 
tions, together  with  the  absence  of  vigorous  physical 
exercise  in  the  open  air  and  proper  rest  for  recuperation, 
is  responsible  for  part  of  this  situation. 

A general  wave  of  opinion  has  swept  the  country  in 
favor  of  a thoroughgoing  system  of  physical  education 
for  the  boys  and  girls  of  the  elementary  and  high  schools. 

History  of  Physical  Education.  — Physical  education 
in  one  of  its  many  forms  has  been  evident  in  the  educa- 
tional system  of  all  the  leading  peoples.  In  England 
it  has  largely  taken  the  form  of  a vigorous  play  and 
game  life  among  the  children,  and  this  has  also  been 
evident  in  the  activities  of  the  adults.  The  majority 
of  the  games  which  children  play,  and  especially  those 
which  they  continue  to  use  through  life,  are  games 
which  have  come  to  us  from  our  Anglo-Saxon  ancestors, 
for  instance,  the  games  of  tennis,  handball,  golf,  foot- 
ball, soccer,  lacrosse,  cricket.  Even  baseball  in  an 
early  form  has  come  down  to  us  through  England. 
Their  motto  of  “ Sport  for  sport’s  sake  ” has  become 
axiomatic  the  world  over. 

The  Swedish  system  of  physical  education,  perhaps 
the  most  elaborately  worked  out  system  by  which  large 
numbers  can  be  handled  in  limited  space,  is  to-day  the 
basis  of  a great  deal  of  our  established  work. 

The  German  system  of  physical  education  brings  us 
to  an  entirely  new  viewpoint  in  the  work.  Their  sys- 
tem was  largely  stimulated  by  the  conditions  which 
were  brought  out  in  the  Franco-Prussian  War.  The  ob- 
ject of  their  work  was  to  develop  physical  stamina  in 
the  young  men  of  the  Empire  that  they  might  be 
better  able  to  serve  the  Fatherland.  The  work  turned 
rapidly  to  gymnastics,  best  illustrated  by  the  work  of 
the  Turnvereins.  Their  work  was  largely  individual, 
and  with  the  exception  of  broadswording,  dueling  and 
certain  types  of  combative  exercises,  there  was  little 
of  the  social  element  manifest. 

In  America  as  early  as  1821  an  outdoor  gymnasium 
was  established  in  Salem,  Mass.  In  1825  Harvard, 
Yale,  Amherst,  Williams,  and  Brown  had  established 
gymnasium  courses.  After  this,  for  a number  of 
decades,  the  enthusiasm  for  physical  education  died 
down.  The  next  wave  of  enthusiasm  was  manifest 
during  the  decade  following  the  Civil  War.  It  is  said 
that  a school  which  had  for  a phase  of  its  activity  play 
and  physical  education  was  started  in  the  old  First 
Church  of  Boston  in  1866,  and  two  years  later  when  the 
church  moved  to  its  new  home  at  Copley  Square  an  out- 
door playground  was  added  near  by. 

Rise  of  the  Playground  Movement.  — Little  progress, 
however,  was  made  during  that  decade  or  the  next.  The 


revival  of  the  interest  has  been  closely  associated  with 
the  rise  of  the  playground  movement,  which  may 
properly  be  dated  from  1890.  During  that  year  a num- 
ber of  small  playgrounds  were  opened  and  in  New  York 
$25, 000  was  set  aside  for  playgrounds.  Many  associa- 
tions were  taking  up  the  subject  of  playgrounds,  largely 
from  the  standpoint  of  charity,  as  the  play  movement  was 
supposed  to  benefit  only  the  children  who  were  living 
under  slum  conditions.  The  names  of  Jacob  A.  Riis, 
Theodore  Roosevelt,  and  Joseph  Lee  were  closely  asso- 
ciated with  the  work  at  this  time. 

With  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century  new 
developments  took  place  rapidly.  Dr.  Luther  H.  Gulick 
organized  the  Public  School  Athletic  League,  and 
leagues  of  this  type  were  established  in  many  cities. 
Playground  and  recreation  associations  were  formed 
distinct  from  charitable  organizations.  Among  the 
notable  private  organizations  should  be  mentioned  the 
one  of  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  which  for  many  years  was  directed 
by  Geo.  E.  Johnson. 

The  movement  rapidly  spread  westward  and  began 
gradually  to  take  a new  form.  The  private  associations 
gave  way  to  municipal  control,  and  the  movement  was 
taken  over  by  one  or  another  of  the  various  city  depart- 
ments. As  a rule,  it  was  a department  of  the  park 
commission,  as  the  park  commissions  already  had  con- 
trol of  large  areas  of  open  land  throughout  the  cities. 

This  phase  of  the  movement  lasted  only  a few  years, 
as  the  fast  growing  work  became  too  complicated  for  a 
department  of  the-  park  commission.  The  playground 
commissions  were  soon  organized  as  a part  of  the  munic- 
ipal government,  and  practically  every  city  in  America 
to-day  has  in  one  farm  or  another  a playground  or  recrea- 
tion commission  which  conducts  play  for  children  after 
school  and  during  vacations. 

New  Era  in  Physical  Education  of  1914-1918.  — With 
the  rise  of  the  present  physical  education  movement, 
which  may  be  dated  from  the  war  of  1914-1918,  the 
next  logical  step  which  should  be  taken  is  actually  being 
taken,  namely,  all  types  of  physical  education  are  being 
taken  over  by  our  educational  system  and  made  com- 
pulsory by  our  public  schools.  It  was  necessary  to 
show  the  community  the  value  of  this  work  exactly  as 
the  early  church  schools  showed  the  community  the  value 
of  education,  but  now  that  the  community  is  convinced 
of  its  value  the  responsibility  of  the  work  is  properly 
being  assumed  by  the  public  schools.  There  are  a 
number  of  reasons  why  this  must  be  so.  1.  The  school 
has  all  the  children.  Upon  a voluntary  basis  of  educa- 
tion or  physical  education  those  who  are  the  most  pro- 
gressive and  need  it  the  least  will  take  advantage  of  the 
opportunities.  The  place  where  the  need  is  greatest 
is  not  reached  when  the  work  is  on  a voluntary  basis. 


220 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


2.  The  school  should  have  the  ground  and  other  facilities 
necessary  for  physical  education.  If  the  physical 
activities  for  the  children  are  centered  about  the  school, 
it  will  be  unnecessary  for  a municipality  to  duplicate 
ground  and  equipment.  The  step  that  has  been  taken 
by  a large  number  of  the  states  in  making  this  work  a 
phase  of  the  school  work  is  the  logical  step. 

This  does  not  mean  that  the  playground  and  recrea- 
tion associations  or  commissions  have  completed  their 
work.  The  emphasis  of  their  work  will  be  merely  shifted 
from  that  of  the  children  of  the  community  to  the  adults  of 
the  community,  which  is  a very  large  and  complicated  field. 

State  Laws.  — Extracts  from  a number  of  State  laws 
on  this  subject  are  here  given : 

California  State  Law 
Senate  Bill  No.  599 
Chapter  668 

An  act  to  provide  for  the  organization  and  supervision  of  courses 
in  physical  education  in  the  elementary,  secondary  and  normal 
schools  of  the  state,  and  appropriating  ten  thousand  dollars 
th;refor. 

(Approved  May  26,  1917.) 

“ The  people  of  the  State  of  California  do  enact  as 
follows : 

“ Section  1.  The  board  of  education  of  each  county, 
city  and  county,  and  city,  whose  duty  it  is  to  prescribe 
the  course  of  study  for  the  elementary  schools  of  such 
county,  city  and  county,  or  city,  shall  prescribe  suitable 
courses  of  physical  education  in  accordance  with  the 
provisions  of  this  act  for  all  pupils  enrolled  in  the  day 
elementary  school  except  pupils  who  may  be  excused  from 
such  training  on  account  of  physical  disability ; and 
the  high  school  board  of  each  high  school  district  shall 
prescribe  suitable  courses  of  physical  education  in 
accordance  with  the  provision  of  this  act  for  all  pupils 
regularly  enrolled  in  the  day  high  schools  of  such  district, 
except  pupils  regularly  enrolled  in  high  school  cadet 
companies  and  pupils  who  may  be  excused  from  such 
courses  on  account  of  physical  disability. 

“ Section  2.  The  aims  and  purposes  of  the  courses  of 
physical  education  established  under  the  provisions 
of  this  act  shall  be  as  follows:  (1)  To  develop  organic 
vigor,  provide  neuro-muscuiar  training,  promote  bodily 
and  mental  poise,  correct  postural  defects,  secure  the 
more  advanced  forms  of  coordination,  strength  and 
endurance,  and  to  promote  such  desirable  moral  and 
social  qualities  as  appreciation  of  the  value  of  cooperation, 
self-subordination  and  obedience  to  authority,  and 
higher  ideals,  courage  and  wholesome  interest  in  truly 
recreational  activities ; (2)  to  promote  a hygienic  school 
and  home  life,  secure  scientific  supervision  of  the  sanita- 
tion of  school  buildings,  playgrounds  and  athletic  fields, 
and  the  equipment  thereof. 


“ Section  3.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  superintendent 
of  schools  of  every  county,  city  and  county,  or  city  and 
of  every  board  of  education,  board  of  school  trustees, 
or  high  school  board,  to  enforce  the  courses  of  physical 
education  prescribed  by  the  proper  authority,  and  to 
require  that  such  physical  education  be  given  in  the 
schools  under  their  jurisdiction  or  control.  All  pupils 
enrolled  in  the  elementary  schools,  except  pupils  excused 
therefrom  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  this 
act,  shall  be  required  to  attend  upon  such  courses  of 
physical  education  during  periods  which  shall  average 
twenty  minutes  in  each  school  day,  and  all  pupils  en- 
rolled in  the  secondary  schools,  except  pupils  excused 
therefrom  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  this 
act,  shall  be  required  to  attend  upon  such  courses  of 
physical  education  for  at  least  two  hours  each  week 
that  school  is  in  session.  . . .” 

State  Law  of  New  York 
Chapter  567 

AN  ACT  to  amend  the  education  law,  in  relation  to  courses  of 
instruction  in  physical  training  and  discipline  in  the  schools  of 
the  state. 

Article  26-A 

Discipline  and  Physical  Training. 

“ After  the  first  day  of  September,  nineteen  hundred 
and  sixteen,  all  male  and  female  pupils  above  the  age 
of  eight  years  in  all  elementary  schools  shall  receive 
as  part  of  the  prescribed  courses  of  instruction  therein 
such  physical  training  as  the  regents  after  conference 
with  the  military  training  commission  may  determine, 
during  periods  which  shall  average  at  least  twenty 
minutes  in  each  school  day. 

“ Similar  courses  of  instruction  shall  be  prescribed  and 
maintained  in  private  schools  in  the  state,  and  all  pupils 
in  such  schools  over  eight  years  of  age  shall  attend  upon 
such  courses ; and  if  such  courses  are  not  so  established 
and  maintained  in  any  private  school,  attendance  upon 
instruction  in  such  school  shall  not  be  deemed  substan- 
tially equivalent  to  instruction  given  to  children  of  like 
ages  in  the  public  school  or  schools  of  the  city  or  district 
in  which  the  child  resides.” 

State  Aid  for  Teachers  Employed.  — “The  commis- 
sioner of  education,  in  the  annual  apportionment  of 
state  school  moneys,  shall  apportion  therefrom  to  each 
city  and  school  district  on  account  of  courses  of  instruc- 
tion as  provided  in  this  article,  established  and  main- 
tained in  the  schools  of  such  city  or  district  during  the 
school  year  or  any  part  thereof,  a sum  equal  to  one-half 
of  the  salary  paid  to  each  teacher  on  account  of  instruc- 
tion given  in  such  courses,  but  the  entire  amount  appor- 
tioned on  account  of  a single  teacher  during  a school 
year  shall  not  exceed  six  hundred  dollars.” 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


221 


Many  other  states  have  enacted  laws,  and  national 
legislation  will  soon  follow. 

Definition  and  Aims  of  Physical  Education.  — - 

“ Physical  education  is  that  phase  of  education  con- 
cerned with  the  functions  of  big  muscle  activities  and 
related  factors  which  control  the  growth  and  develop- 
ment of  the  child  and  the  physical  efficiency  of  the 
adult.  Related  factors  mean  behavior  or  habits  in- 
fluencing diet,  sleep,  rest,  oxidation,  elimination,  tem- 
perature regulation,  mental  moods,  etc.  In  order  that 
development  may  be  secured  there  must  be  protection 
from  handicapping  growth  divergencies,  devitalizing 
drains,  infection,  poisons,  etc.  And  in  the  educational 
process  the  individual  must  come  finally  to  control  his 
own  efficiency.  Therefore,  physical  education  is  inter- 
preted to  cover  (i)  the  facilities  and  organizations 
necessary  for  physical  training  activities,  activity  being 
the  only  constructive  factor  in  developing  power  ; (2)  the 
control  of  growth  handicaps,  the  preventive  and  correc- 
tive factor  in  growth  and  development ; and  (3)  the 
teaching  of  efficient  living,  the  self-directing  factor,  i.e., 
the  gradual  establishment,  largely  indirectly,  but  finally 
directly,  of  an  ideal  of  self-engineering  for  efficient  living. 

“ The  special  aims  of  physical  education  are  deter- 
mined primarily  by  the  functional  or  developmental 
effects  of  the  activities  with  which  physical  education 
is  concerned.  Physical  training  activities  are  (1)  the 
only  activities  that  develop  the  latent  organic  powers, 
or  the  vitality  and  the  nervous  capacity  to  stand  the 
wear  and  tear  of  strenuous  living ; (2)  the  only  ac- 
tivities that  develop  the  fundamental  psychomotor 
strengths  and  skills  and  mental  responses ; and  (3)  the 
activities  that  most  profoundly  exercise  the  deeper  in- 
stincts and  emotions  which  lie  at  the  foundation  of 
character.  The  leadership  of  these  activities  offers 
great  opportunity  for  influence  in  character  training 
and  in  the  development  of  many  fundamental  phases 
of  adjustment  for  citizenship.  These  are  the  primary 
aims  in  physical  education.  They  are  related  to  other 
phases  of  education  as  the  foundation  to  the  super- 
structure.” 1 

Periods  of  Leadership  and  Instruction  in  Physical 
Education.  Classification  of  Periods.  (Under  School 
Year  Conditions.) 

a.  Supervised  Play  period.  (Synonyms : directed 
play  period  ; athletic  period  ; “ recreation  ” period.) 

b.  Instructional  period. 

c.  Between-class  relief  period. 

, d.  Special  corrective  period. 

Relationships  between  the  Periods.  — a.  These  periods 
are  all  physical  training  periods  ; all  are  exercise  periods  ; 
all  are  periods  requiring  leadership.  They  are  designed 


to  meet  the  physical  needs  of  children  under  the  condi- 
tions and  demands  of  the  modern  school  organization. 
The  distinctions  and  relationships  between  the  periods 
are  not  intended  to  be  arbitrary  or  inflexible.  Condi- 
tions may  alter  these  relationships  and  distinctions.  In 
general,  the  descriptions  below  will  hold  true. 

The  Supervised  Play  Period.  ( Athletic  period.)  — 
This  period  represents  the  broader  organization  of 
physical  training  activities  necessary  for  the  development 
of  organic  power  and  nervous  vigor,  and  for  character 
training,  but  the  time  consumed  bulks  so  large  that  it 
is  impossible  usually  to  organize  it  entirely  within  the 
regular  school  hours.  It  covers  at  least  a part  of  the 
time  before  school,  during  recess,  after  school,  Satur- 
days and  holidays.  Therefore  this  period  represents 
an  extension  of  the  educational  influences  of  the  school 
into  the  outdoor  play  life  of  the  child ; his  “ free  time.” 
It  is  the  period  for  the  broadest  leadership,  coaching  and 
training  in  the  highest  sense,  and  the  systematic-inci- 
dental instruction  in  right  living.  The  school  should 
organize  enough  of  this  “ free  ” time  to  establish  play 
habits  and  ideals  which  will  function  in  the  play  life 
away  from  the  school’s  organizing  influence.  Present- 
day  social  conditions  influencing  child  life  and  education 
demand  that  the  school  shall  organize  this  period  in 
self-defense,  because : 

a.  The  influences  of  the  unsupervised  play  life  of  the 
child  are  balking  the  school  and  society  in  their  edu- 
cational efforts. 

b.  The  unsupervised  play  of  children  at  home  and  in 
the  home  neighborhood  under  present-day  social  con- 
ditions is  generally  neither  efficient  from  a physical 
training  standpoint  nor  wholesome  from  a moral  stand- 
point. Surveys  show  that  time  is  wasted  in  loafing 
and  fooling,  and  the  activities  drift  into  forms  that  are 
physically,  morally,  and  socially  detrimental. 

c.  The  difficulties  in  the  organization  of  efficient 
play,  due  to  the  cramping  and  complex  social  condi- 
tions in  cities  and  the  isolation  in  the  country,  are  be- 
yond the  resources  and  organizing  power  of  children ; 
they  must  have  help  and  direction. 

d.  Parents  as  a rule  do  not  understand  the  needs  of 
children  as  to  amount  and  variety  of  activity,  and  they 
do  not  possess,  usually,  the  skill  to  organize  the  play 
activities  even  where  they  see  these  needs. 

The  Instructional  Period. — -(Do  not  call  this  the 
Physical  Training  Period  and  thus  narrow  the  term ; 
it  is  only  one  of  the  Physical  Training  periods.)  This 
period  is  the  backbone  of  the  physical  training  pro- 
gram in  the  school.  It  comes  within  the  regular  school 
hours  and  is  essentially  a period  for  teaching  and  prac- 
tice, as  physical  training  activities  must  be  taught  and 


1 California  State  Manual  on  Physical  Education,  by  Clark  W.  Hetherington. 


222 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


learned.  In  this  period,  the  teacher  takes  the  initia- 
tive and  teaches  those  activities  essential  for  develop- 
ment or  for  free  participation  in  the  supervised  play 
period.  The  instruction  should  be  scheduled  and  con- 
ducted, so  far  as  the  attendance  and  attitude  of  the 
students  are  concerned,  like  other  school  periods,  but 
the  instructional  purpose  should  not  make  the  period 
disagreeable.  On  the  contrary,  it  should  be  charged 
with  a purpose  and  enjoyment.  There  is  no  conflict 
between  discipline  and  the  spirit  of  play. 

To  be  successful  the  organization  of  the  activities 
in  this  period  must  be  progressive,  both  by  age  periods 
and  by  the  skill  of  groups  of  individuals.  This  requires 
a differentiation  of  the  instructional  period  into  several 
periods  according  to  grades,  or  age  capacities.  Fre- 
quently, especially  among  the  older  children,  it  requires 
an  organization  of  groups  within  age  periods  according 
to  ability. 

The  activities  taught  and  practiced  in  this  period 
should  cover  all  the  groups  in  the  classified  list  above. 
It  is  the  period  in  which  tactical  and  calisthenic  drills 
may  or  should  be  taught,  but  it  is  not  a period  for 
such  drills  only.  It  is  equally  a period  for  instruction 
and  practice  in  the  more  important  instinctively  impelled 
activities.  The  activities  should  parallel  those  of  the 
supervised  play  period — -the  one  from  the  standpoint 
of  instruction  and  the  other  from  the  standpoint  of  a 
broader  participation.  The  one  should  contribute  to 
and  determine  the  activities  of  the  other.  This  re- 
quires a division  of  any  period  according  to  the  number 
of  activities  taught,  or  the  organization  of  several  in- 
structional periods  through  the  week  for  different  ac- 
tivities, such  as  swimming,  dancing,  etc. 

Between  Class  Relief  Period.  — This  period  is  distinctly 
a relief  period.  It  is  designed,  primarily,  to  counteract 
the  detrimental  influences  of  sedentary,  desk,  and  men- 
tal occupations.  Coming  between  classes  it  relieves 
from  the  fatigue  of  the  class  just  closed,  and  freshens 
for  the  class  to  come.  The  time  suggested  is  not  suffi- 
cient for  the  period  to  rank  as  a constructive  physical 
training  period ; it  simply  tends  to  counteract  the  bad 
effects  of  school  life. 

“ A minimum  of  two  minutes  between  two  sedentary 
class  periods  should  be  devoted  to  fatigue  relieving,  or 
circulation  stimulating  activities.  Gymnastic  or  setting 
up  drills  may  be  given  if  the  individual  teacher  is  skill- 
ful enough  to  handle  drills  successfully  to  get  physiologi- 
cal results,  and  if  local  conditions  make  them  the  only 
exercises  possible.  But  formalized  exercises  to  com- 
mand are  fatiguing.  A brisk  run  across  the  school 
yard,  or  a run  in  place  is  more  valuable  than  a drill  in- 
correctly conducted.  Any  activity  of  the  classified  list 


which  can  be  conducted  with  vigor  and  dispatch  for  all 
the  children  of  the  group  at  once  under  local  conditions 
should  be  considered  legitimate  for  this  period.  The 
object  is  to  stimulate,  relieve,  and  freshen.  Where 
there  are  long  recess  periods  between  classes,  they 
should  count  as  relief  periods. 

Special  Corrective  Period.  — This  period  is  designed 
especially  for  children  having  structural  or  functional 
defects  which  handicap  and  which  may  be  corrected  by 
special  active  or  passive  movements  or  exercises.  These 
children  must  be  handled  as  individual  cases  and  with 
individual  attention,  and  so  far  as  the  defects  are  con- 
cerned, apart  from  the  other  periods,  hence  the  special 
period ; but  this  does  not  mean  that  these  children 
should  not  have  the  activities  of  the  other  periods  also 
where  they  are  able  physically  to  enter  into  these 
activities.  In  many  cases  they  need  the  activities, 
organic  vigor,  strength,  skill  and  character  discipline, 
more  than  children  without  defects.  The'  special  cor- 
rective activities  are  developmental  only  in  a very 
narrow  sense. 

“ Participation  must  be  determined  in  each  case  by 
an  examination,  conducted  by  a skilled  person.  Only 
the  expert  physical  educator  or  the  instructor  who  has 
had  special  training  is  capable  of  handling  the  children 
and  activities  of  this  period.  The  inexperienced  in- 
structor should  refer  corrective  cases  to  an  expert,  or 
to  a surgeon.”  1 

Phases  of  Physical  Education.  — There  are  a large 
number  of  phases  of  physical  education  which  are  being 
focused  under  one  head.  These  phases  have  been  called 
athletics,  calisthenics,  military  training,  folk  dancing, 
play,  hygiene,  medical  inspection,  etc.  These  various 
branches  have  in  the  past  been  operated  more  or  less 
independently  of  each  other,  but  in  an  educational  sys- 
tem it  is  very  essential  to  unite  them  into  a compre- 
hensive plan. 

The  modern  viewpoint  of  physical  education  is  in- 
debted to  Clark  W.  Hetherington  for  the  classification 
of  activities.  The  following  will  in  general  be  based  on 
his  classification. 

i.  Natural  Play  Activities.  — These  activities  include 
all  of  the  instinctive  activities  which  the  child  naturally 
loves.  The  California  Syllabus  on  Physical  Education 
outlines  the  following : 

a.  Self-Testing  Activities.  — This  phase  includes  all 
of  the  stunts  beginning  with  the  simple  hop  or  skin- 
the-cat  and  leading  up  to  the  most  difficult  exercises 
on  the  horizontal  bar  and  parallel  bars.  This  includes 
what  has  been  known  as  “ heavy  gymnastics.” 

b.  Dramatic  Activities.  — This  list  of  activities  takes 
in  all  of  the  games  where  the  imagination  is  brought 


1 California  State  Manual  on  Physical  Education,  page  iq. 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


223 


into  play,  and  covers  the  scope  from  simple  action 
stories  to  the  matter  of  acting  out  Mother  Goose  rhymes 
and  fairy  tales. 

c.  Rhythmic  Activities.  — This  class  of  activities  takes 
in  all  of  the  rhythmic  work,  beginning  with  the  simplest 
singing  games  and  leading  up  to  the  most  difficult  “ folk 
dances.” 

d.  Hunting  Games.  — This  class  of  activities  takes 
in  all  of  the  list  of  tag  games  where  one  person  is  “ it,” 


g.  Water  Act  vities.  — This  type  takes  in  all  of  the 
activities  which  have  water  as  a medium,  beginning 
with  wading  and  leading  up  to  swimming. 

li.  Winter  Activities.  — This  includes  all  types  of 
activities  which  have  to  do  with  winter,  including  skat- 
ing, sliding,  skiing,  tobogganing,  etc. 

2.  Formal  Activities.  — This  type  of  activities  takes 
in  all  of  the  marching,  calisthenics,  gymnastic  drills, 
posture  instruction,  etc.  In  the  past,  this  has  been  the 


FLOOL  PLAN  OF  A GYMNASIUM.  BUILD  1 M. 

p 5'  io'  15' 


5 CALL 

Fig.  194. 


and  begins  with  the  very  simplest  games  of  cat-and- 
mouse,  drop-the-handkerchief,  etc.,  and  leads  up  to  the 
more  complicated  games  of  prisoner’s  base,  bear  line, 
and  games  of  like  nature. 

e.  Athletic  Activities.  — This  type  of  activities  takes 
in  all  of  the  various  forms  of  athletics,  including : 

Individual  Athletics  — track  and  field  events. 

Single  or  Dual  Games  — - tennis,  handball,  etc. 

Team  Games  — basket  ball,  baseball,  etc. 

f.  Personal  Combative  Activities.  — This  phase  in- 
cludes all  of  the  activities  of  wrestling,  boxing,  fencing, 
singlestick  work,  broadsword,  etc. 


phase  that  has  been  known  in  the  minds  of  many  as 
“ physical  culture,”  later,  “ physical  training.”  At  a 
glance  one  will  see  that  it  is  a very  narrow  interpreta- 
tion. This  interpretation,  however,  has  become  so  uni- 
versal that  to-day  physical  education  means  in  the  minds 
of  many  teachers  nothing  more  than  lining  children  up 
in  the  schoolroom  and  giving  them  a few  formal  exer- 
cises. This  phase  of  work  should  not  be  neglected,  but 
should  be  properly  conducted,  as  it  forms  a very  impor- 
tant part  of  the  posture  and  disciplinary  training. 

3.  Related  Activities.  — A large  group  of  related 
activities  is  also  included  under  physical  education 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


225 


This  group  includes  all  of  the  outing  activities,  camping, 
hiking,  etc.,  in  which  exercise  is  involved.  The  matter 
of  summer  camps  should  become  a very  large  part  of 
physical  education  for  our  high  school  boys  and  girls. 

4.  Teaching  Efficient  Living.  — The  whole  phase  of 
teaching  efficient  living  is  part  of  physical  education, 
as  it  all  tends  to  give  the  child  the  proper  viewpoint 
in  building  himself  into  a strong  and  efficient  citizen. 
This  has  been  included  in  the  past  under  the  name  of 
“ teaching  of  hygiene.” 

5.  Control  of  Growth  Handicaps.  — This  has  to  do 
entirely  with  the  control  of  the  many  types  of  handi- 
caps under  which  children  labor,  including  the  condi- 
tions of  eyes,  ears,  tonsils,  adenoids,  etc. 

6.  Therapeutic  Gymnastics.  — All  of  the  various 
phases  of  corrective  work  known  as  “ corrective  gymnas- 
tics ” are  included  under  the  head  of  physical  education. 

7.  The  Playground  Movement. — -The  whole  phase 
of  the  playground  movement  either  during  the  school 
year  or  during  the  summer  season  is  a phase  of  the 
physical  education  program  and  should  be  brought 
entirely  under  one  comprehensive  plan. 

Physical  Education  in  the  Curriculum.  A.  Ele- 
mentary Schools.  — - Physical  education  should  be  placed 
in  the  curriculum  with  a definite  schedule  of  time  from  20 
to  40  minutes  daily.  This  period  should  be  distinctly 
an  instruction  period.  It  is  a time  to  teach  new  ac- 
tivities and  to  lay  the  foundation  for  the  entire  program. 
Provision  should  also  be  made  for  the  relief  period,  and 
one  should  be  planned  so  that  every  hour  in  which  the 
children  are  in  a schoolroom  is  broken  with  at  least 
one  two-minute  relief  period.  The  play  period  should 
be  at  recess,  noon,  and  after  school.  The  bulk  of  this 
work  will  of  necessity  be  done  by  the  grade  teacher, 
but  with  the  aid  of  supervisors  of  city  or  county  units. 

B.  Intermediate  or  Junior  High  Schools.  — - In  the 
intermediate  or  junior  high  schools  from  three  to  five 
hour  periods  weekly  should  be  definitely  set  aside  for 
physical  education  instruction.  Special  instructors 
should  be  employed  for  the  boys  and  girls,  as  in  few  in- 
stances is  it  advisable  to  give  the  work  in  mixed  classes. 

C.  High  Schools.  — - The  problem  in  the  high  schools 
is  entirely  the  problem  of  specialists,  and  a man  should 
be  employed  for  the  boys’  work  and  a woman  for  the 
girls’.  From  three  to  five  hour  periods  weekly  should 
be  arranged  for  in  the  schedule  of  classes.  Hygiene 
may  possibly  be  taught  in  one  of  these  classes,  or  it  may 
be  advisable  to  give  it  in  a special  course.  Credit 
should  be  given  for  the  work  on  the  same  basis  as  other 
subjects.  Grades  based  on  attitude  toward  the  work, 
attendance,  and  improvement  of  health,  should  appear 
on  the  report  cards,  and  strict  graduation  rules  in  regard 
to  physical  education  credit  should  be  lived  up  to. 


A secretary  to  the  physical  directors  will  be  of  great 
assistance.  With  the  proper  arrangement  of  classes 
the  secretary  could  also  do  the  accompanying  work  for 
rhythmic  activities. 

The  Physical  Education  Plant.  — The  physical  edu- 
cation plant  includes  all  of  the  equipment  required  to 
put  into  effect  a thorough-going  physical  education 
program.  This  will  differ  somewhat  for  the  high  school, 
the  intermediate  school,  and  the  elementary  school, 
and  will  have  to  be  adjusted  to  meet  the  needs  of  the 
program  in  the  curriculum. 

All  of  the  phases  of  equipment  will  be  considered. 
Many  will  be  applicable  only  to  the  large  school.  A se- 
lection, however,  can  be  made  according  to  the  size, 
needs  of  the  school,  money,  and  space  available. 

The  Indoor  Gymnasium.  — The  gymnasium  can  be 
considered  to  have  three  units  : the  office,  with  adequate 
rest  room,  or  administrative  unit ; the  lockers,  dressing- 
room,  shower,  and  toilet  unit;  the  exercise  floor  or  floors. 

Figure  194  shows  a floor  unit,  and  figure  195  shows 
the  arrangement  of  three  units. 

A . Office.  — - There  should  be  separate  offices  for  the 
men  and  women  physical  directors.  Each  office  should 
be  arranged  as  follows : 

1.  An  outer  office,  in  which  equipment  can  be  placed 
for  a secretary,  who  will  take  care  of  the  files,  corre- 
spondence, statistics,  excuses,  roll  taking,  examination 
blanks,  etc. 

2.  An  inner  office,  in  which  there  should  be  located 
an  examination  room,  panel  looking  glass,  dressing  room, 
shower,  storeroom,  closet  with  washbowl  and  toilet, 
couch,  complete  first-aid  kit  and  anthropometric 
apparatus. 

In  the  inner  office  of  the  woman  director,  there  should 
be  placed  a number  of  rest  chairs  and  couches,  vary- 
ing with  the  size  of  the  school.  These  are  for  the  con- 
venience of  the  girls  necessarily  excused  from  the  reg- 
ular work. 

From  these  offices,  easy  access  should  be  had  to  the 
dressing  rooms,  gymnasium  floor,  and  if  possible,  the 
athletic  field,  in  order  that  better  supervision  may  be 
maintained. 

Figure  195  carries  out  these  plans. 

B.  Lockers , showers , toilets  and  dressing  rooms. 

I.  Lockers.  — The  locker  arrangement  depends  upon 
the  amount  of  dressing  room  space  available,  as  well 
as  on  the  locker  system  in  use  for  the  regular  school 
work.  The  following  suggestions  are  given  in  the 
order  of  their  preference : 

(1)  A Gymnasium  Locker  Placed  in  the  Dressing 
Room  for  Each  Pupil. — This  could  be  a half-size  locker, 
minimum  12X12X36;  thus  double  tiers  could  be  ar- 
ranged. With  this  system  all  personal  equipment  can 


226 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


be  placed  in  one  locker  and  kept  there.  It,  however, 
means  duplication  of  lockers  if  the  school  has  a locker 
system. 

(2)  Cubical  or  Fiber  Basket  System.  — In  this  sys- 
tem there  are  lockers  of  the  above  type  provided  for  a 
class  of  minimum  size.  Each  pupil  has  a fiber  basket 
13X9X8,  which  contains  his  uniform  and  personal 
equipment.  When  not  at  class  these  boxes  are  filed  by 
numbers.  On  coming  to  class  the  pupil  gets  his  basket, 
carries  it  to  the  locker  room  and  dresses  for  class  work, 
putting  his  street  clothes  into  the  large  dressing  locker. 
This  system  requires  the  constant  care  of  an  attendant. 
Girls  will  require  a larger  basket. 

(3)  Lockers  for  a Class  of  Maximum  Size.  — This 
system  requires  lockers  for  one  class.  The  personal 
equipment  is  brought  from  the  school  locker  to  the  dress- 
ing room  and  returned  to  the  school  locker  after  class. 
The  dressing  room  locker  is  thus  used  only  during  the 
period. 

(4)  Keys.  The  problem  of  keys  is  always  a serious 
one,  and  probably  no  system  will  give  perfect  satis- 
faction. The  combination  lock  system  results  in  pupils 
forgetting  the  combination,  and  there  is  also  the  danger 
of  one  person  remembering  many  combinations.  The 
system  of  having  each  person  provide  his  own  lock, 
while  quite  satisfactory  to  the  user  of  the  locker,  makes 
an  inspection  of  a locker  very  difficult.  Whatever 
system  is  employed,  it  is  quite  agreed  that  a system 
with  a master  key  should  be  used,  and  duplicate  key, 
so  that  the  director  and  custodian  may  at  times  inspect 
the  lockers. 

II.  Showers.  — The  importance  of  the  shower  bath 
cannot  be  overestimated.  It  should  follow  all  strenuous 
exercise  periods,  especially  intermediate  and  high  schools. 

(1)  Boys.  - - The  simplest  type  of  shower  is  preferable 
for  the  boys’  unit.  These  showers  should  be  overhead, 
8 feet  from  floor,  and  operated  by  simple  non-scalding 
valves  which  will  easily  regulate  the  supply  of  hot  and 
cold  water.  The  water  is  heated  by  a steam  coil  in  the 
hot  water  tank,  which  operates  automatically.  An 
auxiliary  system  may  be  utilized.  It  should  be  supplied 
with  an  automatic  thermostat  which  turns  off  the  heat 
when  the  water  reaches  a temperature  of  between  130° 
and  150°.  The  sides  of  the  shower  room  should  be  lined 
with  non-absorbent  material. 

(2)  Girls.  — The  only  suggestion  over  and  above  those 
given  for  the  boys’  showers  is  that  individual  side  showers 
should  be  used  for  the  girls.  Hair-drying  machines 
should  be  provided.  Non-absorbent  partitions  with 
canvas  curtains  should  be  used.  Showers  turned  on  by 
an  attendant  are  successful. 

III.  Toilets.  — All  toilets  should  be  arranged  within 
easy  access  of  an  outside  entrance,  so  that  they  can  be 


used  directly  from  the  play  yard,  as  well  as  from  the 
dressing  room. 

IV.  Dressing  Room.  - — Four-foot  aisles  between  the 
lockers  should  be  provided  in  the  dressing  rooms,  and 
the  aisles  should  be  covered  with  cheap  washable  rugs  or 
linoleum  strips.  Complete  drawings  for  the  boys’  unit 
as  well  as  the  girls’  unit  are  given  in  figure  195. 

The  two  units  above  outlined,  office  and  lockers, 
dressing  room,  showers  and  toilet,  should  be  so  planned 
that  in  case  only  enough  money  is  available  to  erect  a part 
of  a gymnasium  these  two  units  could  be  erected  first. 
In  many  parts  of  the  country  this  is  all  of  the  building  that 
will  be  needed.  The  work  which  is  usually  done  on  the 
gymnasium  floor  could  many  times  he  done  in  the  yard. 
This  will  be  true  more  and  more  for  the  future,  as  most 
of  the  physical  training  activities  will  be  given  in  the 
open  air,  providing  proper  surfacing  and  sunshield  and 
windbreaks  are  provided. 

C.  Exercise  Floor  or  Floors.  — For  public  school 
use  very  little  consideration  need  be  given  any  room 
beyond  the  main  exercise  floor  and  attendant  rooms. 
Consideration  should  be  given  early  in  the  planning  in 
regard  to  whether  there  will  be  a running  track,  or  any 
large  accommodation  for  an  audience. 

Running  Track.  — There  is  a growing  feeling  that 
all  running  should  be  in  the  open  air.  This  should  be 
especially  true  for  school  children.  If  a track  is  in- 
stalled, it  should  be  6 feet  wide  with  curves  of  not  less 
than  15  feet  radius.  It  should  be  covered  with 
cork  carpet.  A brass  sliding  pole  should  be  provided 
from  the  track  to  the  main  floor  in  order  that  there  may 
be  quick  access  from  track  to  floor.  See  figure  196. 

Provision  for  Seating  Audiences.  — The  school  gym- 
nasium should  not  attempt  to  provide  a large  seating 
capacity.  Some  space  may  be  arranged  over  the  dress- 
ing room  and  office.  Collapsible  bleachers  may  be 
used  on  the  large  floor.  See  figure  197. 

Specifications  for  the  Main  Floor.  — One  of  the  first 
points  to  be  determined  will  be  the  size  of  the  gymnasium 
floor  and  the  number  of  gymnasiums  needed.  One 
gymnasium  should  be  adequate  for  a school  with  an  en- 
rollment up  to  700.  This  could  be  used  on  alternate 
days.  While  the  boys  use  the  gymnasium  the  girls 
could  use  the  athletic  field. 

In  schools  where  the  enrollment  numbers  above  700, 
two  gymnasiums  should  be  provided,  one  for  the  boys 
and  one  for  the  girls.  See  figure  195,  which  gives  a sug- 
gestion. 

Size  and  Shape  of  Floor.  — Regardless  of  the  number 
of  gymnasiums  or  the  size  of  the  school,  the  size  and 
shape  of  the  exercise  floor  will  remain  very  much  the 
same,  as  it  is  impracticable  to  handle  more  than  fifty 
pupils  in  any  one  class.  The  extra  space,  of  course, 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


227 


Messrs.  Perkins,  Fellows  & Hamilton,  Architects. 

Fig.  196.  — Gymnasium  of  Pontiac  High  School,  Pontiac,  Michigan. 


makes  room  for  a variety  of  indoor  athletic  games,  which 
is  always  an  advantage.  Many  experts  on  this  sub- 
ject suggest  the  proportion  of  length  to  width  on  the 
basis  of  3 to  2.  This,  however,  the  writer  does  not  feel 
is  quite  according  to  the  needs,  as  the  length  should 
be  a little  more  than  the  width  under  this  proportion. 
The  following  schedule  is  submitted,  which  is  believed 
to  be  better : 

Minimum  size,  35X65 
Average  size,  50X80 
Maximum  size,  60X90 

Many  gymnasiums,  however,  will  be  larger  than  this. 

Height.  — Twenty-one  feet  is  many  times  given  as 
the  height  for  a gymnasium.  Other  heights,  however, 
have  their  place  in  the  consideration  of  the  needs  of  all 
types  of  public  schools.  The  following  heights  are 
submitted.  From  the  floor  to  the  exposed  wood  or  steel 
beams  overhead : 

Minimum,  14  feet 
Average,  18  feet 
Maximum,  22  feet 

Roof  and  Trusses.  — Architects  should  be  cautioned 
against  planning  the  construction  of  a sloping  roof  in 
such  a manner  that  it  brings  the  cross  beams  out  of  level 


with  each  other,  which  makes  installation  of  apparatus 
difficult.  The  cross  beams  or  trusses  should  be  ar- 
ranged to  accommodate  standard  pieces  of  apparatus. 
The  following  suggestions  are  submitted  : 

Minimum  width  between  trusses,  12  feet 
Average  width  between  trusses,  14  feet 
Maximum  width  between  trusses,  18  feet 
In  the  hanging  of  traveling  rings  from  these  trusses  a 
3-inch  pipe  should  be  attached  to  the  under  side  of  the 
lower  cords.  The  pipes  should  not  be  joined  or  coupled 
together  unless  there  is  a hanger  on  both  sides  of  the 
coupling.  The  best  method  is  to  use  pipe  collars  made 
by  the  leading  apparatus  manufacturers  and  bring  ends 
of  pipe  together  under  center  of  cross  beams  with  a 
collar  supporting  one  end  of  each  pipe.  In  frame  con- 
struction it  is  cheaper  to  suspend  a beam  8 feet  from 
the  side  wall  and  parallel  to  it.  This  beam  should  be 
fastened  securely  between  the  crossbeams  or  trusses  and 
flush  with  the  bottom  of  them. 

Windows,  Radiators,  and  Wall  Fixtures.  — All  win- 
dows, radiators,  and  wall  fixtures  should  be  located 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  use  of  the  side  walls  for  the 
attachment  of  various  pieces  of  apparatus  and  various 
games.  At  least  a portion  of  one  side  should  be  kept 


Mr.  A.  F.  Hussander,  Architect. 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


229 


Fig.  198.  — Gymnasium,  Junior  High  School,  Trenton,  New  Jersey. 


free  for  handball  and  tennis  serving.  All  windows 
should  be  screened  and  at  least  eight  feet  from  the 
floor.  The  radiators  should  be  screened  and  should  be 
recessed  in  the  walls  with  the  covering  screen  flush 
with  the  wall.  A portion  of  one  end  or  side  should  be 
equipped  with  a large  plate  glass  mirror  in  order  that 
the  class  may  observe  postural  defects. 

Lighting,  Heating,  Ventilation.  — Large  windows 
should  be  provided  for  light  and  ventilation.  The 
patent  window  which  opens  out  is  the  best  type,  as 
this  permits  the  opening  up  of  the  whole  side  of  the 
room.  Skylights  have  not  proven  satisfactory,  as  the 
heat  at  certain  times  of  the  year  is  too  intense.  All 
lighting  fixtures  should  be  well  protected. 

Floor.  — Maple  is  preferred  for  flooring.  There  should 
be  a rough  under  floor  i|  inches  in  thickness  and  a fin- 
ished floor  xf  inch  or  i-g-  inches  in  thickness.  In  case 
the  light  flooring  is  used  it  will  be  necessary  to  reen- 
force the  floor  at  points  where  flush  plates  are  used  to 
hold  guys  of  horizontal  bars,  etc.  This  can  be  done  by 
inserting  metal  plates  or  wood  strips  under  the  apparatus 


plates  when  installing  the  equipment.  Manufacturers 
will  furnish  instructions  for  doing  this  properly  when 
plans  and  full  particulars  are  given  them. 

Marking  of  the  Floor.  — Gymnasium  floor  should  be 
marked  for  basket  ball,  indoor  baseball,  volley  ball, 
handball,  and  if  possible  tennis.  This  marking  is  more 
satisfactory  if  different  colors  are  used  for  the  various 
courts.  Figure  199  of  this  chapter  and  figure  2 in  chap- 
ter 1 contain  suggestions  in  regard  to  floor  marking. 

Gymnasium  Apparatus.  — Only  such  apparatus  should 
be  selected  as  will  be  used  and  adapt  itself  to  class  work. 

Selections  may  be  had  from  the  following : 

Boys’  Gymnasium 

6 chest  machines. 

24  section  bar  stalls. 

24  bar  stall  benches. 

2 vaulting  horses. 

2 vaulting  bucks. 

2 parallel  bars. 

2 horizontal  and  vaulting  bars. 

2 suspended  horizontal  bars. 

2 horizontal  ladders. 


Page  230  Fig.  199.  — Edward  Lee  McLean  High  School,  Greenfield,  Ohio. 


232 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


S LOTION  °A  -A° 


51CT1QN  B°B- 


° OUTDOOIt  SW1MI1  MG  POOL* 

S'  IQ'  [S’ 


O 


5 CAL L 
Fig.  2oi. 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


233 


Mlllll 

'I.  i-i 

jVv. 

Fig.  202.  — Photograph,  Outdoor  Gymnasium. 


Boys’  Gymnasium  — Continued. 

2 to  4 pairs  flying  rings. 

6 traveling  rings. 

1  incline  board. 

6 to  12  climbing  ropes. 

3 to  6 rope  ladders. 

1  pair  jumping  standards. 

1 spring  board. 

1 vaulting  standard. 

1 pole  vaulting  board. 

4  jump  boards. 

10  mattresses  of  various  sizes. 

1 or  2 pairs  basket  ball  backstops  and  goals. 
Girls’  Gymnasium. 

1 boom. 

24  section  bar  stalls. 

2 bar  saddles. 

24  bar  stall  benches. 

2  vaulting  horses. 

1 vaulting  box. 

4 jump  boards. 

6 traveling  rings. 

6 balance  beams. 

1 pair  jumping  standards. 

1 incline  board. 


1 spring  board. 

6 to  12  climbing  ropes. 

1 adjustable  ladder. 

1 vertical  window  ladder. 

1 horizontal  window  ladder. 

3  to  6 rope  ladders. 

1 or  2 sets  basketball  goals. 

2 pairs  flying  rings, 
mats 

miscellaneous  small  apparatus. 
Combined  Boys’  and  Girls’  Gymnasium. 
6 chest  weights. 

24  sections  bar  stalls. 

24  bar  stall  benches. 

2 vaulting  horses. 

2 vaulting  bucks. 

2 parallel  bars. 

2 horizontal  and  vaulting  bars. 

1 or  2 swinging  booms. 

1 adjustable  ladder. 

3  to  6 rope  ladders. 

6 to  12  climbing  ropes. 

2 pairs  flying  rings. 

6 traveling  rings. 

1 pair  jump  standards. 


234 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Combined  Boys’  and  Girls’  Gymnasium  — Continued. 
i spring  board, 
i inclined  board. 

mattresses. 

4 jump  boards, 
i or  2 pairs  basket  ball  goals, 
calisthenic  apparatus. 

Information  and  advice  regarding  the  equipment  of 
;ymnasiums  may  be  obtained  gratis  from  the  apparatus 


manufacturers  if  the  necessary  information  is  given 
them. 

Room  for  Corrective  Gymnastics.  — A special  correc- 
tive room  may  be  arranged  over  the  office  and  shower 
rooms.  In  this  room  should  be  placed  an  abdominal 
stool,  plinth,  stall  bar,  single  wall  parallel  bars,  two 
tables,  and  two  bar  stalls. 

Game  Room.  — - A special  room  should  also  be  pro- 
vided for  the  boys  for  boxing,  wrestling,  fencing 


Fig.  203. 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


235 


punching  the  bag,  etc.  A handball  court  might  be 
alanned. 

Swimming-Pools.  — Swimming  as  an  activity  in  con- 
jhection  with  our  schools  has  a very  important  place  in 
ahysical  education,  and  complete  swimming  facilities 
should  be  provided  at  least  by  all  intermediate  and  high 
schools. 

Indoor  Pool.  Size. — A narrow  pool  is  desirable,  as 
she  side  of  the  pool  may  be  much  more  easily  reached 
>y  persons  who  are  just  learning  to  swim.  Wherever 
)0ssible,  an  outdoor  pool  should  be  used,  but  if  an  indoor 
>ool  is  used,  the  matter  of  ventilation  should  be  care- 
ully  considered.  A skylight  would  be  an  advantage. 
U least  plenty  of  windows  should  be  provided,  so  that 
he  place  could  be  flooded  with  the  direct  rays  of  the 
un.  See  figure  No.  200. 

The  following  sizes  are  suggested  for  school  condi- 
tions : 

20X40,  minimum  size 

25X75,  maximum  size 

Other  Dimensions.  - — The  depth  at  the  shallow  part 
f the  pool  should  be  3 feet  and  at  the  deepest  point  8 
iet,  6 inches.  See  figure  201.  The  deepest  point  of  the 
ool  should  be  ten  to  twelve  feet  from  the  deep  end, 
ius  the  pool  will  slope  both  ways  to  this  point.  The 
des  of  the  pool  should  be  clearly  marked  to  show 
epth  of  the  water.  An  overflow  drain  should  be  pro- 
ved. It  is  sometimes  combined  with  a hand  rail 
id  “ spit  gutter  ” around  the  entire  pool.  Water 
lould  be  kept  constantly  flowing  over  this  rail.  Ten 
;r  cent  to  fifteen  per  cent  of  the  contents  of  this  pool 
lould  flow  over  the  rail  each  day. 


When  designing  the  drainage,  the  disposal  of  the 
water  when  emptying  the  pool  should  be  carefully 
planned.  Unless  this  is  observed  the  house  drains 
and  plumbing  fixtures  will  be  flooded.  Where  possible, 
the  water  should  be  used  for  the  irrigation  of  the  lawns 
and  gardens. 

Problems  in  Connection  with  the  Sanitary  Condition 
of  the  Water.  — To  be  exact,  water  in  which  people 
swim  should  be  as  pure  as  the  water  which  they  drink. 
This,  however,  is  seldom  the  case.  The  main  problems 
in  connection  with  pure  water  are  as  follows : 

(1)  Secure  pure  water  to  begin  with.  In  other  words, 
see  that  the  source  of  the  water  is  pure. 

(2)  See  that  persons  who  use  the  pool  cleanse 
themselves  thoroughly  before  entering  the  pool.  This 
does  not  mean  having  an  entire  class  run  through  a 
shower,  but  means  the  application  of  warm  water  and 
soap. 

(3)  See  that  the  suits  are  clean.  Bathing  suits 
should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  after  being  used.  Care 
should  be  taken  that  swimming  suits  are  dyed  with 
fast  dyes. 

(4)  Treatment  of  water  after  having  been  used. 

(a)  Filtration.  — The  most  common  method  of  treat- 
ing the  water  is  by  a well-constructed  filtration  plant, 
and  from  experience  it  will  probably  be  given  first 
preference. 

(b)  Ultra-Violet  Ray  System.  — The  ultra-violet  ray 
system  when  installed  by  a reliable  firm  does  excellent 
work. 

(c)  Chemicals.  — A number  of  chemicals  are  used  for 
purifying  the  water : 


— ./ 

Fig.  204.  — Photo  of  Sandbox,  Slide  and  Gymnasium  Frame. 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 





Fig.  205.  — Kindergarten  Porch,  Emerson  School,  Oakland,  California. 


Mr.  John  J.  Donovan,  Architect. 


Copper  sulphate 
Anhydrous  chloride 
Chloride  of  lime 

Of  these  three,  chloride  of  lime  is  recommended  as 
being  the  easiest  to  handle  and  the  most  efficient.  One- 
tenth  pound  to  5000  gallons  of  water  is  recommended  as 
a dosage  every  3 or  4 days.  The  water  should  be  exam- 
ined frequently. 

(5)  Heating.  Figure  201  shows  means  of  heating  pool. 

Outdoor  Pool.  — - The  open  air  pool  is  preferred  where 
conditions  warrant.  Figure  201  gives  a number  of  sug- 
gestions in  this  line. 

Outdoor  Semi-Outdoor  Gymnasium.  — As  was  sug- 
gested under  Indoor  Gymnasium,  the  matter  of  provid- 
ing the  gymnasium  with  adequate  fresh  air  is  a big 
problem.  In  all  places  where  weather  will  permit  and 
in  all  climates  when  the  weather  is  mild  all  of  the 
gymnastic  work  should  be  conducted  in  the  open 
air.  See  figure  203.  There  are  a number  of  elements 
which  make  this  difficult,  and  they  vary  in  different 
climates.  The  winter  season  in  certain  states  will  be 
the  biggest  obstacle.  Casual  rain,  severe  wind,  and  the 


hot  suns  are  also  heavy  impediments.  A semi-outdoor 
gymnasium  could  be  provided  with  a roof  and  with  side 
walls  open  above  12  feet.  Thus  in  good  weather  the 
exercise  can  be  taken  practically  in  the  open,  and  during 
inclement  weather  protection  may  be  had. 

Play  Yard  (Outdoor  Exercise  Floor). — -The  school 
play  yard  should  be  considered  a large  exercise  floor  for  a 
number  of  reasons : 

(1)  It  should  be  equipped  for  all  physical  training 
activities. 

(2)  It  should  be  equipped  as  a community  play 
ground  for  the  recreation  of  the  adult  and  the  pla) 
activities  of  the  children.  As  such  it  should  be  opei 
after  school  hours,  Saturdays,  Sundays,  holidays,  am 
vacations. 

Old  Idea  of  Equipment  of  Play  Yard.  — The  old  ide. 
of  equipping  a play  yard  was  that  there  should  be 
large  amount  of  equipment  on  a relatively  small  piec 
of  ground,  and  the  children  would  come  there  and  amus 
themselves.  Thus  there  were  a great  many  swing: 
slides,  teeters,  teeter  ladders,  giant  strides,  merry-gc 
rounds,  apparatus  to  climb  on,  etc. 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


237 


Fig.  206.  — Wire  Cage  Baseball  Back-Stop. 


New  Idea  of  Equipment  of  Play  Yard.  — The  new  idea 
if  equipment  of  play  yards  is  that  there  shall  be  a rela- 
ively  large  piece  of  ground  with  a few  standard  pieces 
f equipment.  Large  areas  shall  be  left  for  running 
nd  team  games,  such  as  hockey,  soccer,  baseball,  basket 
all,  etc.  It  is  in  these  games  that  great  social  values 
re  derived,  and  these  can  never  be  derived  from  the 
idividual  play  of  the  old  type  of  playground. 

Field  House.  — - With  school  buildings  that  are  not 
quipped  for  this  modern  idea  a field  house  will  have 
) be  provided,  in  which  will  be  located  showers,  dress- 
ig  rooms,  toilets,  and  an  office. 

Size  of  Play  Yard.  — The  elementary  school  play 
ard  should  vary  between  3 and  7 acres,  according  to 
lie  size  of  the  school.  Efficient  work  for  large  numbers 
mnot  be  done  on  a yard  with  smaller  space  than  this. 
The  intermediate  school  play  yard  should  cover  from 
) to  15  acres,  as  the  needs  of  the  older  boys  and  girls 
ill  be  considerably  greater  than  they  are  in  the  ele- 
entary  grades. 

The  high  school  playground  should  cover  from  15  to 
; acres,  with  complete  facilities  for  the  handling  of  all 
pes  of  high  school  and  adult  activities. 

Plan  and  Equipment  of  Play  Yard. — The  pieces  of 
•paratus  should  be  arranged  around  the  sides  of  the 


ground,  thus  leaving  all  of  the  central  part  of  the  ground 
for  athletic  games.  On  small  elementary  school  grounds 
the  girls’  and  small  children’s  apparatus  should  be  placed 
on  the  side  of  the  ground  near  the  school  building,  and 
the  boys’  on  the  space  furthest  from  the  school  build- 
ing. This  arrangement  tends  to  give  the  girls  and 
small  children  protection  from  the  balls  in  the  heavier 
athletic  games  and  it  also  protects  the  windows  in  tire 
school  building.  Baseball  fields  and  courts  especially 
should  be  arranged  at  the  furthest  point  from  the  school 
building,  where  possible  in  the  northeast  corner  of  the 
grounds.  The  next  choice  should  be  the  northwest 
corner,  the  southwest  and  southeast  following  in  turn. 
Football  fields,  tennis  courts,  basket  ball  courts,  volley 
ball  courts,  where  possible,  should  be  laid  out  north 
and  south,  in  order  to  protect  the  players  from  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun.  Activities  should  be  conducted 
in  a safe  place. 

Elementary  School.  — Plan  No.  1.  The  Emerson 
School,  Oakland,  Calif.  (Figure  203)  is  a small,  well- 
balanced  yard.  Description  of  apparatus  indicated  by 
numbers  in  figure  203  is  as  follows  : 

No.  1.  Girls’  Sand  Box.  The  dimensions  of  this 
are  1X5X12  feet.  It  is  equipped  with  a shelf  around 
the  top,  which  serves  either  as  a seat  or  a molding  table. 


238 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


It  is  filled  with  a coarse  grade  of  sand,  which  will  not 
become  dusty  in  dry  weather  or  muddy  when  mois- 
tened. 

See  figure  204. 

No.  2.  Girls’  Slide.  This  is  a medium-sized  slide  and 
equipped  with  a landing  pit  filled  with  clean  sand. 

For  a substitute  — Horizontal  Ladder  (Girls).  This 
should  be  purchased  or  well  constructed.  Rails,  if" 
oval  made  from  2"  xC — 14'  long,  16"  apart;  rundles 
of  hard  wood  ij"  diameter.  Set  6'  6"  from  ground 
well  supported. 

No.  3.  Girls’  Gymnasium  Frame,  which  consists  of  a 
set  of  six  traveling  rings.  This  particular  unit  has  been 
found  most  satisfactory  for  girls. 

No.  4.  Girls’  Volley  Ball  Court,  which  has  4X4 
inch  posts  set  in  sockets,  so  that  they  may  be  easily 
moved. 

No.  5.  Girls’  Basket  Ball  Court  — posts  set  in  sockets. 
(Numbers  4 and  5 are  convertible  into  tennis  courts 
during  seasons  when  basket  ball  is  not  played.) 

No.  6.  Double  Handball  Courts.  One  side  for 
boys  and  the  other  for  girls.  This  consists  of  plain  hand- 
ball backstops  twenty  feet  wide,  twelve  feet  high,  with 
a six-foot  wire  extension.  See  figure  205. 

No.  7.  Boys’  Basket  Ball  Court  — posts  set  in 
sockets. 

No.  8.  Boys’  Volley  Ball  Court  — posts  set  in  sockets. 
(Number  7 and  8 are  convertible  into  tennis  courts.) 

No.  9.  Boys’  Gymnasium  Frame.  Unit  selected  for 
boys’  gymnasium  frame  is  one  horizontal  bar,  one 
climbing  pole,  one  climbing  ladder,  two  sets  flying 
rings. 

Substitute:  Horizontal  Bar  (Boys’).  Hickory  or 
steel  bars  can  be  purchased.  A i"X6'  galvanized  iron 


gas  pipe  will  do.  Set  in  two  posts  so  that  the  bar  will 
be  rigid. 

A high  bar  6'  6"  and  a low  bar  5'  should  be  con- 
structed. An  adjustable  bar  with  holes  in  6" X6" 
posts  from  2'  to  5'  is  not  difficult  to  make  and  is  very 
valuable. 

No.  10.  High  Slide  for  Boys,  equipped  with  landing- 
pit  filled  with  sand. 

No.  11.  Sand  Box  for  Boys,  equipped  as  number  1. 

No.  12.  Soccer  Posts,  made  of  6X6  inch  posts.  Size 
of  field  is  reduced  to  50X80  yards,  which  has  proved 
satisfactory  for  school  playground  purposes.  Hockey 
is  played  on  this  field. 

High  Jumping  Pit,  filled  with  shavings. 

Wire  Cage  Backstop  for  baseball.  See  figure  206. 

Hockey  Field  (played  on  soccer  field)  size  150' X 225' 
(smaller  size  will  do).  Construction:  a.  surface  — 
smooth  and  level,  b.  Goals  — 4"X6"  uprights  7' 
(4,/X4,/  will  do)  above  the  ground  12'  apart  with  a 2"X 
4"  crossbar.  If  posts  are  not  available,  mark  the  dis- 
tance with  two  stones  or  other  objects. 

No.  13.  Open  Pergola  Porch,  covered  with  canvas 
in  the  summer  time,  which  affords  a place  for  small 
children  to  hold  club  meetings  and  enjoy  diversified 
play.  See  figure  205. 

Surface  marked  X is  an  oil  macadam  composition. 
It  makes  an  excellent  surface  for  court  games. 

Surface  marked  Y is  covered  with  crushed  rock  dust. 
It  makes  a good  baseball  field,  but  is  a little  too  hard 
for  football,  for  which  sandy  loam  would  be  better. 

Plan  No.  2 — figure  207. 

This  is  a better  arrangement  than  in  figure  203,  as 
more  open  space  is  left  for  the  girls’  large  games.  Also 
tennis  courts  are  provided. 


Page  2jg  Fig.  208.  — Bushrod  Playground,  near  Washington  School,  Oakland,  California. 


Page  240  Fig.  209.  — Mosswoon  Park,  Tennis  Courts,  Oakland,  California. 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


241 


Fig.  210. — Track,  Bushrod  Playground,  Oakland,  California. 


Figure  208  shows  a playground  for  elementary  boys 
and  girls  with  a small  field  house  adjacent.  The  division 
of  the  ground  for  boys  and  girls  will  be  noted.  The 
swings  are  fenced,  courts  well  marked.  The  gymnasium 
frame  has  a layer  of  12"  to  14"  of  shavings  under  it. 


Intermediate  School.  As  the  games  for  the  inter- 
mediate school  are  more  vigorously  played  than  those  of 
the  elementary  school,  greater  allowance  should  be  made 
for  areas  between  play  courts.  Therefore  the  intermedi- 
ate school  requires  the  following  additional  equipment : 


Fig.  21X.  — Hockey  Field,  Mosswood  Park,  Oakland,  California. 


242 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Boys’  Field. 

2  tennis  courts.  See  Fig.  209. 

2  handball  courts. 

| mile  running  track  (football  and  baseball  fields  in  the 
oval).  Fig.  210. 
x soccer  field  (150' X 240'). 

2 basket  ball  courts. 

Girls’  Field. 

2 tennis  courts. 

4 indoor  baseball  diamonds  — 45'  base  line. 

1 hockey  field  and  general  play  area.  Fig.  21 1. 

2 volley  ball  courts. 

High  School.  — In  addition  to  the  equipment  of  the 
elementary  school  playground,  the  high  school  should 
have  the  following : 

Boys’  Yard. 

3 tennis  courts. 

2 handball  courts. 

\ mile  running  track  (football  and  baseball  fields  to  be 
placed  in  the  oval). 


2 basket  ball  courts. 

1 soccer  field. 

1 canvas  golf  driving  net  and  green. 

Girls’  Yard. 

3 tennis  courts. 

4 indoor  baseball  diamonds  — 45  ft.  bases. 

2 hockey  fields. 

4  volley  ball  courts. 

1 canvas  golf  driving  net  and  green. 

Figure  212  shows  a fine  arrangement  for  a large  inter- 
mediate school  or  a small  high  school.  The  part  marked 
“ Agricultural  Area  ” should  be  the  girls’  athletic  held 
and  the  part  of  ground  just  in  front  should  be  used  foi 
the  agricultural  area. 

This  ground  occupies  15^  acres.  Many  new  higt 
schools  are  acquiring  as  high  as  30  acres  for  a schoo 
site.  This  allows  ample  space  for  a thoroughgoing 
program  of  Physical  Education  for  the  entire  studen' 
body  of  a large  school  when  properly  organized. 


CHAPTER  XI 


THE  ADMINISTRATIVE  OFFICES  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 

By  William  F.  Ewing,  M.A.,  Principal,  Pasadena  High  School,  Pasadena,  California 

I.  Small  Elementary  School,  (i)  Principal’s  Office.  (2)  Teachers’  Room.  (3)  Janitor’s  Quarters.  (4)  Playground  Supervi- 
sor’s Office.  II.  Large  Elementary  School.  (1)  General  Plan.  (2)  Principal’s  Office.  (3)  Teachers’  Rest  Room.  (4)  Girls’  Rest 
Room.  (5)  Library.  (6)  Janitor’s  Office.  (7)  Playground  Supervisor’s  Office.  (8)  Teachers’  Lunch  Room.  III.  Medium-sized 
High  School  or  a Junior  High  School.  (1)  General  Plan.  (2)  General  Office.  (3)  Principal’s  Office.  (4)  Men  Teachers’  Room. 
(5)  Women  Teachers’  Room.  (6)  Girls’  Rest  Room.  IV.  Administrative  Offices  in  a Large  High  School.  (1)  General  Plan. 
(2)  Registrar’s  Office.  (3)  Principal’s  Office.  (4)  Office  of  Dean  of  Girls.  (5)  Office  of  Dean  of  Boys.  (6)  Office  of  Continua- 
tion School  Principal.  (7)  Attendance  Office.  (8)  Offices  for  Heads  of  Departments. 


Administrative  Offices  in  Public  School  Buildings. 

— In  responding  to  the  growing  demands  of  modern 
social  life,  our  schools  have  become  highly  organized 
institutions.  In  the  planning  and  construction  of  large 
up-to-date  school  buildings  we  ought  to  make  a scientific 
study  of  the  size  and  orientation  of  grounds,  of  the  proper 
arrangement  of  classrooms,  offices,  and  other  parts  of 
the  plant.  We  should  be  able  to  assist  the  school  archi- 
tect in  securing  good  lighting,  satisfactory  ventilating 
and  heating  and  proper  sanitary  arrangements.  We 
ought  to  know  the  kind  and  quality  of  equipment  to 
be  installed. 

The  proper  development  of  the  child  is  the  most  im- 
portant thing  in  education.  This  thought  should  be 
the  guiding  principle  for  boards  of  education,  super- 
intendents, principals,  teachers,  and  others  interested 
in  promoting  and  extending  the  ideals  of  American 
education.  A generation  ago  we  limited  our  school 
activities  almost  exclusively  to  academic  studies.  Now 
the  school  has  become  the  center  of  the  child’s  world  ; 
not  merely  an  intellectual  one,  but  a real,  physical, 
and  social  world. 

Our  public  schools  are  co-educational.  Pupils  are 
living  as  truly  in  their  educational  life  at  school  as  they 
ever  will  after  school  days  are  over.  Communities 
spend  thousands  of  dollars  for  a single  school  building. 
We  want  the  best  for  our  children.  However,  one  of 
:he  most  important  features  in  the  planning  of  school 
auildings  seems  almost  wholly  neglected.  That  is  the 
idministrative  quarters.  The  reason  for  this  is  that 
'Chool  administrators  have  failed  to  study  the  problem, 
eaving  it  to  the  architect  to  assign  such  areas  as  would 
>est  fit  into  the  general  plan.  The  result  has  been  poorly 
.rranged  and  inadequate  quarters. 


Many  years’  experience  in  private  and  public  schools 
convinces  the  writer  that  the  enrollment  of  the  school 
and  size  of  plant  are  both  increasing.  In  rural  .com- 
munities, consolidation  of  numerous  small  districts 
into  larger,  more  modern  organizations  is  growing. 
In  cities  we  are  coming  to  look  upon  schools  of  five 
hundred  to  one  thousand  children  as  quite  ordinary. 
In  the  cosmopolitan  centers  there  are  individual  schools 
having  enrollments  varying  from  one  thousand  to  three 
thousand  pupils.  As  our  schools  increase  in  size,  the 
more  complex  become  the  administrative  problems. 
The  larger  school  buildings  indicate  a tendency  toward 
the  centralization  of  the  administrative  offices. 

For  convenience  it  has  seemed  best  to  divide  this 
discussion  into  four  parts  : 

I.  Administrative  offices  in  a small  elementary 
school. 

II.  Administrative  offices  in  a large  elementary 
school. 

III.  Administrative  offices  in  a medium-sized  or 
junior  high  school. 

IV.  Administrative  offices  in  a large  high  school. 

Administrative  Offices  in  a Small  Elementary  School. 

— Assuming  that  the  small  elementary  school  has  an 
enrollment  of  from  one  hundred  and  twenty  to  three 
hundred  children,  and  estimating  an  average  of  thirty 
pupils  per  teacher,  we  shall  have  from  four  teachers  to 
ten  teachers  in  the  school.  The  need  for  careful  plan- 
ning will  obviously  increase  with  the  size  of  the  school. 
A study  of  the  literature  on  school  architecture  shows 
that  much  has  been  written  on  grounds  and  little  on  the 
planning  of  school  buildings. 

The  following  plan  is  suggested  for  small  elementary 
schools.  (See  figure  214.) 


243 


244 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


■ riLOJiT  V I £,¥  • 

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Fig.  213. 

1.  Principal’s  office. 

2.  Teachers’  room. 

3.  Janitor’s  office. 

4.  Office  for  the  playground  supervisor. 

The  Principal's  Office . - In  most  public  school  build- 
ings the  principal’s  office  is  located  on  the  first  floor 
near  the  main  entrance.  Unfortunately  for  adminis- 


tration, it  is  most  frequently  located  facing  the  street 
and  not  the  playground.  It  should  be  well  lighted 
and  large  enough  to  carry  on  the  work  of  administration 
without  crowding.  Since  necessity  often  requires  the 
principal  to  work  in  her  office  after  full  hours  and  on 
days  when  school  is  not  in  session,  there  should  be  some 
means  of  heating  the  office  independently  of  the  general 
plant.  The  floor  of  the  office  and  all  other  administra- 
tive offices  should  be  covered  with  battleship  linoleum. 
A good  Wilton  rug  will  add  to  the  comfort  and  attrac- 
tiveness of  the  room.  A fine  quality  of  scrim  curtains 
may  be  hung  at  the  windows. 

The  interior  finish  should  be  quarter-sawed,  antique 
oak.  The  furniture  should  be  of  the  same  kind  and 
finish  as  the  interior.  Since  the  needs  of  the  school  are 
constantly  changing,  portable  filing  cabinets  and  sec- 
tional bookcases  are  desirable.  These  are  well  made 
and  being  constructed  in  units  can  be  increased  or  de- 
creased according  to  demand.  A teachers’  exchange 
cabinet,  containing  compartments  for  all  the  teachers, 
the  janitor  and  supervisor,  should  be  attached  to  the 
wall  near  the  entrance  to  the  office.  At  the  bottom  of 
the  cabinet  there  should  be  an  extra  long  division  for 
large  books,  maps,  etc.  (For  dimensions  of  the  cabinet, 
see  figure  213.) 


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THE  ADMINISTRATIVE  OFFICES  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


245 


If  there  is  sufficient  wall  space  on  either  side  of  the 
exchange  cabinet,  one  or  more  bulletin  boards  should 
be  installed.  A bulletin  board  should  be  at  least  two 
feet  by  four  feet  in  size.  It  should  be  faced  with  a 
layer  of  cork.  A beveled  edge,  plate  glass  top  for  the 
desk  will  prove  a great  convenience,  for  under  it  school 
and  health  regulations,  telephone  numbers,  programs 
and  other  items  of  information  most  frequently  used 
can  be  neatly  and  carefully  kept.  A few  good  pictures 
should  be  selected  for  the  walls  of  the  room. 

A door  opening  from  the  principal’s  office  into  a class- 
room is  an  advantage,  for  it  provides  a means  to  keep 
some  one  in  touch  with  the  telephone  and  office  when 
the  principal  is  engaged  in  supervision  elsewhere.  Ad- 
jacent to  the  office  there  should  be  a conference  and  sup- 
ply room.  It  should  be  fitted  with  ample  cabinets  for 
keeping  books  and  supplies  that  are  needed  frequently. 
It  is  a good  plan  to  have  cabinets  closed  with  glass  doors 
that  can  be  locked.  The  conference  room  should  have  a 
door  opening  into  the  corridor.  This  would  afford 
easy  access  for  the  janitor  to  deliver  supplies,  and  it 
would  serve  also  as  an  exit  for  callers. 

The  school  telephone  exchange,  master  clock,  and 
public  telephone  are  invariably  placed  in  the  principal’s 
office.  Provision  should  be  made  for  a lavatory  and 
toilet  directly  off  the  office. 

The  principal’s  room  should  be  made  as  attractive 
as  possible,  not  merely  for  the  satisfaction  of  the  prin- 
cipal herself,  but  for  the  wholesome  effect  it  will  have  on 
teachers,  pupils,  and  patrons. 

The  Teachers'  Room.  — Every  school  building  should 
provide  convenient  quarters  for  the  teachers  when  they 
are  not  on  duty.  The  size  of  the  room  will  depend 
upon  the  number  of  teachers  employed  in  the  school 
building.  The  interior  finish,  curtains,  kind  and  quality 
of  furniture  should  correspond  to  that  of  the  principal’s 
office.  The  room  might  serve  as  a rest  room  and  din- 
ing-room combined.  It  ought  to  be  furnished  with  a 
couch,  pillows  and  blankets,  and  a “ first-aid  ” outfit. 

Adjacent  to  the  teachers’  room  there  should  be  a set 
of  toilets  and  a lavatory.  Opening  into  the  room  there 
should  be  a small  kitchen  equipped  with  a gas  stove, 
sink,  china  closet,  and  such  cooking  utensils  as  are  neces- 
sary for  preparing  simple  meals.  There  should  be  an 
exit  from  the  kitchen  direct  to  the  corridor.  In  some 
schools  full-sized  steel  lockers  are  placed  in  or  near  the 
teachers’  room  for  use  of  the  teachers. 

The  Janitor's  Quarters.  — A casual  examination  of  the 
plans  of  scores  of  the  best,  up-to-date  school  build- 
ings discloses  the  fact  that  almost  always  the  jani- 
tor’s quarters  are  located  in  the  basement  of  the  build- 
ing. Frequently  they  are  put  in  a dark,  poorly  venti- 
lated place  near  the  furnace.  If  the  janitor  has  an 


office,  it  is  often  a portion  of  the  furnace  room.  Such 
conditions  should  no  longer  obtain.  The  janitor  ought 
to  have  a comfortable  office,  well  lighted,  properly 
ventilated  and  heated.  It  should  be  equipped  with  a 
washstand  having  both  hot  and  cold  water  connec- 
tions. In  addition  there  should  be  a full-sized  steel 
locker.  If  possible,  the  office  should  face  the  school 
playground. 

In  the  primary  school  the  janitor  is  usually  the  only 
male  employee.  His  influence  among  the  boys  often 
counts  for  more  than  that  of  the  teacher.  If  he  is  kind 
and  sympathetic,  he  may  also  claim  the  friendship  of 
the  girls.  The  wise  and  loyal  janitor  can  easily  pre- 
vent many  cases  of  petty  discipline  from  reaching  the 
principal. 

Adjacent  to  or  near  the  janitor’s  office,  there  should  be 
a storage  and  work  room.  Tools  and  school  supplies 
needed  only  occasionally  may  be  kept  there.  A good 
work  bench  should  be  provided  for  the  room. 

An  Office  for  the  Playground  Supervisor . — Many 
cities  have  established  municipal  playgrounds  in  con- 
nection with  the  schools.  These  playgrounds  are  open 
after  school  hours  until  five  p.m.  or  later,  according 
to  the  season  of  the  year.  They  are  in  charge  of  a 
playground  supervisor,  who  may  be  a teacher  in  the  school 
or  a regular  municipal  playground  employee.  If  a school 
is  planned  for  after  school  activities,  it  is  desirable  to 
have  an  office  for  the  supervisor. 

The  office  should  be  located  in  the  basement,  facing 
the  playground.  The  interior  and  furniture  should  be 
similar  to  that  of  the  janitor’s  office.  Since  the  play- 
ground supervisor  needs  to  have  easy  communication 
with  school  officials  and  homes,  the  office  should  be 
connected  with  an  outside  telephone. 

It  should  be  furnished  with  a desk  and  chairs  and  a 
cabinet  for  keeping  supplies  such  as  balls,  bats,  nets, 
and  mits.  In  short,  the  playground  supervisor’s  office 
ought  to  be  so  well  furnished  that  it  would  be  unneces- 
sary to  use  any  part  of  the  regular  school  equipment. 

A portion  of  the  office  should  be  set  apart  as  a dress- 
ing room.  It  should  be  equipped  with  a washstand 
fitted  for  both  hot  and  cold  water,  full-sized  steel  lockers 
for  keeping  clothing  and  other  valuables,  and  with  a 
couch,  pillows  and  blankets,  and  a “first-aid  ” outfit. 

Administrative  Offices  in  a Large  Elementary  School. 
— Practice  seems  to  favor  the  centralizing  of  admin- 
istrative offices  in  large  schools.  In  many  cities,  school 
buildings  are  constructed  on  the  unit  plan,  thus  provid- 
ing an  easy  and  satisfactory  means  for  enlarging  the 
plant,  but  it  is  usually  quite  difficult  to  increase  the 
number  and  size  of  the  administrative  offices,  hence  it 
is  desirable  to  plan  them  in  the  beginning  for  the  maxi- 
mum capacity  of  the  school. 


246 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Assuming  that  the  large  elementary  school  will  have 
an  enrollment  of  from  three  hundred  to  fifteen  hundred 
pupils  and  estimating  an  average  of  thirty  pupils  to  a 
teacher,  we  shall  have  from  ten  to  fifty  teachers  in  the 
school.  The  need  for  ample  quarters,  therefore,  is 
obvious.  The  real  problem  is  to  determine  definitely 
what  rooms  should  be  included  in  the  administrative 
suite.  For  our  discussion  let  us  include  most  of  those 
quarters  which  are  not  directly  under  the  supervision 
of  the  class  teachers.  We  shall  then  have  the  following. 


planned  large  school  buildings  we  find  an  outer  wait- 
ing room.  The  entrance  to  it  is  usually  from  the  vesti- 
bule or  the  main  corridor.  It  is  a great  convenience 
to  have  an  outer  waiting  room  where  the  teachers  may 
register  their  time  on  arriving  at  school  in  the  morning 
and  leaving  again  in  the  afternoon.  Figure  215  shows 
a division  between  the  public  waiting  room  or  lobby 
and  the  secretary’s  office.  The  two  divisions  of  this 
office  may  well  be  separated  by  means  of  a large,  wide 
counter,  at  one  end  of  which  is  a gate  providing  an 


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General  Plan.  (See  figure  215.) 

1.  A principal’s  office.  (See  figure  216.) 

2.  A teachers’  rest  room. 

3.  A girls’  rest  room. 

4.  A library. 

5.  A janitor’s  office. 

6.  An  office  for  the  playground  supervisor. 

7.  A teachers’  lunch  room. 

The  Principal's  Office.  — In  the  large  elementary 
school  the  principal’s  office  should  be  spacious  enough 
to  accommodate  several  persons  at  the  same  time. 
Frequently  the  principal  wishes  to  call  meetings  of  va- 
rious groups  of  pupils  or  teachers  or  both  ; these  can  be 
held  in  the  principal’s  office  better  than  elsewhere,  if 
there  is  ample  room. 

The  fixtures,  floor  covering,  filing  cabinets,  and  book- 
cases should  be  of  the  same  kind  and  quality  as  those 
n the  small  elementary  school.  In  any  of  the  best- 


entrance  to  the  secretary’s  desk.  The  inside  of  the 
counter  should  be  fitted  with  shelves  and  pigeonholes 
for  keeping  blank  forms  and  office  supplies.  There 
should  be  an  easy  entrance  from  the  secretary’s  office 
to  the  principal’s. 

This  plan  shows  both  lavatory  and  toilet  directly  in 
the  rear  of  the  principal’s  private  office.  An  exit  from 
the  latter  office  is  desirable.  It  is  often  embarrassing 
to  dismiss  parents  or  teachers  into  the  public  waiting 
room. 

The  Teachers'  Rest  Room.  — In  order  that  the  prin- 
cipal may  have  an  easy  means  of  supervising  the 
teachers’  room,  it  seems  advisable  to  have  it  located 
near  the  main  office.  General  practice  indicates  this, 
although  in  some  well-arranged  buildings  the  teachers 
rest  room  is  located  on  the  second  floor  rather  than 
opposite  the  principal’s  office  on  the  first  floor.  The 
location  of  the  room  will  be  determined  by  the  con- 


THE  ADMINISTRATIVE  OFFICES  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


247 


0 Mr.  John  J.  Donovan,  Architect. 

Fig.  216.  — Principal  s Office,  Clawson  School,  Oakland,  California. 


venience  it  offers  the  teachers.  Figure  215  shows  a 
rest  room  opening  from  the  main  entrance  and  having 
.an  exit  to  the  main  corridor  as  well  as  to  the  girls’  rest 
room.  The  teachers’  rest  room  should  be  fitted  with 
suitable  chairs,  couches,  blankets,  pillows,  and  other 
comforts.  Adjacent  to  the  room  or  opening  into  it  there 
should  be  a locker  room,  a set  of  toilets,  and  a lavatory. 

The  Girls'  Rest  Room.  — The  girls’  rest  room  should 
be  provided  with  toilets,  a lavatory,  and  a supply 
room.  The  rest  room  should  be  furnished  with  a table 
and  chairs,  couches,  pillows  and  blankets,  and  a “ first 
aid  ” outfit.  For  convenience  there  ought  to  be  an 
exit  to  the  main  corridor.  One  of  the  main  reasons 
for  placing  the  girls’  rest  room  adjacent  to  the  teachers’ 
is  that  the  teachers  should  have  pretty  close  super- 
vision over  the  girls  wherever  they  happen  to  be. 

The  Library.  — The  up-to-date,  large  elementary  school 
should  have  a room  set  apart  for  a library.  It  should 
be  fitted  with  bookcases  or  cabinets  covered  with  glass 
doors.  The  size  of  the  room  and  the  capacity  of  the 
cases  will  depend  largely  upon  the  size  and  character  of 


the  school.  If  it  has  free  text  books  there  should  be 
ample  storage  for  all  incoming  books  and  other  supplies 
frequently  used.  Figure  215  shows  entrances  to  the 
library  both  from  the  principal’s  office  and  from  the 
main  corridor. 

The  Janitor's  Office.  — The  usual  practice  provided  an 
office  for  the  janitor  in  the  basement  of  the  building. 
If  possible  it  should  be  so  located  that  there  will  be 
easy  access  to  the  furnace  room,  to  the  playground,  and 
to  the  boys’  toilets.  The  office  should  be  placed  so  it 
will  have  an  abundance  of  light  and  good  ventilation. 
It  should  be  equipped  with  proper  furniture  and  a 
locker  for  clothing  and  other  valuables.  It  should 
have  a washstand  fitted  with  hot  and  cold  water.  If 
possible,  adjacent  to  the  janitor’s  office  there  should 
be  a work  room  fitted  with  a good  work  bench  and  ade- 
quate tools  for  doing  repair  work.  In  many  schools 
the  janitor  is  the  only  person  who  can  attend  to  small 
repairs  when  they  are  most  needed.  If  the  school  has  a 
garden,  it  would  be  well  to  provide  the  janitor  with 
garden  tools. 


248 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


An  Office  for  the  Playground  Supervisor.  — If  the 
school  has  a playground,  a good  office  should  be  pro- 
vided for  its  supervisor.  Almost  none  of  the  plans 
of  elementary  schools  show  any  provision  for  this  ac- 
tivity, although  many  cities  have  established  play- 
grounds in  connection  with  the  larger  elementary  schools. 
The  playground  office  should  be  well  lighted  and  heated. 
It  should  have  linoleum  floor  covering,  with  perhaps 
one  or  two  small  mats.  The  office  should  have  a table 
and  chairs  and  a cabinet  for  keeping  playground  sup- 
plies. Generally  the  playground  work  is  in  charge  of 
one  of  the  women  teachers.  It  is  quite  desirable  that  she 
should  have  a place  to  dress  and  to  keep  her  personal 
effects  when  she  is  attired  in  playground  costume.  A 
small  dressing  room  containing  a couch,  blankets,  “ first 
aid  ” outfit,  a washstand  and  locker  would  prove  a great 
convenience. 

The  Teachers'  Lunch  Room.  — Since  the  teachers’ 
lunch  room  forms  a daily  meeting  place  for  teachers 
and  principal,  it  seems  best  to  include  it  in  the  adminis- 
trative offices.  Some  modern  school  buildings  have 
provided  lunch  room  and  kitchen  facilities  solely  for 
the  use  of  the  teachers,  though  in  many  schools  the 
domestic  science  equipment  is  used  by  the  teachers 
for  preparing  light  lunches.  The  best  plan,  however, 
seems  to  require  separate  accommodations  for  teachers 
and  pupils.  The  location  of  the  lunch  room  should 
naturally  be  determined  by  the  character  of  the  build- 
ing. If  there  is  a high,  well  ventilated  basement,  and 
room  can  be  found  to  locate  the  teachers’  lunch  room 
and  kitchen  on  the  sunny  side  of  the  building,  there  is 
no  objection  to  having  it  placed  in  the  basement.  The 
lunch  room  should  be  large  enough  to  accommodate 
all  the  teachers  and  one  or  two  occasional  visitors. 
There  should  be  plenty  of  chairs  and  a good  table. 
The  lunch  room  should  be  as  cozy  and  homelike  as  pos- 
sible. Immediately  off  from  the  lunch  room  there 
should  be  a kitchen  fitted  with  a gas  range,  china  closet, 
sink,  and  such  utensils  as  may  be  regulated  for  prepar- 
ing simple  lunches. 

Administrative  Offices  in  a Medium-Sized  High 
School  or  in  a Junior  High  School.  — In  the  past,  the 
planning  of  administrative  quarters  in  the  medium- 
sized academic  high  school  received  more  attention  than 
those  of  other  school  buildings.  An  explanation  for 
this  condition  may  be  easily  found.  For  many  years 
the  city  high  school  was  a medium-sized  organization. 
It  was  the  pride  of  the  city.  High  school  principals 
and  high  school  teachers  learned  the  administrative 
needs  of  the  school  by  years  of  experience.  Further- 
more, the  high  school  faculty  was  composed  of  a com- 
paratively small  group  of  men  and  women.  They 
were  well  acquainted  with  each  other.  They  were 


known  by  their  pupils.  The  principal  could  issue 
orders  by  “ word  of  mouth,”  and  he  could  personally 
supervise  the  work  of  each  teacher  and  of  every  class. 

All  these  conditions  obtained  in  the  older  academic 
type  of  school.  But  with  the  expansion  of  our  high 
school  curriculum  and  the  inclusion  of  many  formerly 
so-called  extra-curricular  studies,  we  are  forced  to  pay 
more  attention  to  the  planning  of  the  school  and  the 
administrative  offices. 

Figure  217  embodies  some  of  the  best  ideas  for  the 
medium-sized  high  school. 

General  Plan. 

1.  A general  office. 

2.  A principal’s  office. 

3.  A room  for  men  teachers. 

4.  A room  for  women  teachers. 

5.  A girls’  rest  room. 

The  General  Office.  — In  the  medium-sized  high  school 
we  frequently  find  that  there  is  an  outer  office  or 
waiting  room  adjacent  to  the  principal’s  office.  This 
seems  to  be  a desirable  plan,  for  many  of  the  questions 
that  come  to  the  principal’s  office  can  be  answered 
without  interrupting  the  constructive  work  of  the  prin- 
cipal. Figure  217  shows  a large  general  office  near  the 
main  entrance.  Entering  the  general  office  is  a wait- 
ing room  or  public  space.  It  is  separated  from  the 
general  office  by  a large,  high  counter  at  one  end  of 
which  is  a gate.  The  rear  of  the  counter  should  be 
fitted  with  pigeonholes  and  shelves  for  keeping  office 
appliances,  blanks,  stationery,  and  other  equipment. 
On  top  of  the  counter  under  a heavy  glass  plate  there 
may  be  kept  the  school  program  and  such  other  fre- 
quently used  bulletins  of  information.  The  waiting 
room  has  a door  to  the  main  corridor  and  one  to  the 
main  entrance.  The  general  office  should  be  equipped 
with  the  usual  filing  cabinets,  bookcases,  desks,  and 
chairs.  The  public  telephone,  the  master  clock,  and 
the  school  telephone  exchange  should  be  installed  in 
the  general  office.  Opening  into  the  office  is  a door  to 
the  vault  and  record  room.  At  one  side  of  the  office 
is  a door  to  the  principal’s  office. 

The  Principal's  Office.  — The  principal’s  office  is  lo- 
cated between  the  general  office  and  the  men  teachers 
room.  There  is  a passage  to  both  the  general  office  and 
the  men  teachers’  room  from  the  principal’s  office,  also 
an  entrance  from  the  main  corridor  to  the  principal ; 
office.  There  is  a lavatory  and  toilet  opening  off  the 
principal’s  office,  also  a small  cloak  room.  The  furni- 
ture and  equipment  of  the  principal’s  office  will  be  ol 
good  quality,  quarter-sawed  antique  oak.  The  flooi 
should  be  covered  with  plain,  battleship  linoleum.  I' 
will  add  to  the  attractiveness  greatly,  if  it  is  covered 
with  a good  Wilton  rug. 


THE  ADMINISTRATIVE  OFFICES  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


249 


The  Men  Teachers'  Room.  — The  men  teachers’  room 
should  be  furnished  with  a table  and  chairs  and  pro- 
vided with  enough  steel  lockers  so  that  each  teacher 
would  have  a full-sized  locker.  Opening  off  from  the 
room  should  be  a toilet  and  lavatory. 

The  Women  Teachers'  Room.  — Across  the  lobby  from 
the  general  office  should  be  the  women  teachers’  room. 
The  floor  should  be  covered  with  a good  quality  of 
linoleum.  It  should  be  furnished  with  chairs,  a table, 
and  a couch.  On  one  side  of  the  room  there  should  be  a 
number  of  steel  lockers,  at  least  one  for  each  teacher. 


with  numerous  closets,  vaults,  and  storerooms.  Gen- 
erally there  is  an  outer  office  or  reception  room,  an 
office  for  a secretary  or  stenographer,  and  the  prin- 
cipal’s office.  In  many  cases  there  is  no  direct  passage 
from  one  office  to  the  other.  For  economy  of  time  and 
convenience  there  should  be. 

The  writer  can  surmise  two  good  reasons  for  the  ap- 
parent lack  of  good  planning  in  the  administrative  offices 
of  large  high  schools.  First,  the  large,  new  school  is  the 
outgrowth  of  an  older  and  smaller  school.  The  prin- 
cipal and  faculty  move  from  the  old  plant  into  the  new. 


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TUN  or  TLINCIPACS  & TEACHUS  SUITE  rQH  A MEDIUM  51ZID  HIGH  SCHOOL" 

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Fig.  217. 


The  furnishings  for  this  room  should  be  left  to  the  judg- 
nent  of  the  women  teachers.  It  should  be  made  as 
:ozy  and  comfortable  as  possible.  Opening  off  the  room 
here  should  be  a set  of  toilets  and  lavatories.  At  one 
ide  of  the  room  there  is  a door  into  the  girls’  rest  room. 

The  Girls'  Rest  Room.  — The  girls’  rest  room  should  be 
urnished  with  chairs,  couches,  blankets,  pillows,  and  a 
first-aid  ” outfit.  In  order  to  give  as  much  privacy  as 
■ossible  it  is  desirable  to  have  a screen  between  the 
ntrance  to  the  room  and  the  main  part  of  it. 
Administrative  Offices  in  a Large  High  School.  — A 
:udy  of  the  plans  of  many  large  high  school  buildings 
f recent  construction  shows  that  there  has  been  little 
ttempt  to  centralize  the  administrative  quarters, 
he  usual  plan  indicates  a suite  of  offices  located  on  the 
jest  floor  near  the  main  entrance  to  the  building.  The 
lite  consists  of  three  or  four  adjacent  offices,  together 


In  planning  his  quarters  the  principal  thinks  of  the  old 
accommodations  rather  than  of  the  needs  of  the  new. 
Second,  it  is  hard  to  convince  many  school  boards  of  the 
necessity  of  having  a group  of  complete,  contiguous  ad- 
ministrative offices.  Board  members,  too,  are  accus- 
tomed to  think  largely  in  terms  of  the  small  school. 
Sooner  or  later  the  principal  finds  his  administrative 
problems  growing  both  in  number  and  complexity. 
He  learns  that  he  must  have  more  assistants  and  that 
they  must  have  suitable  offices.  Frequently  these  offices 
are  located  in  widely  separated  parts  of  the  building. 

For  illustration  let  us  take  the  Technical  High  School 
of  Oakland,  California.  It  grew  out  of  the  old  Manual 
Training  and  Commercial  High  School,  which  had  a 
normal  enrollment  of  about  six  hundred  pupils.  When 
the  faculty  and  pupils  moved  into  the  new  plant  the 
enrollment  was  slightly  greater  than  twelve  hundred. 


2 50 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Within  less  than  four  years  the  new  high  school 
has  reached  an  enrollment  of  over  two  thousand. 
In  addition  to  this,  during  the  past  two  years 
a continuation  school1  of  more  than  two  thou- 
sand adults  has  developed.  Thus  within  a period 
of  five  years  the  school  has  grown  in  daily  at- 
tendance from  an  enrollment  of  about  six  hun- 
dred to  over  four  thousand  pupils. 

When  the  Technical  High  School  opened  its 
doors  in  Jan.,  1915,  the  administrative  offices 
consisted  of  a waiting  room,  a secretary’s  office, 
a supply  room,  a bath  room,  a toilet  and  lava- 
tory, and  the  principal’s  office.  That  the  offices 
were  inadequate  was  evidenced  by  the  fact  that 
the  two  vice  principals  immediately  sought 
offices  outside  of  the  administrative  suite. 
These  offices  are  far  removed  from  the  principal’s 
and  from  each  other.  Much  time  is  lost  in 
walking  back  and  forth  for  conferences,  inter- 
views, and  the  transaction  of  the  usual  school 
business. 

The  development  of  the  continuation  school 
required  another  suite  of  offices.  These  have 
been  taken  from  space  originally  planned  for 
the  commercial  department.  They,  too,  are  far 
removed  from  the  other  administrative  offices. 

The  need  for  a centralization  of  administra- 
tive offices  in  the  large  high  school  has  convinced 
the  writer  that  the  study  of  the  problem  is 
well  worth  while.  No  fixed  plan  will  be  suitable 
for  all  buildings.  Every  building  presents  its 
own  special  problems.  We  should  not  blame 
the  school  architect  for  all  the  mistakes  that 
have  been  made  in  the  plans  of  our  school 
buildings.  The  writer  knows  several  buildings 
in  which  mistakes  have  been  forced  upon  the 
architect  against  his  own  best  judgment. 

After  reviewing  the  plans  of  many  modern 
high  school  buildings,  we  submit  the  following 
suggestive  one. 

General  Plan.  — (See  figure  218.) 

1.  Registrar’s  office. 

2.  Office  for  the  principal  of  the  day  school. 

3.  Office  for  the  dean  of  girls. 

4.  Office  for  the  dean  of  boys. 


1 During  the  fall  term,  1918,  the  enrollment  of 
the  continuation  school  was  as  follows  : afternoon 
session  (2  : 15  to  4 : 40)  965  ; evening  session  (7:15 
to  9 : 30)  3610;  total  enrollment,  4575-  Of  this 
number  many  attended  only  two  or  three  sessions 
a week,  thus  giving  a daily  attendance  of  about 
2000  for  the  continuation  school.  This  was  ex- 
clusive of  the  regular  day  school  attendance, 
which  was  over  2000. 


THE  ADMINISTRATIVE  OFFICES  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


251 


5.  Office  for  the  principal  of  the  continuation  school. 

6.  Attendance  office. 

7.  Offices  for  heads  of  departments. 

Registrar's  Office.  — The  registrar’s  office  should  be 
on  the  first  floor  near  the  main  entrance  of  the  high 
school  building.  It  should  be  a large,  well-lighted, 
well-ventilated  office.  It  should  be  separated  from  the 
public  space  by  a high,  wide  counter.  The  rear  of  the 
counter  should  be  fitted  with  cabinets  for  keeping  blanks, 
office  appliances,  and  supplies.  On  top  of  the  counter,  at 
either  end,  there  should  be  a plate  glass  cover  under 
which  could  be  found  the  programs  of  the  day  and  of 
the  continuation  school,  also  plans  of  the  building  and 
such  other  information  as  is  most  frequently  needed. 

At  one  end  of  the  office  there  should  be  a vault  for 
keeping  money,  permanent  school  records,  and  other  valu- 
ables. The  office  should  be  equipped  with  substantial 
desks,  chairs,  and  filing  cases,  preferably  of  quarter-sawed, 
antique  oak.  Here,  also,  should  be  installed  the  master 
clock,  public  telephone,  and  electric  buzzers. 

In  the  space  reserved  for  the  public  outside  of  the 
registrar’s  office,  there  should  be  two  public  telephone 
booths.  These  should  contain  local  and  long  distance 
pay  telephones  available  for  pupils  and  patrons.  On 
the  other  side  of  the  public  space  a time  recorder  should 
be  installed  for  the  use  of  the  day  and  continuation 
school  teachers  and  employees.  Individual  cards 
should  be  placed  in  a cabinet  so  that  at  any  time,  day  or 
evening,  the  registrar  could  see  at  a glance  whether 
teachers  have  reported  in  or  out. 

At  the  right  of  the  public  space  is  a door  opening  into  a 
waiting  room  off  the  continuation  school  principal’s 
office.  This  door  is  under  the  control  of  the  secretary 
of  the  continuation  school.  Immediately  to  the  right 
of  the  registrar’s  office  is  a private  entrance  to  the  con- 
tinuation school  principal’s  office.  There  is,  also,  an  exit 
from  the  continuation  school  office  to  the  main  entrance. 

Principal's  Office.- — Experience  has  shown  that  in  a 
large,  growing  high  school  the  main  corridor  on  the 
first  floor  is  nearly  always  crowded  when  classes  are  pass- 
ing. School  officials,  parents,  and  visitors  find  it  very 
difficult  to  go  from  one  part  of  the  building  to  another 
at  such  times.  In  order  to  obviate  this  difficulty  we  have 
planned  an  inner  passage  connecting  the  offices  of  the 
registrar,  dean  of  boys,  principal’s  secretary,  principal, 
ind  dean  of  girls.  To  the  left  of  the  principal’s  office 
s a small  consulting  room.  Just  off  from  the  consult- 
ing room  is  the  office  of  the  dean  of  girls.  To  the  right 
)f  the  principal’s  office  is  the  office  of  the  secretary. 
The  plan  shows  an  outer  waiting  room  to  the  secretary’s 
>ffice.  The  two  are  separated  by  a high,  wide  counter, 
lit  one  end  of  which  is  a gate.  The  inside  of  the  counter 
5 fitted  with  ample  shelves  and  cabinets  for  keeping 


stationery  and  school  supplies.  At  one  end  the  top 
of  the  counter  is  covered  with  heavy  plate  glass.  Under 
this  may  be  kept  the  daily  program  of  the  school.  The 
secretary  controls  the  entrance  to  the  principal’s  office 
on  one  side  and  to  the  dean  of  the  boys  on  the  other. 

Office  of  the  Dean  of  Girls.  ■ — The  dean  of  girls  has 
access  to  the  consulting  room  opening  at  the  right 
between  her  office  and  the  principal’s.  On  the  left 
there  is  an  entrance  to  the  girls’  rest  room.  It  is  ad- 
visable that  the  dean  of  girls  should  keep  in  touch  with 
the  girls’  rest  room.  The  latter  place  is  sometimes  abused 
by  lazy  or  shiftless  pupils,  and  it  is  highly  desirable 
that  the  use  of  the  room  be  restricted  to  those  girls  who 
are  assigned  by  the  dean. 

Office  of  the  Dean  of  Boys.  — This  office  is  located 
between  the  offices  of  the  registrar  and  secretary.  It 
is  easy  to  pass  through  the  waiting  room  of  the  secre- 
tary’s office  to  the  principal’s  office  or  to  the  registrar’s 
immediately  adjacent.  The  whole  plan  shows  a fairly 
complete  centralization  of  the  administrative  quarters. 
While  the  plan  may  seem  elaborate,  it  really  requires 
no  more  space  than  is  usually  found  in  widely  separated 
quarters. 

5.  Office  of  the  Continuation  Principal.  — - The  con- 
tinuation school  principal  usually  finds  himself  an  un- 
welcome guest.  In  some  schools  his  office  is  in  a corner 
of  the  day  school  principal’s  office.  This  arrangement 
is  neither  satisfactory  nor  convenient.  Furthermore,  if 
the  continuation  school  is  to  be  conducted  in  the  after- 
noon as  well  as  in  the  evening,  the  continuation  school 
principal  should  have  his  own  quarters.  The  plan 
herewith  presented  (figure  218)  provided  such  accommo- 
dations. It  will  be  noted  that  the  registrar’s  office  is 
comparatively  large.  It  was  made  so  to  accommodate 
the  crowding  which  always  occurs  at  the  organization 
of  the  school  term.  By  having  one  registrar’s  office 
for  both  day  and  continuation  school  there  is  a cen- 
tralizing of  information,  of  reports,  and  of  records. 
Besides  there  is  ample  room  for  both  day  and  continua- 
tion pupils.  The  office  of  the  continuation  school  prin- 
cipal should  be  equipped  with  convenient  filing  cabi- 
nets and  office  appliances. 

Adjoining  the  continuation  school  principal’s  office 
is  a waiting  room  which  may  be  used  by  prospective 
students  and  continuation  school  teachers. 

6.  An  Attendance  Office.  — One  of  the  big  problems 
in  a large  high  school  is  that  of  attendance.  In  some 
schools  the  attendance  is  handled  by  the  dean  of  girls 
and  dean  of  boys  respectively.  There  are  good  reasons 
for  having  the  attendance  under  the  immediate  super- 
vision of  these  two  administrative  offices,  but  in  the 
largest  schools  it  would  seem  advisable  to  have  a sepa- 
rate office  for  checking  the  attendance. 


252 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


In  the  opinion  of  the  writer  the  attendance  office 
should  be  near  the  administrative  quarters,  located  on 
the  first  floor  not  far  removed  from  the  locker  rooms. 
One  office  properly  equipped  and  furnished  would  be 
adequate  for  taking  charge  of  the  entire  attendance 
problem.  The  usual  filing  devices  and  office  fixtures 
should  be  installed. 

7.  Offices  for  Heads  of  Departments.  — A study 
of  the  plans  for  large  high  school  buildings  does  not 
always  indicate  the  offices  that  are  available  for  heads 
of  departments  and  conference  committees.  The  ex- 
perience of  school  men  has  been  that  there  are  too  few 


offices  in  the  large  high  school.  There  ought  to  be  at 
least  one  office  for  each  five  teachers.  Since  the  large 
high  school  is  coming  to  have  continuous  sessions,  it  is 
important  that  teachers  have  quarters  where  they  may 
retire  to  plan  their  work  and  have  conferences  with  each 
other,  with  parents,  and  with  pupils.  Not  only  should 
the  heads  of  departments  have  good,  well  equipped 
offices,  but  there  should  be  enough  other  offices  for  the 
different  groups  of  teachers. 

Experience  has  shown  that  the  offices  should  never 
be  placed  inside  of  classrooms,  but  should  have  an 
entrance  directly  from  the  corridor. 


CHAPTER  XII 


THE  CLASSROOM 

By  John  J.  Donovan,  Architect,  A.I.A. 

I.  General  Remarks.  II.  Size  of  Elementary  Classrooms,  (r)  Width  of  Aisles.  (2)  Length  and  Width  of  Classrooms.  (3)  Floor 
Areas.  (4)  Chicago  Board  of  Education  Plan.  (5)  New  York  Board  of  Education  Plan.  III.  Age  of  Pupils.  IV.  Size  of 
Classroom  Furniture.  V.  Size  of  High  School  Classrooms.  (1)  Boston  High  School  Classrooms.  (2)  Ceiling  Heights.  (3)  Further 
Study  of  the  Plan.  VI.  Natural  Lighting  of  Classrooms.  (1)  Overhead  Lighting.  (2)  Glass  Area.  (3 ) Height  of  Window  Stools. 
VII.  Wardrobes.  VIII.  Blackboards.  (1)  Stock  Sizes  of  Slate.  (2)  Heights  of  Chalk-Rails.  (3)  Tacking  Strips.  (4)  Reach  of 
Pupils.  IX.  General  Notes.  (1)  Floors.  (2)  Trim.  (3)  Doors.  (4)  Transoms.  (5)  Plaster.  (6)  Canvas.  (7)  Painting. 
X.  Floor  Treatment.  (1)  Floor  Oiling.  (2)  Floor  Dressings.  (3)  Linoleum.  (4)  Linseed  Oil  and  Turpentine.  XI.  Location  of 
Air  Registers.  XH.  Windows.  (1)  Shades.  (2)  Venetian  Blinds. 


That  the  classroom  is  the  fundamental  unit  of  the 
school  organization  is  a truth  that  will  bear  constant 
repetition.  And  it  is  because  of  this  vital  fact  that 
definite  and  detailed  information  in  text  and  drawings 
should  fully  cover  the  latitude  permissible  in  planning 
the  classroom.  In  examining  the  plans  herein  presented, 
it  will  become  obvious  that,  before  establishing  the 
size  of  the  room,  it  is  necessary  to  know  the  grade  and 
maximum  number  of  pupils  that  will  occupy  the  room, 
and  the  type  and  size  of  the  furniture.  There  are  other 
questions  which  call  for  careful  consideration  and  clear 
judgment,  and  in  any  discussion  they  are  well  worth 
attention  before  settling  down  to  the  final  composition 
of  the  plan  of  the  whole,  which  necessarily  will  include 
other  units  besides  classrooms.  Consequently,  this 
chapter  will  treat  on  the  subjects  which  pertain  not 
only  to  the  design,  but  also  the  general  appointments 
and  the  hygiene  of  the  room,  such  as  the  lighting,  black- 
boards, floors,  painting,  etc.,  etc. 

Size  of  Elementary  Classrooms.  — The  width  of  the 
classroom  is  a very  important  factor  in  the  plan  of  the 
school.  Generally  the  number  of  rows  of  seats  across 
the  room  is  not  less  than  five.  But  there  are  times 
when  it  is  advantageous  for  other  rooms,  such  as  labora- 
tories, that  the  classroom  should  have  a width  adequate 
for  six  rows.  In  a high  school  the  wider  room  gives  a 
more  flexible  arrangement  for  equipment  in  rooms 
above  and  below  the  classroom,  or  on  the  same  side  of  the 
corridor.  Many  favor  the  wider  classroom  as  the  length 
of  the  room  is  thereby  shortened,  and  it  is  easier  for  both 
teacher  and  pupils  to  hear  and  talk,  and  there  is  less  eye 
strain  to  pupils  occupying  rear  seats  in  reading  matter 
on  the  front  blackboard.  On  the  other  hand,  the 


narrower  room  requires  smaller  structural  spans  and 
consequently  is  of  less  expensive  construction.  The 
ceiling  heights  also  may  be  less  for  the  narrower  room. 
The  length  of  the  building,  however,  is  reduced  by  the 
use  of  the  wider  classroom,  provided  of  course  the  same 
number  of  pupils  occupy  the  rooms  of  the  five  and  the 
six  rows. 

Width  of  Aisles.  — After  determining  upon  the  num 
ber  of  pupils  and  the  size  of  the  furniture,  the  width 
of  the  side,  rear  and  inner  aisles  should  be  next  con- 
sidered. From  the  Boston  data  (figs.  225,  226,  227,  228, 
and  229)  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  window  aisle  is  24" 
wide  for  all  classrooms,  except  for  the  larger  high  school 
rooms,  where  it  is  28"  wide.  The  rear  aisles  vary  from 
36"  to  30"  and  the  inner  aisles  for  grades  I to  VIII  are 
16"  and  15I",  and  in  the  high  school  grades  18",  while 
the  wall  aisles  opposite  the  windows  range  from  5'  4"  for 
the  lowest  grades  to  3'  oj"  for  the  higher  elementary 
grades  and  3'  6 " for  high  schools.  There  is  quite  a 
variation  in  widths  of  wall  aisles  in  the  Boston  seating 
arrangement,  due  to  the  uniform  size  of  the  classrooms 
for  all  elementary  grades. 

Whenever  blackboards  are  used  at  the  side  and  rear 
of  the  room,  and  that  is  the  general  practice,  it  is  well 
to  allow  not  less  than  2'  8"  for  width  of  space  between 
the  wall  and  the  back  of  the  seats,  and  3'  o"  for  the 
wall  aisles,  as  the  latter  is  necessary  for  the  free  circula- 
tion of  pupils.  The  space  of  8'  o"  is  none  too  large  for 
clearance  between  the  front  row  of  desks  and  the  front 
wall,  especially  when  the  pupils  pass  in  front  of  the 
teacher’s  desk  on  their  way  to  the  wardrobe.  Actual 
investigation  convinces  the  writer  that  inner  aisles 
should  not  be  less  than  i'  6"  in  width. 


253 


254 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Length  and  Width  of  Classroom.  — Assuming  the 
rear  aisle  is  2'  8"  wide  and  the  distance  between  the 
front  row  of  seats  and  the  front  wall  is  8'  o",  the  length 
of  the  room  is  determined  by  the  number  of  seats  to 
each  row,  which  brings  up  the  question  of  the  number 
of  pupils  to  a room.  The  writer  has  yet  to  meet  a teacher 
who  believes  that  the  number  should  exceed  forty,  for 
reasons  too  numerous  to  enter  into  here  except  the  very 


good  reason  that  it  is  not  fair  to  either  child  or  teacher 
in  receiving  and  giving  instructions.  Therefore,  with 
forty  or  forty-two  as  the  number  to  be  considered,  we 
may  say  that  by  establishing  the  length  and  width  for 
the  sixth  grade  for  schools  below  the  junior  high,  all 
lower  grades  will  have  plenty  of  room  to  spare. 

The  distance  from  back  to  back  in  the  Boston  seating 
arrangement  for  the  6th  grade  is  2'  5I",  while  the  market 


W I N D O W 5 • 


•TABU  OF  SIZES  & JUASUUMUTS  or  SCHOOL  DESKS 

GLADES 

mmh 

i v-v-vr 

vie  *vn 

WIDTH-OF-LCOl  A- 

16-6" 

w-  r 

2'f-O" 

LENGTH-  OT  -LOOM  B- 

27-4" 

30-0" 

31'-  4" 

DISTANCE  HACK  "BACK  C- 

2-1" 

Z’-5" 

z-r 

DISTANCE  ACLOSS  D- 

r-6" 

r-r 

z-a 

SIZE  or  DESK 

12'7  16" 

i5"  x zr 

107  24" 

HEIGHT  OF  DESK 

21"  T0  24" 

23" T0  26" 

26"to3I" 

A LEA-M.QUIRED  -IGA  GRADES 

505.6  SQ.TT. 

552.5  SQ.TT. 

65733SQ.TT. 

A AX A PEL  PERSON 

12.33  •• 

14.45  ■ - 

16.04  - * 

Fig.  219. 


THE  CLASSROOM 


255 


sizes  range  from  2ri"  to  23  . Assume  the  distance 
to  be  2's"  for  a five-row  room,  then  a room  of  forty  seats 
will  require  a length  of  30V'  and  a six-row  room  of 
forty-two  pupils  will  require  a length  of  rfl".  The 
widths  would  be  ig'g"  and  23V'  respectively.  (See  Fig- 
ures 219  and  220.)  For  grades  VII  and  VIII  (Figures  219 
and  220)  with  forty  and  forty- two  seats  to  the  five-  and 
six-row  rooms,  respectively,  and  distance 
from  back  to  back  T*]" , the  lengths  of 
these  upper  grade  classrooms  would  be 
31 '4"  and  28 'q",  while  the  widths  would 
be  21V'  and  24V' . 

Figures  221  and  222  illustrate  two 
other  types  of  classrooms  with  the  ward- 
robes at  the  side  and  end,  respectively, 
and  both  are  used  very  much  in  the 
same  way.  Figure  222  is  known  as  the 
“ Chicago  ” type  and  like  Figure  221 
is  favored  by  many  architects  of  high 
standing  in  the  field  of  school  architec- 
ture. The  writer  favors  the  type  with 
the  wardrobe  at  the  end  of  the  room  as 
in  Figure  219,  because  it  is  possible  to 
ventilate  directly  to  the  open  air  through 
the  window,  and  what  is  equally  im- 
portant, if  not  more  so,  is  the  possibility 
of  having  sunshine  fall  within  the  ward- 
robe some  time  during  the  day,  provid- 
ing, of  course,  the  classroom  is  not 
facing  the  north. 

Floor  Areas.  — It  may  be  of  interest 
to  note  the  floor  areas,  including  ward- 
robes, of  all  three  schemes,  using  the 
measurements  for  grades  VII  and  VIII 
of  desks  and  aisles  common  to  all  except 
that  the  side  wall  aisle  of  Figure  221  is 
4'o"  wide  instead  of  3/o",  in  order  to 
allow  more  freedom  in  front  of  the  ward- 
robe. The  following  are  the  areas : 

Fig.  219.  21'  o"X36'  4"  =762.3  square  feet. 

Fig.  220.  24'  6" X31'  4"  = 766.8  square  feet. 

Fig.  221.  21'  o"X34'  o"  = 714  square  feet. 


Chicago  Board  of  Education  Plan.  — Figure  223  shows 
the  seating  plan  of  classrooms  for  various  size  desks 
in  the  elementary  grades  as  laid  out  by  Mr.  A.  F.  Hus- 
sander,  Architect  for  the  Chicago  Board  of  Education. 
They  are  similar  to  Figure  221  and  have  the  advantage 
of  giving  more  blackboard  space  back  of  the  teacher’s 
desk. 


SC  A L 4 


■TABLE,  OF  SIZES  6 AUASUIEMEKTS  OF  SCHOOL  DESKS 

GJIADES 

I I I 

IV  V VI 

VII  VIII- 

WIDTH- Of-LOOM  A 

21- G” 

23-0" 

24'- G" 

length  • OF  - LOOM.  B 

25'- 3” 

27-7" 

2&'-r 

DISTANCE -BACK 10  BACK  C 

2 - 1” 

2'-  5" 

2-7” 

DISTANCE  ACROSS  D 

l'-G" 

r-r 

2-0" 

SIZE  or  DESK 

12"*  IS" 

15"*  2!' 

16”  *24" 

HEIGHT  OT  DESK 

zr  T0  24" 

23' TO  28" 

26"TO3r 

AkEA-UQUMD-roil;  GLADES 

542.87  SQIT 

G34.34  5QH 

704.37  SQ.FT. 

ALIA  TEL  TELSON 

12.C2  • ■ 

14.75  - - 

1C.  36  - - 

Fig.  220. 


The  “ Chicago  ” type,  Figure  222,  is  48.3  square  feet 
less  than  that  of  Figure  219  and  32.8  square  feet  less  than 
that  of  Figure  221.  Notwithstanding  this  difference  I 
believe  the  value  of  the  sunlight  compensates  for  the 
increased  floor  area  of  Figure  219.  While  calling  atten- 
tion to  floor  areas  including  wardrobes  it  is  interesting  to 
observe  that  the  total  floor  area  of  the  six-row  classroom, 
Figure  220,  is  826.87  square  feet,  or  64.57  square  feet 
greater  than  that  of  Figure  219,  the  five-row  room.  This 
difference  is  diminished  if  32.76  square  feet,  the  area 
occupied  by  the  two  additional  pupils,  is  deducted. 


New  York  Board  of  Education  Plan.  — Figure  224 
illustrates  the  elementary  school  classroom  floor  plans 
as  planned  by  Mr.  C.  B.  J.  Snyder,  Architect  for  the 
New  York  City  Board  of  Education.  The  capacities 
are  as  follows : 

48  seats  and  desks  in  grades  i-A  to  4-B,  inclusive. 

46  seats  and  desks  in  grades  5-A  to  6-B,  inclusive. 

42  seats  and  desks  in  grades  7-A  to  8-B  or  9-B,  inclusive. 

A ge  of  Pupils.  — The  following  information  on  this 
subject  may  be  useful : 


256 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


TL  AC 


WINDOWS 


BLACK  BOAILD 


CLASS  ILOOiA 


2-6 


2'-©"  C C 


B LA  CiLBOAILD 


fr  I i? 

1 c\ 


LXJliGj  IK  <:li  LI  kg 


4.AC.HL 
2-t" 


; 


2- 10" 


8‘-0 


40  PUPILS 
LXHAUStT  A1IL  UNPIIL  PCOILS  • SAML  TO  -SLID-L  UP 


r ILL  S H AIL  SUPPLY 


WAIIDILOH 


COLLI  D O lb 


•TABLE  OF  SIZES  <&  AlEASUtEMtNTS  OF  SCHCDl  DESKS- 

glades 

I II  III 

IV  V VI 

VII  VIII 

WIDTH  or  UQOM  A 

iq’-  g" 

20-  r 

22'- 0" 

LENGTH  OP  1LOOJA  B 

27-  4" 

30-0" 

31*  4" 

DISTANCE  RACK TO LACK  C 

z'-r 

2-5" 

2-  r 

DISTANCE  ACROSS  D 

r-6" 

r-r 

2-0" 

size  or  dusk 

IZ"X  18" 

15" x zr‘ 

16"  *24' 

HIIGHT  or  KSK. 

21" T0  24" 

23"  TO  28" 

20  T°3!" 

AIWA  H£0UIHD  roil  CUES 

532.23  sen. 

622.5  SQ.FT. 

68T26SQTT. 

AULA  me  TLHSOA 

12.26 

■15.16  ■ • 

16.51 

'ILL 


AH 


r- 


" 1 


SUPPLY 


I I 


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m 


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panix; 


BLACKBOARp 

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ACttAd. 


w A.ILD  H-O-Bi-  D OO see 


BOA  W 
IUlI  Lo 


ELEVATION  Of  WALDRORT.  .SIM. 


S CALL 
Fig.  221. 


THE  CLASSROOM 


257 


TA6EE  or  SIZES  & MUSUJIXMUTS  or  SCHOOL  DISKS 

G1UKS 

I l I 

IV  V VI 

VII  VJ1L 

WIDTH- OX- LOOM  A 

16'-  G" 

19'-  r 

zr-o" 

LENGTH-  OS -LOOM  B 

27'-  4" 

30'- O" 

3l’-4" 

DlSTANCCMCKrobAOC  C 

2-1" 

2-5" 

2-7" 

DISTANCE  ACROSS  D 

1-  G" 

i'-  9" 

2-0" 

SIZE  OF  DISK 

12" x 16" 

15" x 21" 

1G" x 24" 

height  or  DESK 

21“ T0  24" 

23"  T0  26" 

2G"T°31" 

A LEA- LEQUILED-FOL  GLADES 

505.G  SQ.FT. 

592.5  SQ.FT 

057.93  GQ.rr. 

A LEA  PEL  PELSOW 

12.33  - " 

14.45  ■■  - 

1G.04  - " 

5 CALX, 
Fig.  222. 


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•SLATING  PLANS  FPL  CLASS  11001  USID  BY  THE  CHICAGO  J30A11D  Of  IDlfCATION 


THE  CLASSROOM 


259 


c on  1 d o 10 


48  • SLATS  & M,SKS  IN  GRADES  riiOAl 

iA-T0-4B°  INCLUSIVi, 

46 1 SLATS  & DL5XS  IN  GRAMS  T'JJONL 
5A  "TO'fcB"  JNCLaslVl, 

42  • SLATS  & DISKS  IN  GRAMS  TRDJ/1 
7 A -TQ-88  OR  qB  INCLUsrVf,  ■ 

CAJ  It.  - SUPPLY  CAJ31NLT 
T.I,  • TLACHLttS  LOCKjyi 
3.C  noox  CABINLI 
13  ■ 1 IBILAJIY  300KGASfj  • 


PLAN  OF  GLASS  ROOM  WITH  WAltBROBL  AT  RIAL- 


‘Zzzzz 


C 0 IblLi  D Olb- 


L,  LLYATION  OF  SUPPLY 
CAJMNLT  UNDP,!  PLACKPOAU 


h latino  m l^C‘ 


PLAN  OF  CLASSROOM.  with  waildrobl  at  S1DL 


PLAN  AT  £»• 


T A K L jj 


• S C AL  £,  • 

F 1L  O AIL  D IAW1  JJGS 


OF  TVbLIC  SCHOOL  SOW 


AL  IL 


C.  £>  J-  -S  N Y D L,  IQ  AILCH1TLCT  ■ 


Fig.  224. 


26o 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Kindergarten: 

entering  age  5,  completing  age  6. 

Elementary  School: 

Grade  No.  1 : entering  age  6,  completing  age  7. 

Grade  No.  2 : entering  age  7 to  75,  completing  age  8 to  85. 

Grade  No.  3 : entering  age  8 to  8§,  completing  age  9 to  95. 

Grade  No.  4:  entering  age  9 to  10,  completing  age  10  to  11. 

Grade  No.  5 : entering  age  10  to  ii,  completing  age  n to  12. 

Grade  No.  6:  entering  age  11  to  12,  completing  age  12  to  13. 

Intermediate  or  Junior  High  School: 

Grade  No.  7 : entering  age  12  to  13,  completing  age  13  to  14. 

Grade  No.  8 : entering  age  13  to  14,  completing  age  14  to  15. 

Grade  No.  9 : entering  age  14  to  15,  completing  age  16  to  17. 

Senior  High  School: 

Grade  No.  10:  entering  age  14I  to  17,  completing  age  15  J to  18. 
Grade  No.  11 : entering  age  16  to  18,  completing  age  17  to  19. 

Grade  No.  12  : entering  age  17  to  19,  completing  age  18  to  20. 

Size  of  Classroom  Furniture.  — - The  following  table 
of  sizes  for  school  desks  has  been  made  up  from  a promi- 
nent manufacturer’s  catalogue  (all  dimensions  are  in 
inches) : 


Size  numbers 

I 

2 

3 

4 

S 

6 

Length  of  desk  top  . . . 

23I 

23I 

20I 

20j 

17I 

17I 

Width  of  top 

l6 

l6 

14 

14 

12 

12 

Height  of  top 

30 

28I 

26I 

241 

23 

21I 

Height  of  seat  .... 

i7i 

l6 

T A 3 

144 

135 

I2j 

I I 

Age  of  pupils  (years)  . . 

17 

14 

II 

8 

6 

5 

Size  of  High  School  Classrooms.  — The  principles  to 
be  observed  in  planning  the  high  school  classroom  are 
practically  the  same  as  for  the  elementary  school.  The 
main  exception  is  that,  in  the  high  school,  locker  rooms 
for  clothing  and  books  are  located  in  other  parts  of  the 
building  and  the  wardrobe  of  the  elementary  school 
disappears.  The  blackboards  are  of  different  heights, 
and  the  bookcase,  with  its  dictionary,  is  used  more  by 
the  students ; the  hanging  rail  above  the  blackboard  is 
omitted ; and  there  should  be  consideration  given  to 
the  circulation  if  movable  furniture  is  used. 

In  establishing  the  size  of  classrooms  for  a high  school 
a careful  survey  ought  to  be  made  of  the  enrollment  for 
instruction  in  the  different  subjects  of  the  curriculum. 
A capable  superintendent  or  principal  should  be  the 
master  of  this  situation,  for  wasteful  space  or  cramped 
rooms  may  result  from  a plan  in  which  all  the  classrooms 
are  of  the  same  size.  For  example,  the  first  and  second 
year  classes  are,  as  a general  rule,  much  larger  than  the 
third  and  fourth  year  classes,  and  some  subjects  of  all 
years  have  larger  attendance  than  others.  Subjects 
like  mathematics,  modern  languages,  and  particularly 
the  dead  languages,  Greek  and  Latin,  most  likely  have 
a smaller  attendance  than  subjects  like  history,  English, 
or  similar  subjects  which  are  mostly  lecture  and  outside 
reading  courses. 

Very  often  folding  doors  and  rolling  curtain  partitions 
are  used  as  partitions  separating  rooms,  so  that  two  or 
more  of  the  classrooms  may  be  thrown  together.  It  is 
easier  to  do  this  with  movable  chairs  than  with  the 


fixed  desk  and  seat.  Although  it  is  not  always  con- 
venient to  join  rooms  like  this,  it  is  much  better  than  to 
be  unable  to  enlarge  classrooms  quickly.  A good  plan 
is  to  have  all  heating  and  ventilating  ducts,  plumbing 
pipes,  electrical  conduits,  and  such  work  installed  in 
the  corridor  walls  or  extend  along  and  furred  in  the 
corridor  ceilings,  and  have  the  floors  supported  by  the 
corridor  partitions  only,  so  that  dividing  or  cross  parti- 
tions may  be  moved  and  reset  as  often  as  the  occasion 
warrants.  Very  little  expense  or  damage  is  incurred 
if  the  partitions  alone  have  to  be  moved. 

Boston  High  School  Classrooms.  — Figures  228  and  229 
show  the  seating  arrangement  for  high  school  classrooms 
as  adopted  by  the  Boston  School  Commission  for  classes 
of  eighty  and  forty-two  desks.  Rooms  are  also  laid 
out  to  accommodate  sixty  and  thirty-six,  while  recitation 
rooms  26'  o"X  16'  o"  are  used  as  classrooms  with  double 
desks  providing  seats  for  about  thirty  pupils.  The 
natural  lighting  of  the  larger  rooms  is  a special  problem 
and  should  be  considered  as  such.  Figure  230  shows  a 
seating  arrangement  for  junior  and  senior  high  schools 
often  used  by  the  writer,  which  has  been  found  to  work 
out  quite  satisfactorily. 

Ceiling  Height.  — - After  having  settled  upon  the 
horizontal  dimensions  of  the  room  the  height  of  ceiling 
from  floor  should  receive  careful  consideration  for  proper 
lighting  and  ventilation.  The  first  step  is  to  investigate 
if  near-by  building  or  buildings  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  street  are  of  such  a height  as  to  prevent  direct 
rays  of  sky  light  from  entering  at  the  sill  fine  of  the 
window  of  the  classroom  on  the  lowest  floor  at  an  angle 
not  greater  than  27  degrees  with  the  horizontal.  If  the 
street  is  too  narrow  or  the  adjacent  buildings  too  high 
then  the  school  building  must  be  set  far  enough  back 
from  the  street  to  correct  this.  At  this  point  it  is  evident 
that  the  selection  of  the  site  is  no  small  matter. 

Assuming  that  the  site  is  large  enough  to  locate  the 
building  as  desired  the  height  of  ceiling  from  floor 
should  be  determined  by  the  amount  of  direct  light 
falling  upon  the  row  of  desks  most  removed  from  the 
windows. 

The  rule  that  the  classroom  should  not  be  wider 
than  twice  the  height  of  the  window  head  from  the 
floor  and  that  the  rays  of  light  be  direct  sky  light, 
necessitates  the  placing  of  the  building  so  that  the 
height  of  the  top  of  structures  opposite  from  the  sill  line 
of  the  lowest  classrooms  will  not  be  greater  than  one-half 
the  distance  between  both  buildings.  Figure  233  illus- 
trates this  principle,  and  except  in  cities  like  New  York, 
with  an  “ East  Side  ” where  the  streets  are  narrow,  it 
is  not  difficult  to  obtain  the  direct  sky  rays.  This  rule 
will  indicate  how  close  walls  of  courts  or  yards  may  be 
without  jeopardizing  the  lighting  of  the  rooms. 


THE  CLASSROOM 


261 


44  DESKS  Fig.  225. 


44  ■ 0 IS  ICS 


GUIDES  lol  12" MS"  244"  BACKPACK 
GLAM,  1 25"  •• 


GMDE,  IV 

V 

VI 


15"x20i"  24"  BACK®  BACK 

15'x21"  2-4t"  • 

15"x  21"  2-54‘  - 


G1ADE  VII  IS’* 25"  2T BACK® BACK 
VIII  1G"X2B4'  2-74"  • 
CUBING  HEIGHT  12-0" 

A IE  A GG7  SQ.  FT. 

ALLOWS  14.62  ■ - PEL  PLJISON 

voluie  8004  am. 

ALLOWS  177.64  ■ ■ PEL  IE1S0N 


44 ■ PLS45- 


Fig.  227. 


26-0"  I . 33' 


262 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


cvJ 

CM 

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50 

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4 y-o“ 

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CM 

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ALLA  1 447.36  SQJT. 

ALLOWS  I7.8&  ■ ■ TEL  PtllSOR 

VOLUME,  173L&.5&  OUT. 

ALLOWS  2I14Z  ■ - PEL f LOOK 


CELLING  12-0"  HIGH 


ALLA  832  SQ.fT. 

ALLOWS  19.34  ■ • PEL  PEItSON 
VOLUM,  1.984-  CU.  FT. 

ALLOWS  £32.18  ■ • PEL  POSOJ 


SIZE,  OF  DESKS  20"  X 2G" 
5 ACK.  TO  Ei  AC  K.  3'-  li" 


'O 

04 

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CM 

io 

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SIZE,  Of  DESKS  20"  X 26" 

•BACK  TO  -SACK  2‘-q' 


S CAL  1,- 

Fig.  229. 


THE  CLASSROOM 


263 


Figures  234  and  235  demonstrate  the  rule  on  a larger 
scale,  and  the  direction  of  the  rays  of  light  within  the 
classroom.  Figure  235  is  a section  of  the  upper  grade 
classrooms(VII,  VIII,  and  High  Schools),  while  Figure  234 
is  a section  of  the  classrooms  of  grades  I to  VI  inclusive. 
Taking  Figure  235  first,  it  should  be  noted  that  the  desks 
range  from  2' 2"  to  2f’]"  in  height,  the  width  of  desks 
is  assumed  at  To" , the  window  aisle  is  To",  the  aisles 
between  desks  are  i'6",  and  the  wall  aisles  opposite 
the  windows  are  3/o".  Also  the  dotted  line  X-X'  is  the 
inner  wall  line  for  a room  of  five  rows,  and  Y-Y'  the  wall 
line  for  a room  of  six  rows.  It  can  be  seen  that  for  a 
ceiling  height  of  i2,o,/  the  ray  C from  the  lintel  of  ceiling 
height  12' o"  falls  beyond  one-fourth  of  the  high  desk 
of  the  fifth  row,  and  that  ray  F from  the  lintel  of  ceiling 
height  i3/6//  just  intersects  the  corner  of  the  larger 
desk  of  the  sixth  row.  The  window  lintels  are  assumed 
to  be  6"  below  the  ceilings.  It  should  be  noted  that  the 
distance  from  the  outside  wall  of  the  innermost  rows 
of  desks  receiving  proper  light  in  each  case  is  approxi- 
mately one  and  one-half  times  the  height  of  the  window 
head  from  the  floor.  Therefore,  it  may  be  stated  as  a 
general  rule  by  which  to  establish  the  arrangement  of 
the  seating  and  width  of  the  room  for  good  lighting,  that 
no  desk  should  be  further  removed  from  the  source  of 
light  than  one  and  one-half  times  the  height  of  the 
window  head  from  the  floor. 

From  Figure  235  the  deduction  may  be  made  that  for 
1 room  of  five  rows  in  width  a ceiling  height  of  1 To"  is 
sufficient,  and  for  a room  of  six  rows  the  height  should 
xe  X3,6//  and  never  less  than  i3'o".  In  Figure  234,  with 
:he  desks  1'g"  in  width,  which  is  the  market  size  for 
children  of  the  sixth  grade,  and  2V'  the  height  of  the 
ligh  desk  for  this  grade,  the  lighting  conditions  are  still 
nore  favorable.  For  a room  of  five  rows  it  would  be 
avorable  to  lower  the  ceiling  to  even  n'o",  although 
his  would  necessitate  extending  the  horizontal  length 
)f  the  windows  to  bring  the  glass  area  up  to  20  per  cent 
>f  the  floor  area,  and  would  reduce  the  volume  of  space 
a the  room.  However,  this  would  be  drawing  too  fine 
. line ; it  is  mentioned  only  to  demonstrate  further  the 
ighting  problem. 

Further  Study  of  the  Plan.  — A final  word  regarding 
he  study  of  the  plan  of  the  classrooms  would  not  be 
miss.  The  data  presented  are  suggested  with  a desire 
a provide  comfortable  seating  and  aisles  for  easy  em- 
ulation of  pupils,  as  well  as  to  indicate  where  wise 
conomies  may  be  exercised  in  planning  school  build- 
lgs.  Classrooms  too  large  for  the  number  of  pupils  to 
e accommodated  are  not  only  a financial  and  material 
aste,  but,  worse  yet,  they  are  a temptation  to  over- 
rowd  such  rooms  just  as  soon  as  the  slightest  conges- 


tion develops  in  the  community.  This  leads  to  neffi- 
ciency  on  the  part  of  the  teaching  and  cuts  down  on 
the  individual  instruction  to  the  pupil.  On  the  other 
hand  there  is  a danger  of  attempting  too  great  economy, 
and  causing  congestion  and  discomfort.  The  school  is 
developing  and  changing  so  rapidly  to  meet  new  and 
added  requirements  that  it  behooves  all  who  have  to  do 
with  the  housing  of  it  to  study  each  problem  by  itself, 
using  such  data  as  are  presented  here,  simply  as  a means 
of  solving  the  problem.  Furthermore,  when  the  school 
is  used  by  continuation  and  evening  classes  the  physical 
difference  between  high  school  students  and  adults 
requires  consideration  and  study  in  order  that  the  plant 
and  its  equipment  may  be  flexible  to  meet  the  various 
requirements.  Fixed  and  hard  rules,  however  good  and 
economical,  often  lead  to  permanent  difficulties.  The 
time  may  not  be  far  removed  when  classrooms  in  ele- 
mentary grades  will  vary  in  size  to  accommodate  from  as 
few  as  fifteen  seats  to  as  many  as  forty.  Elastic  classi- 
fication will  shorten  the  years  of  attendance  of  the 
mentally  bright,  and  advance  the  slow  child  by  more 
individual  instruction,  thereby  moderating  the  financial 
burden  of  the  state  and  giving  greater  opportunity 
to  the  child  for  advancement  in  educational  work  as 
well  as  development  of  its  mental  capacity. 

If  the  school  grades  of  cities  are  of  the  6-2-4,  6-3-3  or 
6-6  groups  instead  of  the  prevailing  8-4  plan,  it  is  clear 
that  the  elementary  classroom  may  be  reduced  in  floor 
area.  When  housing  the  eight  grades  under  one  roof, 
it  is  necessary  to  make  the  width  of  the  classroom  of  the 
size  to  accommodate  the  larger  children,  unless  we  resort  to 
unsymmetrical  plans  which  would  discount  in  a measure 
any  such  economy  in  the  elementary  schools,  since 
it  costs  more  to  build  irregular-shaped  buildings.  A 
study  of  the  classrooms  of  the  Boston  and  Chicago 
groups  discloses  the  fact  that  there  is  considerable  unused 
space  in  the  lower  grades,  due  to  the  use  of  a uniform 
size  for  all  elementary  grades.  This  may  be  lessened  if 
the  width  of  rooms  for  the  sixth  grade  is  taken  as  the 
width  for  all  grades  below  the  sixth,  and  they  are  housed 
apart  from  the  upper  grades. 

Natural  Lighting  of  Classrooms.  — The  most  important 
factor  in  the  plan  of  a school  is  natural  lighting.  Arti- 
ficial lighting  is  a matter  of  good  illuminating  engineer- 
ing, but  good  natural  lighting  requires  careful  considera- 
tion in  both  plan  and  elevation  with  regard  to  the  points 
of  the  compass  and  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  light. 
Consequently  the  selection  of  the  site  and  the  location 
of  the  building  are  of  paramount  importance,  for  poor 
judgment  in  either  case  will  make  it  difficult  to  favor- 
ably orientate  classrooms  and  often  will  necessitate 
juggling  and  misplacing  of  rooms  in  order  to  overcome 
obstacles  springing  from  the  choice  of  an  unsuitable  site. 


264 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Range  of  seasonal  temperature  and  geographic  locality 
are  factors  which  largely  determine  the  orientation  of 
the  classrooms.  It  is  unwise  to  lay  down  hard  and  fast 
rules  for  all  sections  of  a country  as  large  as  the  United 


10 


15 


S CALp 


•TABLE,  OT  51  ZE,S  6 MEASUILEALLffTS- 

no.  or  rows 

GROWS  WIDE, 

S HOWS  WIRE, 

WIDTH  or  ROOM. 

21-10'' 

25'*  6" 

LENGTH  or  ItOOil- 

26'- 8" 

26-8" 

DISTANCE,  MOKTOMCK. 

Z'-  8" 

2-6" 

DISTANCE  AGIOS S 

2'- 2" 

2-2" 

SIZE,'  or  DISK 

[6"rol6W  26" 

[6"TOI8"X26" 

HEIGHT  OF  DUSK. 

2-8" 

2'-  8" 

FLOOL  ARIA  IUjQUIUOD 

561.98  SQ.TT. 

6728b  SQ.TT. 

ARIA  PUl  PRISON 

18.77  * " 

18.37  • • 

Fig.  230. 

States,  for  what  is  desirable  in  the  New  England  and 
the  Eastern  states  might  prove  severe  for  Southern  and 
Western  states,  especially  in  many  sections  of  these 
states  where  the  range  of  temperature  is  high.  Generally 
where  high  temperatures  are  not  of  long  duration  east 
and  west  lighting  are  most  favorable  for  classrooms. 


In  communities  where  the  opposite  is  true  the  class- 
rooms should  be  favored  with  east  light,  and  to  obtain 
economy  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  resort  to  lighting 
from  the  north.  This,  however,  should  be  a last  resort. 

for  a classroom  which  does  not  receive 
sunlight  at  some  time  during  the  day  is 
deprived  of  a natural  hygienic  cleansing, 
and  a cheerfulness  which  inevitably 
affects  the  health  and  happiness  of 
pupils  and  the  teacher.  In  many  lo- 
calities close  to  the  oceans  southern  ex- 
posures are  not  harmful,  but  as  a rule 
they  should  be  avoided,  for  they  require 
drawn  shades  for  so  long  a period  to 
shut  out  the  glare  of  the  sun  as  to  de- 
prive the  room  of  the  proper  amount  of 
light.  This  is  just  as  bad,  as  though 
the  glass  area  was  too  small. 

Overhead  Lighting.  — Overhead  light- 
ing for  classrooms  is  adopted  by  some 
architects,  but  while  it  has  the  advan- 
tage of  giving  a uniform  distribution, 
the  writer  cannot  see  any  really  good 
reason  to  recommend  it,  because  of  the 
confining  impression  created  by  the  four 
walls  extending  to  the  ceiling  with  no 
outlook.  Such  lighting  is  appropriate 
for  art  rooms,  shops,  or  operating  rooms 
in  hospitals,  where  moving  about  is 
permitted  and  when  the  steady  blue 
sky  light  casts  the  desirable  shades  and 
shadows,  but  to  continually  confine  chil- 
dren to  such  rooms  seems  like  fitting 
them  mentally  to  occupy  cells. 

Glass  Area.  — The  right  amount  of 
glass  area  for  a classroom  likewise  is 
dependent  upon  the  locality  and  the 
orientation  of  the  room.  Classrooms 
facing  the  north  should  have  a greater 
lighting  surface  than  those  having  other 
exposures,  and  schools  in  communities 
that  experience  a preponderance  of 
cloudy  and  foggy  weather  require  more 
fight  than  those  that  have  an  intense 
sunlight.  The  common  practice  is  to 
allow  25  per  cent  of  the  floor  area  for 
masonry  openings,  which  will  give  a 
trifle  more  than  a 20  per  cent  equivalent  in  glass 
area.  This  should  be  closely  followed,  although  in  in- 
terior cities  where  the  sunlight  is  quite  intense,  class- 
rooms have  been  found  to  be  fairly  well  lighted  with 
as  small  a glass  area  as  16  per  cent.  This,  however, 
is  bordering  too  closely  on  the  danger  of  underfighting. 


THE  CLASSROOM 


265 


•SIDE,  ELIVATIOH  TOWA1U)  EXTLIUOI/ 


•SIDE  ELEVATION  TOWAILD  COIUUDOL- 


I>  = 1>  L,  A C K JbOAILD 
C ; CANVAS 


• t LiVATION  Of  UACHE.IS  £ND - 


P • PL,ASTtIb 
W * WOOD  PANELS 


i 


■ELEVATION  TOWA1D  CLASS  lOOi- 

INTE1UOL  ■ ELEVATION  S 


• 1 LLVATIOH  AWAY  EED/A  CLASS  ilCQju • 


OF  CLASS  AjCOA  HG. 


S CAL,  t,  ■ 

Fig.  231. 


266 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE. 


Many  states  provide  by  statute  for  20  per  cent  of  glass 
area,  and  it  should  be  followed,  or  increased  whenever 
the  climatic  conditions  require  an  increased  area  for  good 
lighting. 

One  of  the  difficulties  encountered  by  the  architect 
in  designing  the  exterior  of  a school  building  is  the 
repetition  of  groups  of  windows  of  similar  forms,  which 
gives  an  impression  of  monotony.  Nevertheless  it  is 
mandatory  that  the  fenestration  of  classrooms  conform 
to  the  physical  requirements  and  that  the  rules  govern- 
ing these  requirements  be  followed.  It  is  unfortunate 
if  the  exterior  design  is  unsightly,  due  to  unskilled  han- 
dling of  windows  ; on  the  other  hand,  next  to  structural 


safety  the  proper  lighting  takes  precedence  over  every- 
thing else.  Furthermore,  the  vertical  divisions  or 
mullions  and  the  horizontal  divisions  or  transom  bars 
should  be  as  small  as  good  construction  will  permit. 
By  the  use  of  steel  sash  both  divisions  are  reduced  to  the 
minimum  ; but  such  sash  are  expensive.  The  transom 
bar  is  not  necessary,  for  the  double-hung  and  the  hori- 
zontal casement  sashes  (Figures  236  and  237)  may  extend 
from  stool  to  head  without  interruption  except  at  the 
meeting  rails. 

Height  of  Window  Stools.  — Educators  differ  as  to  the 
ideal  height  of  window  stools,  but  the  greater  number 
believe  that  the  height  should  not  be  less  than  2't" 


Fig.  232. 


TEE  CLASSROOM 


267 


md  not  more  than  3'  6".  If  lower  than  2'  6",  glaring 
effected  light  from  the  ground  and  surrounding  objects 
vill  shine  directly  into  the  eyes  of  the  pupils  sitting 
tear  the  windows,  which  is  extremely  harmful  as  well 
,s  annoying.  If  the  window  stool  is  higher  than  3'  6", 
t is  difficult  for  the  child  to  look  out  for  a momentary 
estful  change,  and  it  is  on  this  point  that  educators 
isagree.  Some  contend  that  distraction  results  from 
)w  window  stools.  A large  majority  of  educators, 
owever,  favor  giving  the  child  the  same  opportunity 
s is  enjoyed  by  the  teacher.  But  one  of  the  deter- 
lining  factors  regarding  this  point  is  the  requirement  of 


classroom,  and  the  advantage  to  good  lighting  gained  by 
it  compensates  but  little  for  the  psychologically  bad 
effect  upon  both  community  and  student  caused  by 
warped  exteriors.  After  all,  the  precepts  conducive 
to  good  natural  lighting  are  left-hand  unilateral  light,  the 
right  kind  of  light,  and  the  right  amount  of  light.  The 
latter  two  factors  are  entirely  dependent  upon  the 
architect’s  grasp  and  solution  of  the  problem. 

Wardrobes.  — It  is  possible  to  locate  the  wardrobe  in 
the  front,  rear,  or  side  of  the  classroom.  Figures  219  and 
220  show  the  wardrobe  at  the  front ; Figure  221  shows  it 
at  the  side,  while  in  Figure  222,  known  as  the  “ Chicago  ” 


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3 c A U L, 
Fig.  233. 


fiss  area.  It  will  be  found  that  to  meet  20  per  cent 
euivalent,  both  the  head  and  stool  are  almost  auto- 
ritically  fixed,  at  least  to  only  a slight  range  of  variation, 
die  soffit  of  the  window  head  is  usually  not  more  than 
s inches  below  the  ceiling  line,  and  wherever  the  lintels 
ci  be  splayed,  just  that  much  more  light  is  given  to  the 
rim.  It  is  desirable  that  the  masonry  reveal  on  the 
lft  of  the  group  of  windows  extend  so  far  to  the  rear  of 
t : classroom  as  the  rear  seat,  and  on  the  right  not  much 
fither  forward  than  the  front  line  of  desks,  although  I 
d not  believe  that  the  exterior  appearance  of  a school 
sbuld  be  marred  to  bring  this  about. 

Jvlany  think  well  of  the  long  blank  space  in  the  exterior 
11  adjacent  to  the  front  of  the  room,  counting  on  this 
S]  ce  to  partially  intercept  the  rays  of  light  from  that 
a ;le.  A close  examination  will  disclose  the  fact  that 
tl;  benefits  but  a small  percentage  of  the  pupils  of  a 


type,  it  may  be  at  the  front  or  rear.  As  previously 
mentioned,  the  “Chicago”  type  requires  less  floor 
area  and  does  not  increase  the  cost  of  construction  due 
to  width  of  room,  as  in  Figure  221.  However,  the  latter 
gives  more  room  lor  the  clothing,  which  is  well  worth 
considering.  Access  to  both  types  is  by  means  of 
vertically  sliding  panel  doors,  containing  blackboards, 
counterweightecl  for  easy  operation. 

Figures  219  and  220  show  the  type  having  an’outside 
window,  which  gives  direct  lighting  and  natural  ventila- 
tion. They  are  favored  by  many  for  these  reasons  and 
are  more  hygienic.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  parti- 
tion between  the  teacher’s  closet  at  the  window  does 
not  extend  to  the  ceiling  but  stops  just  above  the  top  of 
the  door.  Also  the  upper  panel  of  the  door  is  glazed, 
permitting  light  to  pass  through. 

The  teacher’s  closet  is  found  to  be  very  convenient 


268 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


and  inexpensive.  In  addition  to  its  other  uses  it  is 
handy  for  the  storage  of  supplies.  Figure  232  shows  the 
details  within  the  room  for  the  hanging  of  clothes  for 
all  three  types  of  wardrobes.  The  hooks  are  usually 
spaced  12  inches  on  centers  on  each  rod,  making  the 
net  spacing  about  6 inches  on  centers.  While  the 
heights  of  the  rods  are  marked  on  the  drawings,  it  may 
be  well  to  record  them  here.  For  kindergarten  the 
lower  pole  is  thirty  inches  from  the  floor ; for  grades  I, 
II,  III,  and  IV,  thirty-six  to  forty  inches ; for  grades  V, 
VI,  VII,  and  VIII,  forty-four,  forty-eight,  and  fifty- 
two  inches. 

The  steam  coils  are  placed  in  the  location  shown,  so 
that  during  inclement  weather  wet  and  damp  clothing 
may  be  dried  before  recess  or  closing  time.  The  cloth- 
ing is  protected  from  the  hot  coils  by  a f"  mesh  wire 
guard  covering  the  pipes  as  shown.  Shut-off  valves  are 
placed  in  the  teacher’s  closet  and  under  her  control 
The  cost  of  this  installation  is  so  small  that  it  should 
never  be  omitted.  Very  often  the  exhaust  register  or 
vent  opening,  without  a register,  is  placed  at  the  floor 
level  in  the  wardrobes.  It  is  better,  however,  to  have 
the  vent  register  placed  in  the  ceiling,  for  then  the  travel 
of  the  air  will  cause  it  to  pass  through  the  children’s 
clothing,  ventilating  and  drying  them.  Referring  to 
the  section  of  the  classroom  looking  toward  the  teacher’s 
end  of  the  room  (figure  231),  it  is  seen  that  the  doors  of 
the  wardrobe  are  hung  with  the  lower  edge  about  15 
inches  above  the  floor ; while  this  is  not  as  neat  in  appear- 
ance as  the  door  containing  the  bottom  rail  and  metal 
grille,  nevertheless  it  is  more  efficient  in  ventilating 
the  room,  as  there  is  no  obstruction  to  the  flow  of  the 
air  where  heaviest  at  the  floor  level. 

Some  school  boards  require  an  umbrella  gutter  extend- 
ing the  length  of  the  wardrobe,  but  the  umbrella  rack 
is  more  sanitary,  less  expensive,  and  less  cumbersome. 
The  wardrobe  should  always  be  confined  within  the 
walls  of  the  classroom  and  never  be  a part  of  the  corridor 
or  open  out  into  the  corridor.  The  former  gives  to  tie 
teacher  complete  control  of  this  space,  and  eliminates 
petty  pilfering  and  unsightly  corridor  walls  or  pockets. 
Furthermore,  it  must  be  remembered  that  at  times  of 
danger  and  fire  drills  the  children  are  never  permitted 
to  go  to  the  wardrobe  for  their  clothing,  as  that  would 
be  the  surest  way  to  create  confusion  and  engender  panic. 

Blackboards.  — The  question  of  blackboard  material 
is  bound  to  rise  in  any  new  school  building  project,  ard 
invariably  the  merits  of  the  various  materials  are  dis 
cussed,  and  often  with  very  limited  data  at  hand  to 
enlighten  the  discussion.  Not  infrequently  the  final 
result  of  such  deliberations  is  determined  by  the  pre- 
vailing influence  of  a good  salesman.  The  points  to 
consider  in  selecting  blackboard  material  are  smooth- 


ness of  surface,  durability,  porosity,  possibilities  for 
washing  and  erasing,  non-reflectiveness  of  light,  uni- 
formity in  color  and  permanency  in  shade.  There  is  no 
material  that  will  qualify  to  the  test  of  the  above  require- 
ments as  well  as  good  natural  slate.  Slate  is  a natural 
rock,  the  distinguishing  characteristic  of  which  is  to 
split  readily  into  thin  layers.  The  molecular  structure 
is  very  dense.  Hence  it  is  readily  polished  to  a very 
fine,  smooth,  non-porous  surface.  Glass  blackboards 
are  used  to  a great  extent  in  European  countries  and  to 
some  extent  in  this  country,  and  it  appears,  from  letters 
at  hand,  with  varying  degrees  of  satisfactory  results. 
It  has  proved  satisfactory  in  the  chemistry  department 
of  the  New  York  City  College,  while  at  the  Carnegie 
Technical  School,  a correspondent  complains  of  strong 
reflection  of  light  and  recommends  against  its  use. 
However,  glass  blackboards  have  been  so  little  used  in 
this  country  that  it  seems  at  this  time  like  experimenting 
with  the  little-known  to  attempt  their  general  use,  which 
is  all  the  more  unlikely  as  the  cost  is  considerably  higher 
than  that  of  slate.  Substitutes  for  slate  are  usually 
of  patented  make.  The  most  common  are  made  from 
wood  pulp,  paper,  and  cement,  others  from  pulverized 
steel  filings  mixed  with  ground  slate  and  set  with  a stone 
cement. 

In  school  buildings  of  any  permanency  natural  slate 
blackboards  should  be  used.  If  they  are  of  good  material 
and  have  what  is  known  as  hand-shaved,  or  rubbed, 
velvet  smooth  finish  no  substitute  is  comparable  in 
any  way  except  in  cost.  A good  method  of  determining 
the  quality  of  smoothness  is  to  draw  long  chalk  lines 
upon  it  and  note  the  continuity  or  unbrokenness  of  the 
line.  If  the  lines  appear  to  be  short  dashes  or  if  the  black 
is  visible  through  the  chalk  line,  then  the  finish  is  of  poor 
workmanship  and  the  material  should  be  rejected. 
This  precaution  should  be  taken  before  it  is  set  in  place. 

In  specifying  slate  blackboard,  it  should  be  clearly 
stated  that  the  boards  shall  be  to  f"  thick,  in  true 
planes,  out  of  wind,  and  the  exposed  surfaces  hand- 
shaved  or  rubbed  to  a smooth  velvet  finish,  all  abutting 
edges  to  be  ground  and  straight  so  as  to  make  a paper 
edge  joint  when  set.  After  setting,  all  uneven  joints 
should  be  rubbed  until  the  surfaces  are  in  the  same  plane. 
This  can  be  accomplished  by  insisting  on  good  setting 
and  workmanship  in  the  installation.  Better  settings 
are  accomplished  if  the  slate  is  backed  with  a stiff  solid 
backing  such  as  wood  sheathing.  This  is  Hue  also  as 
to  composition  boards,  for  they  shouia  be  delivered 
in  as  long  lengths  as  possible,  and  unless  they  have  a 
stiff  background  they  will  show  springiness  and  soor 
separate  from  the  fastenings. 

Stock  Sizes  of  Slate.  — Slate  blackboards  are  cut  anc 
carried  in  stock,  in  standard  heights  only.  These 


THE  CLASSROOM 


269 


• s C A LL' 
Fig,  235. 


270 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Mr.  John  J.  Donovan,  Architect. 

Fig.  236.  — Classroom  Showing  Open  Windows,  Clawson  School,  Oakland,  California. 


standard  heights  are  s'o",  3'6",  4V7,  47  677,  and  5V'. 
This  should  be  kept  in  mind  when  writing  specifications. 
Other  heights  must  be  cut  to  order,  and  as  proper 
blocks  are  not  always  available,  delays  and  extra  cost 
will  follow.  Lengths  of  slate  blackboards  range  from 
3V7  to  about  6'o". 

It  is  safe  to  specify  that  all  sections  up  to  5'  6"  shall 
be  in  one  piece,  sections  over  5' 6"  and  up  to  ii'o"  shall 
be  in  two  pieces,  and  so  on,  using  5' 6"  as  a measure. 
Thereby  the  joints  will  occur  as  seldom  as  the  market 
material  will  allow.  It  should  be  specified  further  that 
all  blackboards  shall  be  of  the  best  grade  of  hand-shaved, 
natural  slate,  uniformly  f"  thick,  free  from  knots, 
veins,  clay-holes,  scale,  crossgrain,  curl,  ribbons,  or 
other  defects ; finish  face  on  one  side  only  shall  be 
pumiced,  rubbed  smooth,  and  of  a perfect  black  uniform 
color  and  finish  of  velvet-like  texture.  Backs  shall  be 
sand-rubbed  for  correct  mounting.  All  slate  shall  be 
set  only  by  experienced  mechanics,  joints  cemented, 
scraped,  and  rubbed  to  form  absolutely  true,  and  even 


flush  surfaces.  Slate  shall  be  guaranteed  not  to  fade. 
Good  results  usually  follow. 

The  details  of  Figure  231  show  the  horizontal  location 
of  the  blackboards  in  classroom  for  upper  grades  of  the 
elementary  school,  while  the  details  of  Figure  232  show 
more  clearly  the  construction  and  installation.  Type 
“ A ” is  somewhat  similar  and  less  expensive  than  type 
“ B.”  On  the  other  hand,  type  “ B ” has  smaller 
ledges  for  the  lodgment  of  dust  due  to  the  bed-molds 
fitting  into  the  angles  formed  by  the  wood  casings 
or  trim  and  the  vertical  walls.  In  type  “ B ” the 
chalk  rail  has  a hinged  wire  screen  consisting  of  num- 
ber 18  gauge  galvanized  ware  of  f77  mesh,  and  set  in 
about  6'o"  lengths  and  hinged  every  27o77  to  swing 
up  and  back  to  permit  easy  cleaning  of  the  chalk 
rail.  Its  main  purpose  is  to  keep  the  chalk  and 
erasers  free  from  the  chalk  dust  lying  in  the  trough. 
It  is  one  of  the  niceties  in  keeping  with  a well-finished 
room,  but  may  be  dispensed  with  for  other  more 
important  details.  It  should  be  noted  that  black- 


THE  CLASSROOM 


271 


boards  should  never  be  placed  on  the  window  side  of 
the  room. 

Height  of  Chalk-rails.  — One  of  the  most  important 
points  connected  with  schoolhouse  construction  is  to 
have  the  heights  of  the  chalk-rails  correctly  established 
and  carefully  inspected  during  the  construction  of  the 
building.  Too  much  stress  cannot  be  laid  to  this 
feature,  for  the  writer  has  visited  schools  having  the 
heights  entirely  out  of  proportion  to  the  age  and  size 
of  the  pupils  using  the  room.  Furthermore,  it  is  really 
the  heights  of  the  chalk-rail  from  the  floor  that  estab- 
lish the  grade  of  the  room.  The  grade  of  any  classroom 
may  be  changed  by  changing  the  furniture,  but  it  is 
not  so  simple  a matter  to  raise  or  lower  the  chalk-rail 
and  blackboard  without  going  to  a great  expense  in 
tearing  out  finished  permanent  work. 

The  heights  given  in  Figure  232  are  recorded  here 
and  are  the  results  of  careful  observation  by  both 
educators  and  architects.  The  heights  of  blackboards 
above  the  chalk-rail  as  shown  are  recommended  be- 
cause it  is  useless  to  install  great  heights  of  boards  which 
children  cannot  reach  with  comfort  and  ease.  However, 
conditions  may  arise,  such  as  proper  proportioning  of 
wall  spaces,  which  may  require  some  deviation  either 
one  way  or  the  other. 

Table  No.  1,  Blackboard  data  for  classrooms : 1 


Grade 

Height  of  Chalk- 
Rail  above 
Floor 

Height  of  Black- 
board above 
Chalk-Rail 

Kindergarten 

_ / // 

2 O 

3'  0" 

I and  II 

2 2 

3'  0" 

Ill  and  IV 

2'  4" 

3'  0" 

V and  VI 

2'  6" 

3'  6" 

VII  and  Vm 

2'  8" 

3'  6" 

High  School 

II 

"O 

4'  O" 

Tacking  Strips.  — It  should  be  noted  that  the  wall  or 
hanging  rail  above  the  blackboard  as  shown  in  Figure  232 
contains  cork  strips  inserted  in  the  rail  and  serves  for 
tacking  papers,  drawings,  etc.  This  extends  around  the 
room  and  is  exceedingly  valuable  to  the  teacher.  Credit 
should  be  given  Mr.  Floyd  A.  Naramore,  Architect 
for  the  Board  of  Education,  School  District  No.  1, 
Portland,  Oregon,  for  this  suggestion.  The  writer 
formerly  used  a concealed  wire  for  such  hangings,  but 
believes  the  tacking  device  is  superior.  In  Boston, 
where  blackboards  are  not  placed,  the  walls  are  covered 
with  burlap  and  a picture  mold  is  installed  at  the 


height  of  the  top  rail  of  blackboard,  which  serves  for 
hanging  drawings  and  pictures  at  this  height.  There 
is  also  a picture  molding  near  the  ceiling. 

The  blackboards  at  the  front  of  the  room  should  have 
the  chalk-rail  not  less  than  3V'  above  the  floor  so  that 
the  teacher’s  writing  may  be  visible  from  all  parts  of 
the  room,  and  above  the  chalk-rail  the  board  should 
extend  to  the  door  height,  which  is  about  4/0"  above 
the  chalk-rail. 

Reach  of  Pupils.  — - The  following  table  was  com- 
piled after  a series  of  tests  made  in  the  Adams  Cos- 
mopolitan School,  San  Francisco : 


Grade 


Height 
Tallest 
Pupil  Can 
Reach  to 
Write 


Height 
Shortest 
Pupil  Can 
Reach  to 
Write 


Lowest  Point 
without 
Stooping 
Tallest 
Pupil  Can 
Write 


Lowest  Point 
without 
Stooping 
Shortest 
Pupil  Can 
Write 


VIII 

VII 

VI 

V 

IV 

III 

II 

I . 


6'  4/' 
6 4 
6'  o'1 
6'  o" 
6'  o" 
S'  7§ 
5'  6" 
S' o'1 


5 IT 
5'  8' 


3 ° 

2'  8" 

3 2 

2'  8'' 

3'  3'; 

2'  II" 

3'  o" 
2'  9" 


2'  8 
2'  8 

3'  4' 
2'  xo 
2'  6 
2'  9 
2'  9 
2'  8 


n 


General  Notes.  — - If  the  fundamental  factors  of 
classroom  construction,  such  as  the  size,  height,  and 
lighting,  are  correctly  fixed,  the  interior  finish  and 
appointments  are  matters  which  the  experienced,  true- 
visioned  architect  will  bring  to  a state  of  completion 
that  will  give  pleasure  and  satisfaction.  It  is  the  taste, 
skill,  knowledge  of  material,  and  experience  of  such  an 
architect  which  immediately  mark  and  elevate  his  work 
above  that  of  the  indifferent  practitioner.  It  costs  so 
little  more,  and  often  so  much  less,  to  perform  and 
execute  good  work  that  it  behooves  those  responsible 
for  such  public  work  as  schoolhouses  to  carefully  weigh 
this  consideration.  The  value  of  good  planning,  co- 
ordinating of  parts,  careful  study  of  requirements,  and 
the  labor  of  preliminary  research  may  go  for  naught 
if  the  finished  work  does  not  show  care  and  study  in  the 
selection  of  materials,  refinement  in  details,  and  con- 
sideration in  the  color  schemes  of  the  rooms. 

How  often  are  the  good  features  of  any  piece  of  work 
lost  sight  of,  or  thrown  into  the  background,  by  a crude 
and  coarse  treatment  of  that  which  first  attracts  atten- 
tion, namely,  the  exposed  finish  work ! There  is  almost 
as  much  distinction  between  the  finished  work  of  the 


1 Dr.  Dressier,  in  his  American  School  Houses,  recommends  the  chalk-rail  be  placed  for  grades  I and  II,  25  , III  and  IV,  27  , V and  VI,  30  , 
VII  and  VIII,  32";  and  for  high  school  classes,  40";  and  that  the  width  of  board  above  the  chalk-rail  be  for  grades  I and  III,  28  ; IV  and  V, 

32";  VI  to  VIII,  36" ; and  for  high  school  classes,  40".  ,,,,,, 

The  Boston  School  House  Commission  require  the  following  : chalk- rail  height  from  floor  Kindergarten,  2 2 ; grade  IV,  2 4 to  2 6 , grades 
V to  VIII,  2' 8’';  behind  the  teacher  and  on  the  long  side  the  same ; and  that  boards  above  chalk-rail  shall  be  4 o . Also  that  blackboard  shall  be 
thick.  At  the  rear  of  the  room,  instead  of  blackboards,  soft  wood  sheathing  is  used  with  cork  carpet  attached  to  it,  extending  from  the  base  to 
the  molding  at  top  of  blackboards. 


272 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


skillful  architect  and  of  the  untrained  careless  man  as 

1 

one  finds  in  the  work  of  the  master  artisan  and  the 
apprentice.  And  it  is  with  that  thought  in  mind  that 
the  remaining  notes  on  the  classroom  are  offered.  Some 
of  the  recommendations  may  be  improved  upon,  and  most 
likely  will  be,  as  new  devices  are  discovered  and  improve- 
ments are  developed  in  the  various  building  trades. 

It  is  well  to  avoid  projecting  ledges  and  dust  catchers 
wherever  possible.  Of  necessity  there  will  be  a certain 
amount  of  trim,  such  as  casings,  floor  base,  picture 
moldings,  etc.,  but  schoolrooms  should  be  finished 
similar  to  the  interiors  of  hospitals.  The  greatly  in- 
creasing demand  for  schools  and  increased  requirements 
in  schools  of  to-day  over  those  of  only  a few  years 
past  will  not  permit  of  the  far-reaching  sanitary  treat- 
ment of  hospitals,  because  of  cost,  but  in  so  far  as  it  is 
compatible  with  the  available  money,  that  should  be 
the  objective. 

Floors.  — Whenever  the  seats  and  desks  are  fixed  or 
fastened  to  the  floors,  it  generally  follows  that  wood 
is  the  material  to  use  for  flooring,  although  it  is  possible 
to  adopt  the  awkward  method  of  fastening  desks  to 
wood  runners.  Sometimes  the  finish  of  floors  is  battle- 
ship linoleum  over  cement  or  concrete,  but  since  this  is 
generally  too  expensive  and  used  only  for  exceptional 
cases,  it  does  not  invite  exhaustive  discussion. 

Oak,  likewise,  is  too  expensive  for  general  use  for  class- 
room floors,  and  in  most  cases  the  builder  is  held  down 
to  the  use  of  maple  and  some  of  the  other  cheaper  woods, 
such  as  Douglas  fir  (Oregon  pine)  in  the  West  and 
yellow  pine  in  the  East  and  South.  Maple  is  so  superior 
for  flooring  that,  like  slate  blackboards,  it  should  be 
used  whenever  the  funds  at  hand  will  permit.  Boards 
of  education  should  take  these  points  into  consideration 
before  finally  determining  upon  the  school  building 
appropriation,  in  order  that  there  may  be  sufficient  funds 
to  handle  the  work  properly  and  with  the  lowest  cost 
later  for  repairs  and  maintenance. 

It  is  only  in  the  most  cheaply  constructed  buildings 
that  double  floors  would  not  be  installed ; and  under  no 
circumstance  should  a single  thickness  of  flooring  be 
used  for  any  floor,  and  particularly  for  the  first  floor, 
on  account  of  dampness  and  stagnant  ground  odors 
rising  from  below.  Likewise,  the  noises  from  above 
make  it  mandatory  that  double  floors  and  deafening 
be  used  above  the  first  floor.  What  is  offered  here  is 
of  course  applicable  to  floors  of  joist  construction. 
Where  fireproof  floor  construction  is  installed,  such  as 
reenforced  concrete  or  fireproof  tile  arches  between 
steel  beams  with  sleepers  for  nailing  the  under  floor, 
the  conditions  are  entirely  different  and  more  favorable. 
Before  sleepers  are  set,  they  should  be  immersed  in  a 
wood  preservative,  allowed  to  absorb  to  the  fullest 


capillary  extent,  and  then  dried  before  being  set  in 
place  to  receive  the  concrete  fill  and  rough  or  finish 
flooring.  If  this  precaution  is  not  taken,  dry  rot  is  apt 
to  set  in,  causing  no  end  of  expense  and  inconvenience. 
In  order  that  deafening  may  be  effective,  the  finish 
floor  should  be  laid  so  that  it  “floats  ” on  2"X2",  or 
better  T'Xt,",  wood  strips  laid  and  occasionally  tacked 
to  the  under  floor.  All  deafening  should  extend  upward 
back  of  the  wall  base  at  least  4“. 

There  are  a few  good  floor  deafeners  or  sound  insu- 
lators on  the  market,  any  one  of  which,  if  used  in  sufficient 
quantity  and  correctly  applied  according  to  the  manu- 
facturer’s directions,  will  answer  the  purpose.  All 
finish  floors  should  be  tongued  and  grooved,  blind- 
nailed,  and  top-nailed  at  end  joints  where  necessary, 
thoroughly  sanded  by  a sanding  machine,  and  hand- 
scraped  and  sandpapered  near  the  baseboards  where 
it  is  difficult  to  run  the  sanding  machine. 

Thresholds,  door  saddles,  or  carpet  strips  as  they  are 
often  called,  should  not  be  used  between  rooms.  When- 
ever the  direction  of  the  flooring  changes  or  there  is  a 
change  in  flooring  material,  such  as  wood  against  cement, 
marble,  or  linoleum,  the  finish  floor  levels  should  be  care- 
fully adjusted  and  a tight  filler  strip  of  the  proper 
material,  either  marble,  wood,  or  cement,  should  be 
inserted  between  the  jambs  and  at  the  floor  level. 

Interior  Mill  Work  or  Trim.  — It  has  been  previously 
stated  that  the  interiors  of  classrooms  should  approach 
the  interiors  of  modern  hospitals  in  sanitary  moldings 
and  finish.  However,  a certain  amount  of  trim  is 
necessary,  such  as  floor  bases,  chalk-rails,  blackboard 
casings,  hanging  rails,  and  picture  moldings.  These 
moldings,  casings,  and  rails  should  be  as  simple  in 
design  as  possible  and  all  ledges  should  be  avoided  by  the 
use  of  rounded  or  coved  bed  molds.  Type  A,  figure  232, 
shows  a good  example  of  a very  simple  treatment  in 
larger  detail  of  the  interiors  of  figure  231.  Type  B of 
figure  232  is  a more  complete  finish,  as  the  angle  or  bed 
moldings  are  used  throughout. 

One  of  the  problems  submitted  to  the  writer  a few 
years  ago  was  to  find  a wall  material  which  would  take 
the  wear  and  tear  of  hard  usage  for  the  wall  space  be- 
tween the  top  of  the  floor  base  and  the  under  side  of  the 
chalk-rail.  In  the  schools  visited,  especially  in  the 
lower  grades,  which  had  been  in  use  from  six  to  eight 
years,  we  found  the  plaster  walls  of  this  space  much 
damaged,  and  this  damage  was  more  pronounced  in 
appearance  in  many  of  the  schools  when  the  plaster 
walls  were  covered  with  burlap  or  heavy  canvas,  as  the 
covering  was  torn. 

We  decided  upon  the  use  of  built-up  veneer  panels  of 
the  kind  of  wood  used  for  the  interior  finish,  which  was 
mostly  Douglas  fir.  Upon  recent  examination,  the 


THE  CLASSROOM 


273 


Fig.  237.  — Open  Windows  in  Patio  — Emerson  School,  Oakland,  California. 


walls  were  found  to  be  in  splendid  condition.  This  is 
the  section  of  the  room  which  receives  the  worst  kind 
of  wear,  evidently  from  the  children’s  feet  and  knees. 
Somehow  or  other,  repair  and  maintenance  of  school 
buildings  is  given  less  attention  than  any  other  class 
of  public  or  semi-public  buildings,  and  no  buildings 
except  factories  are  subject  to  as  much  use  and  abuse 
as  school  buildings.  Therefore,  it  behooves  boards 
of  education  to  build  as  permanently  with  good  lasting 
materials  as  conditions  will  permit. 

It  is  not  every  appropriation  that  will  permit  the  use 
of  oak  as  an  interior  wood  finish ; but  oak,  or  a similar 
hardwood,  should  be  the  selection,  as  it  gives  the  most 
pleasing  appearance  and  adapts  itself  to  almost  any 
color  scheme  for  the  room.  Furthermore,  it  is  most 
durable,  least  susceptible  to  damage  by  dents,  and  may 
be  easily  refinished.  However,  the  number  of  school- 
houses  trimmed  in  oak  is  relatively  small  compared  to 
the  number  finished  in  other  woods,  and  we  must  treat 
with  the  conditions  that  prevail.  In  the  West  the  most 
commonly  used  wood  is  Douglas  fir,  known  as  Oregon 
pine.  It  is  a close  grain  wood  and  very  easy  to  work ; 
is  subject  to  some  shrinkage,  and  therefore  the  wood 
should  be  thoroughly  seasoned  and  kiln-dried.  Also 
the  joinery  and  workmanship  should  be  of  high  grade. 
The  Eastern  and  Central  states  have  a greater  variety 
of  woods  to  select  from  whenever  oak  is  found  to  be 


outside  the  pale  of  price.  Ash,  birch,  chestnut,  white 
pine,  and  southern  pine  are  woods  adaptable  for  interior 
finish. 

The  day  may  not  be  far  distant  when  it  will  be  eco- 
nomical to  use  metal  trim  for  interior  finish.  At  present, 
however,  it  is  beyond  the  reach  except  only  in  unusual 
cases,  such  as  in  the  many-storied  schools  of  New  York 
City,  where  its  use  is  mainly  for  fireproof  purposes.  It 
is  ideally  sanitary,  and  with  the  baked  enamel  finish 
usually  applied  at  the  factory  the  durability  is  almost 
beyond  measure. 

Doors.  — At  this  age  of  progress  it  seems  hardly 
necessary  to  repeat  that  all  doors  in  school  buildings 
should  open  outward  from  the  room.  While  there  is 
not  as  great  danger  from  doors  opening  into  a classroom 
as  there  is  from  the  exterior  doors  of  the  building  at 
the  entrance  and  exits,  yet  the  principle  should  be 
followed  throughout  and  without  exception.  Also  there 
should  be  but  one  door  to  a classroom,  as  that  one 
means  of  exit  gives  the  teacher  complete  control  over 
the  pupils  in  case  of  fire  or  alarm.  With  two  doors 
to  a room  sometimes  an  excitable  or  unruly  pupil  might 
dash  out  of  the  room  and  possibly  start  a panic  which 
could  easily  cause  a tragic  loss  of  life. 

Classroom  doors  should  be  at  least  3'  4"  in  width 
and  the  usual  height  is  7'  o".  The  flush  type  of  door 
without  any  panels  or  moldings  is  most  desirable.  They 


274 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


are  built  up  with  a center  core,  and  layers  of  veneer  are 
applied  to  the  core,  giving  a smooth  even  finish. 

School  authorities  differ  regarding  the  use  of  glass 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  classroom  door,  some  object- 
ing to  the  absence  of  privacy  in  the  room  and  stressing 
the  fact  that  the  passing  of  teachers  and  students  in  the 
corridors  is  distracting  to  the  pupils  and  teacher  within. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  writer  has  found  that  the  glass 
panels,  if  divided  into  reasonably  small  panes,  meet  with 
high  favor.  Considerable  light  is  transmitted  into  the 
corridors,  and  it  is  always  possible  to  use  ground  or 
obscure  glass  to  obviate  any  distraction  from  the  corridor. 

The  door  should  always  be  fitted  with  a lock  which 
never  permits  the  door  to  be  locked  to  those  within 
the  room.  This  applies  to  all  doors  of  a school  build- 
ing. There  are  inexpensive  locks  on  the  market  that 
have  this  feature.  The  door  may  be  locked  from  without 
to  prevent  pilfering  and  vandalism,  but  never  from 
within.  Furthermore,  the  door  should  be  hung  to  open 
the  full  180  degrees  and  have  a doorholder  consisting  of 
a brass  socket  set  in  the  bottom  of  the  door  which  fits 
into  a small  round  brass  tongue  about  in  diameter 
and  set  about  above  the  finish  floor  of  the  corridor. 
Door  checks  to  classroom  doors  are  a nuisance  and 
altogether  unnecessary. 

Transoms.  — The  use  of  transoms  in  classrooms  has 
been  much  debated.  But  experience  and  observation 
lead  the  writer  to  heartily  recommend  their  use.  The 
demand  for  more  fresh  air  and  freer  circulation  of  air 
when  the  ventilating  system  is  not  functioning  brought 
about  their  adoption  in  groups.  When  placed  near 
the  ceiling  opposite  the  windows,  a circulation  of  air 
in  the  room  is  always  possible,  since  there  is  generally 
a difference  of  temperature  between  the  outside  of  the 
building  and  the  corridor  side  of  the  room.  They  are 
particularly  adaptable  to  one-story  schools  with  open 
porches,  and  have  been  found  useful  for  cross-venti- 
lation of  classrooms  on  each  side  of  corridors.  It  is 
always  possible  to  substitute  wood  panels  for  the  glass 
if  ill  effects  are  found  due  to  cross  lighting,  but  the 
latter  does  not  occur  when  the  transoms  are  placed 
close  to  the  ceiling.  Usually  the  transoms  are  about 
3'  o"  wide  by  about  2'  o"  high  and  are  hinged  and  sus- 
pended by  chains  when  open.  Whenever  they  are 
installed,  the  wall  below  should  be  flared  or  sloped  so 
that  any  dust  lodging  there  may  be  easily  seen  and 
removed. 

Plaster.  — Were  it  not  for  the  bad  acoustics  so  com- 
monly found  in  the  classrooms  of  our  fireproof  school 
buildings  this  subject  might  very  well  be  omitted,  for 
there  is  no  intention  to  include  here  a treatise  on  build- 
ing construction.  Modern  rapid  construction  and  re- 
lated conditions  brought  into  practice  the  use  of  what 


is  known  as  hard  wall  or  gypsum  plaster,  which  is  pre- 
pared before  delivery  to  the  buildings  and  is  ready 
for  immediate  use  by  simply  adding  sand  and  water. 
The  necessity  to  make  buildings  as  nearly  fireproof  as 
possible  developed  the  metal  stud  and  metal  lath.  The 
use  of  the  two  materials,  metal  laths  and  hard  wall 
plaster  for  wall  surfaces,  brought  about  a harder  and 
denser  surface  than  that  of  the  wood  lath  and  limp 
mortar.  This  plaster  absorbs  less  sound  waves  set 
in  motion  by  the  voice,  and  reflects  the  waves,  reverberat- 
ing them  through  the  room.  With  maple  flooring,  metal 
desks  with  hardwood  tops,  slate  blackboards,  the  walls 
and  ceilings  of  metal  lath,  and  hard  wall  plaster,  to- 
gether with  the  window  glass,  the  children  and  their 
clothing  are  the  only  substances  remaining  to  raise  the 
coefficient  of  absorption  of  the  sound  waves  in  the  room. 
The  writer  has  built  such  classrooms  under  fixed  build- 
ing laws  and  knows  whereof  he  speaks.  It  is  for  the 
peace  of  mind  of  both  teacher  and  pupil  that  these 
facts  are  here  set  forth. 

The  plastering  materials  most  favorable  for  good 
acoustics  in  a classroom  are  wood  lath  and  lime  mortar 
gauged  with  Keene’s  cement ; the  next  least  unfavorable 
are  the  terra  cotta  or  burnt  clay  blocks  and  lime  mortar, 
and  the  next  to  that  are  the  metal  lath  and  lime  mortar, 
and  the  most  unfavorable  are  the  metal  lath  and  hard 
wall  plaster. 

All  finish  plaster  work  should  be  troweled  to  a smooth 
even  finish  with  a steel  trowel.  Never  should  the  surface 
receive  a sand  finish. 

It  is  not  uncommon  for  a shrewd  old  plasterer  to 
suggest  the  sand  finish,  as  it  means  less  labor  for  him, 
and  speedier  results.  But  the  sand  finish  is  a catch-all 
for  the  fine  particles  of  dust,  to  say  nothing  of  germs, 
bugs,  and  what  not.  The  writer  heartily  urges  the 
smooth  finish  for  the  health  of  the  occupants  of  the 
room,  a subject  which  will  be  further  discussed  under 
“ Painting.” 

Canvas.  — In  an  elementary  school  building,  the  walls 
from  the  top  of  the  blackboard  to  the  floor  receive  hard 
usage,  and  the  wear  and  tear  of  these  surfaces  have 
brought  about  the  use  of  burlap  or  canvas  on  all  plaster 
surfaces  from  the  floor  base  to  the  top  wall  hanging  rail 
except  in  such  places  as  under  the  chalk-rail,  previously 
described.  Canvas  should  be  what  is  known  as  “ Oil 
Canvas,”  and  be  thoroughly  sized  with  strong  glue, 
sizing  always  to  be  applied  before  the  canvas  is  placed 
in  position.  The  canvas  should  be  hung  in  perpendicu- 
lar strips  as  with  wall  paper  wherever  the  height  to  be 
covered  is  greater  than  the  width  of  the  canvas.  It 
should  be  well  pasted  on  the  back  with  strong  fresh 
glue  and  special  care  taken  to  make  close,  neat  butt 
joints  properly  rolled  down.  Immediately  after  each 


THE  CLASSROOM 


275 


stretch  is  finished  sponge  off  with  fresh  clean  water  to 
remove  all  glue  from  the  outside  surface.  All  canvas 
work  should  call  for  a guarantee  against  peeling,  blister- 
ing or  other  defects  of  material  or  workmanship  for  at 
least  one  year  after  completion.  After  the  canvas  has 
dried  out  it  should  receive  at  least  two  good  coats  of 
lead  and  oil  as  a finish. 

In  specifying  canvas,  it  is  very  important  that  only  a 
high  grade  material  be  called  for  and  used.  The  brand 
used  should  be  one  especially  prepared  for  wall  covering, 
and  one  which  does  not  shrink  or  permit  the  glue  to 
ooze  through  the  weave,  and  which  can  be  laid  without 
the  joints  showing.  The  unprepared  canvas  will  shrink 
and  cause  no  end  of  bother,  and  never  can  be  made 
satisfactory. 

Painting.  • — - The  color  schemes  for  classrooms  should 
be  simple  and  of  good  taste,  and  the  reason  for  this  is 
quite  evident.  In  the  first  place,  with  a black  band 
of  blackboard,  the  top  of  which  cuts  the  height  of  the 
room  in  two,  with  the  many-colored  desk  tops  and  seats 
and  with  desk  supports  of  sharp  color,  usually  black, 
there  is  very  little  chance  to  get  away  from  the  simplest 
of  selection  in  color,  as  the  restrictions  have  been  rightly 
imposed  by  the  requirements  of  utility  attached  to  the 
problem.  Occasionally  we  hear  and  read  of  color 
schemes  for  classrooms  by  some  one  who  has  spent  but 
a little  while  within  one,  and  who  overlooks  physical 
conditions  that  prohibit  anything  apart  from  a simple 
light  treatment  of  both  walls  and  ceiling. 

Who  has  not  been  in  school  buildings  where  either  the 
colorist  or  the  painter  has  attempted  to  reproduce  the 
greens,  blues,  reds,  and  purples  of  nature  on  the  walls 
of  rooms  for  study,  until  they  seemed  to  howl  with 
violence?  Time  and  again  one  wonders  what  prompted 
the  impulse.  There  are  many  such  examples  of  poor 
taste,  and  they  are  not  rare  except  in  vigor.  What  can 
we  expect  of  children  who  have  to  spend  at  least  one- 
tenth  of  their  life  within  rooms  that  either  excite  or 
depress  ? 

The  question  of  color  scheme  is  extremely  simple. 
First,  the  ceilings  and  walls  should  reflect  as  much 
diffused  light  as  possible.  Therefore  the  ceiling  should 
be  as  close  as  possible  to  the  white  shade  without  having 
the  dead  white  effect.  The  egg-shell  white  is  not  dis- 
pleasing, and  it  should  be  carried  down  to  the  top  of  the 
picture  molding,  which  is  usually  placed  close  to  the 
ceiling.  Below  that,  light  buffs,  light  grays,  or  any  of 
the  light,  soft,  pleasing  hues  which  will  harmonize  with 
the  wood  stains,  keeping  them,  however,  light  and  flat, 
will  give  satisfactory  results.  Whenever  burlap  is 
used  the  same  care  should  be  exercised  to  keep  the  tones 
soft.  Tans  are  good  colors  for  this  surface. 

Tints  produce  more  pleasing  and  softer  effects  than 


paints,  although  many  of  the  washable  wall  paints 
now  on  the  market  give  pleasing  flat  tones.  The 
ceilings  may  be  tinted,  but  whenever  the  money  avail- 
able will  permit  the  use  of  flat  washable  wall  paints, 
these  should  be  adopted.  For  with  three  good  coats 
of  a reputable  make,  it  is  possible  later  to  wash  and 
clean  the  walls  with  soap  and  water.  The  plaster 
finish  must  be  smooth  and  not  sanded.  For  first-class 
work  the  ceiling  should  receive  two  coats  of  tinting  in 
addition  to  the  coat  of  sizing;  likewise  the  walls,  if 
tinted.  But  if  paint  is  used  for  either  walls  or  ceilings, 
three  coats  are  necessary  to  produce  a satisfactory 
result. 

Seldom  is  the  finished  woodwork  painted.  It  should 
be  stained,  shellacked  and  varnished  and  brought  to  a 
flat  tone.  The  grain  of  the  wood  is  enhanced  by  such 
treatment.  And  this  is  a matter  on  which  the  purchasing 
agent  of  the  Board  of  Education  should  confer  with  the 
architect  in  the  selection  of  the  finish  and  colors  of  the 
school  furniture.  Many  pleasing  interiors  have  been 
marred  by  a thoughtless  selection  of  furniture.  Nobody 
with  any  taste  would  think  of  furnishing  a home  without 
giving  thought  to  the  colors  of  the  rooms  and  the  furni- 
ture, in  order  that  quiet  and  harmony  may  be  the  pre- 
vailing note  throughout. 

It  is  a good  thought  and  well  expressed  that  the  proper 
color  schemes  for  different  rooms  and  different  classrooms 
vary.  They  should  be  handled,  however,  with  some 
thought  of  the  orientation  of  the  room.  It  should  be 
emphasized  that  selection  of  colors  receive  just  as  much 
attention  as  any  other  part  of  the  work,  for  it  is  equally 
as  important  in  its  effect  on  the  pupils  for  whom  the 
school  is  built. 

Floor  Treatment.  — - It  has  long  been  the  practice 
to  oil  the  floors  of  classrooms  in  order  to  preserve  the 
finish  surface  and  to  keep  the  dust  from  rising.  A 
number  of  practical  men  have  been  consulted  who  have 
had  wide  experience  in  the  use  of  materials  for  this 
purpose,  and  the  best  of  the  information  obtained  is 
given  below. 

Floor  Oiling.  — The  floors  should  be  first  thoroughly 
cleaned  with  hot  water  and  a cleansing  powder,  using 
scrubbing  brushes  to  remove  all  dirt,  dust,  and  foreign 
substances,  then  allowed  to  dry  thoroughly  before  apply- 
ing the  oil  dressing.  In  re-oiling  floors  this  cleansing 
process  should  be  strictly  followed  in  order  to  preserve 
the  natural  color  of  the  wood  and  to  defer  as  long  as 
possible  the  darkening  or  turning  black  of  the  floor. 

After  the  floor  has  been  washed  and  allowed  to  dry, 
the  oil  should  be  applied  with  a mop  and  thoroughly 
mopped  into  the  wood  pores  and  allowed  to  penetrate 
thoroughly  into  the  grain.  After  twenty-four  hours 
the  floor  should  be  remopped  with  a dry  mop  which  has 


276 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


been  saturated  with  the  oil  and  allowed  to  thoroughly 
dry,  taking  up  any  superfluous  oil  that  may  not  have 
penetrated  into  the  wood.  This  will  give  the  floors  a 
polish  and  prevent  to  a great  extent  soiling  of  the  girl 
pupils’  dresses.  This  work  should  be  done  about  a week 
before  the  new  building  is  accepted  and  during  summer 
vacations  in  school  buildings  already  in  use.  Once  a 
year  is  generally  considered  sufficient  for  oiling  floors 
completely  and  twice  a year  for  the  aisles  between  desks, 
but  it  is  far  better  to  make  a thorough  job  of  it  twice  a 
year.  If  the  oiling  is  well  done,  it  is  then  only  necessary 
for  the  janitor  to  sweep  the  floors  once  a day  with  a long- 
handled  12"  Russian  bristle  hair  floor  sweeper. 

The  use  of  sprinkled  sawdust  in  rooms  with  fixed 
desks  should  be  discouraged,  as  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
prevent  particles  getting  in  around  the  floor  flanges 
of  desks  and  seats  and  creating  unsanitary  conditions. 
Cleaning  floors  by  the  vacuum  process  is  not  successful 
where  desks  are  fixed  or  screwed  to  the  floor,  as  it  is 
difficult  for  the  janitor  to  handle  the  hose  and  tools 
in  and  around  the  desk  supports.  It  takes  janitors 
longer  and  the  work  is  not  efficiently  done  as  when  done 
by  the  sweeper,  particularly  over  oiled  floors.  The 
vacuum  cleaner  is  desirable,  however,  for  cleaning  the 
blackboard  erasers  and  the  chalk  rails.  Chalk  dust 
is  very  injurious  to  the  lungs. 

When  there  is  objection  to  the  use  of  floor  oils  for 
floor  finishes  the  following  is  a comprehensive  descrip- 
tion of  a treatment  which  gives  a hard  durable  finish. 
Different  woods,  of  necessity,  call  for  special  care. 
Every  kind  or  all  kinds  will  not  accept  the  same  treat- 
ment. The  treatment  given  should  be  that  which  the 
nature  of  the  wood  requires. 

Floor  Dressings.  — The  first  thing  to  do  with  the 
newly  laid  floor  after  the  surface  has  been  sanded  is 
to  fill  the  pores  of  the  wood  with  a prepared  paste  wood- 
filler  made,  for  best  results,  from  a combination  of 
silica,  or  silex  (quartz  rock),  linseed  oil,  Japan  drier, 
thinned  ready  for  application  to  the  floor  surface  with 
either  spirits  of  turpentine  or  petroleum  naphtha.  This 
prepares  for  a natural  wood  effect.  If  the  wood  is  to  be 
stained  the  stain  should  always  be  applied  before  the  filler 
is  put  into  the  pores  of  the  wood.  This  filled  surface  when 
it  has  hardened  is  sandpapered  smooth  and  presents  an 
even,  uniform  surface  that  will  indefinitely  prolong  the 
life  of  the  wood,  and  requires  much  less  care  and  expense 
than  an  unfilled  surface,  and  also  requires  less  material 
for  subsequent  finishes  of  whatever  kind  employed.  All 
stairway  treads  should  receive  like  treatment  when 
made  of  wood.  The  wood  having  open  pores  and 
demanding  such  treatment  as  stated  are  oak,  ash,  elm, 
cedar,  maple,  gum,  and  Oregon  pine  (Douglas  fir),  all 
of  which  are  greatly  improved  by  this  treatment.  The 


more  porous  the  wood  the  more  need  of  filler.  But 
porous  wood,  well  filled,  presents  a relatively  hard 
surface. 

Floors  of  halls  of  assembly,  baths,  gymnasiums, 
schools,  churches,  and  public  buildings  give  splendid 
service  when,  after  they  have  been  properly  filled,  they 
are  given  a first  coating  of  a mixture  of  equal  parts  of 
raw  linseed  oil  and  petroleum  naphtha.  Allow  sufficient 
time  for  the  wood  to  absorb  all  it  will  and  then  remove 
surplus  oil  from  the  surface  to  prevent  any  tackiness 
of  the  material.  An  occasional  cleansing  of  the  floors 
and  a repetition  of  the  process  of  oiling  as  above  stated 
will  not  only  preserve  the  floor  but  keep  it  in  an  accept- 
able condition  and  appearance. 

There  are  other  ways  of  finishing  floors  made  of  wood 
where  they  are  used  for  banquet  and  dance  purposes. 
The  filled  surface  can  be  given  an  application  of  pre- 
pared floor  wax  and  thoroughly  polished  or  burnished 
with  a weighted  floor-polishing  brush,  or  a coating  of 
prepared  dancing  wax  can  be  spread  over  the  filled 
surface,  letting  the  feet  of  the  dancers  do  the  polishing 
and  finish.  Another  way  is  to  apply  one  or  more  coats 
of  a good  quality  of  floor  varnish  (not  shellac ) over  the 
filled  floor  surface  if  durability  or  service  is  desired. 
But  there  is  one  thing  to  be  borne  in  mind  in  using 
varnish  as  a finish  on  floors.  Keeping  it  in  repair 
demands  more  expense  and  care  than  an  oil  or  wax  finish, 
as  it  cannot  well  be  patched  when  worn  in  places  of  more 
or  less  constant  use.  The  least  durable  of  all  floor 
finishes  is  the  painted  floor.  Like  the  varnished  surface, 
it  is  difficult  to  keep  in  repair  without  going  over  the 
whole  surface. 

Linoleum.- — Inlaid  or  battleship  linoleum  floor  cover- 
ing when  newly  laid  should  never  be  varnished  to  pre- 
serve or  beautify  it.  But  if  when  cleansed  it  is  given 
an  occasional  going-over  with  a cloth  or  mop  slightly 
saturated  with  a solution  of  equal  parts  of  raw  linseed 
oil  and  either  turpentine  or  petroleum  naphtha,  being 
careful  to  leave  no  surplus  oil  to  become  tacky,  it  will 
be  beautified  and  its  life  prolonged.  This  does  not  apply 
to  the  cheaper  class  of  stamped  linoleum  floor  coverings. 

Linseed  Oil  and  Turpentine.  — Another  simple  but 
effective  treatment  is  to  apply  one  coat  of  pure  raw 
linseed  oil  and  25  per  cent  of  turpentine  and  a small 
amount  of  Japan  drier,  thoroughly7  mixed  and  applied 
hot.  Although  this  is  not  a dust  allay7er.  it  makes  a very 
pleasing  floor  finish. 

Location  of  Air  Registers.  — When  a ventilating 
system  is  properly  laid  out  by'  a competent  heating 
and  ventilating  engineer,  there  should  be  little  or  no 
occasion  for  the  misplacement  of  air  supply7  and  exhaust 
vent  openings.  On  the  other  hand,  the  principle  of 
complete  circulation  of  the  air  is  often  abused,  and  it 


THE  CLASSROOM 


277 


may  not  be  always  convenient  to  obtain  the  services  of 
an  engineer.  Therefore,  a description  of  the  classroom 
which  disregarded  this  point  would  not  be  complete. 

In  a room  13'  o"  high  the  center  of  the  supply  opening 
should  be  about  g'  o"  above  the  floor,  and  its  location 
gives  best  results  when  the  air  in  its  travels  makes  a 
complete  circuit  of  the  room.  In  classrooms  of  type 
Figure  219,  the  proper  location  is  back  of  the  teacher’s 
desk.  Then  the  air  will  pass  out  into  the  room  and 
gradually  force  its  way  back  under  the  wardrobe  doors, 
and  up  to  the  vent  in  the  ceiling  of  the  wardrobes. 
The  supply  and  exhaust  should  always  be  at  the  same 
side  or  same  end  and  never  in  opposite  walls.  Air, 
like  water  or  electricity,  will  take  the  line  of  least  resist- 
ance when  under  pressure.  For  effective  ventilation  the 
air  should  be  forced  to  circulate  into  all  parts  of  the  room. 

The  location  of  the  exhaust  in  figure  221  should  be 
observed.  Here  the  supply  is  located  at  one  end  of  the 
wall  side,  and  the  air  exhausts  under  the  wardrobe  doors 
and  up  through  the  vent  in  the  ceiling  of  the  wardrobe 
end  furthest  removed  from  the  location  of  the  supply. 
The  course  the  air  must  take  in  its  movement  will  include 
every  seat  in  the  room. 

Windows.1  — ■ The  demand  for  open  air  classrooms 
led  the  writer  in  1912  to  devise  a window  that  would 
make  practically  every  classroom  an  open  air  room  at 
will.  For  he  thought  that  if  it  is  desirable  to  have 
open  air  rooms  for  tubercular  or  anaemic  children  it  is 
equally  desirable  to  preserve  the  health  of  healthy 
children.  Figures  236  and  237  are  fairly  good  photo- 
graphs of  the  results  attained.  These  window  sash 
operate  on  a small  roller,  and  by  means  of  thin  galvanized 
metal  arms  may  turn  through  an  angle  of  180  degrees. 
The  top  of  the  sash  moves  in  a vertical  plane,  while 
the  bottom  of  the  sash  moves  outward  and  upward. 

The  problem  of  shading  the  sun  from  the  room  and 
preserving  the  full  width  of  opening  was  solved  by 
hanging  a separate  shade  on  each  sash  at  the  bottom, 
and  placing  eyelets  in  the  shade  slat ; the  latter  travels 
along  fine  galvanized  wires  and  prevents  the  shade  from 
flapping  and  tearing.  Thus  the  sash  may  be  completely 
covered  by  the  shade,  and  by  adjusting  the  sashes  at  the 
proper  angles  each  sash  shades  the  open  space  below. 

Shades.  — Window  shades  in  classrooms  should  never 
be  opaque,  but  rather  translucent.  In  laboratories  there 
are  occasions  for  opaque  shades,  which  are  discussed 
under  the  science  group,  but  in  the  classroom  they 
ought  to  be  banished  entirely.  The  shades  are  found 
to  be  more  satisfactory  when  the  oiled  shade  cloth  is 
of  rough  surface  or  of  the  light  cotton  duck  or  canvas 
containing  no  starch,  paint  or  filler,  and  dyed  to  the 
color  desired.  Usually  the  tans  or  grays  give  better 
results,  as  they  harmonize  with  the  interior  colors  of  the 


room  and  generally  with  the  exteriors.  The  green 
shades  are  too  strong  in  contrast  with  the  surrounding 
colors  and  tend  to  darken  the  room  too  much.  Besides, 
they  vitiate  the  outside  color  scheme.  Many  well- 
designed  exteriors  have  been  spoiled  by  the  use  of 
dark  shades. 

Hanging  of  shades  is  so  well  understood  that  it  seems 
hardly  necessary  to  say  more  than  a word  regarding 
it.  With  double-hung  windows  there  should  be  two 
sets  of  shades  with  each  masonry  opening,  and  the 
rollers  should  be  placed  at  the  meeting,  rail,  with  the 
lower  shade  roller  above  the  roller  for  the  upper  shade 
and  arranged  so  the  shade  cloth  pulls  down  and  behind 
the  upper  shade  roller.  It  is  decidedly  bad  practice  to 
suspend  shades  from  the  head  of  double-hung  windows, 
as  it  prevents  operating  the  shade  so  as  to  obtain  full 
advantage  of  both  light  and  air,  and  renders  it  impossible 
to  prevent  noisy  flapping  when  the  window  is  open  and 
the  wind  is  blowing.  Shades  should  extend  at  least 
one  inch  beyond  the  inside  edge  of  the  casing  or  jamb, 
with  the  slats  one-half  inch  wider  than  the  shades. 

Recently  there  has  been  introduced  a number  of 
patented  adjustable  shade  fixtures  adaptable  for  use  on 
double-hung  windows,  and  inasmuch  as  there  is  room 
for  improvement  it  is  well  to  reconsider  this  problem  as 
each  new  device  is  submitted. 

Venetian  Blinds.  — Venetian  blinds  for  shades  to 
classroom  windows  have  been  frowned  upon  by  school 
authorities  on  account  of  the  dust  settling  and  collect- 
ing upon  the  slats,  also  on  account  of  the  horizontal 
streaks  of  light  reflected  into  the  room,  which  are  par- 
ticularly bad  at  the  level  of  the  eyes.  In  the  last  few 
years,  however,  the  installations  of  Venetian  blinds  have 
become  more  successful  and  are  very  much  used,  espe- 
cially where  it  is  desirable  to  keep  the  windows  open 
wide  during  the  hot  days  and  at  the  same  time  shut  out 
or  deflect  the  sun’s  rays.  The  success  of  these  installa- 
tions is  due  to  the  use  of  a wider  slat  which,  when  tilted 
at  the  proper  angle,  greatly  obviates  the  horizontal 
streaks  and  reflects  the  sun’s  rays  to  the  white  ceiling, 
giving  a diffused  light  to  the  room.  Another  reason 
is  due  to  the  use  of  a wood  of  light  color  which,  if  treated 
in  the  natural,  causes  a sense  of  diffusion  of  the  light 
from  that  part  of  the  room.  Venetian  blinds  are  better 
adapted  to  rooms  for  laboratories,  offices,  cooking, 
typewriting,  and  similar  rooms,  where  it  is  possible  to 
move  about,  rather  than  to  classrooms  where  the  student 
is  confined  to  a fixed  position. 

The  best  materials  for  Venetian  blinds  are  cedar,  yellow 
pine,  and  redwood.  Cedar  is  by  far  the  best  because 
of  its  toughness.  Moreover  the  grain  enables  it  to  take 
a good  light  natural  finish  which  will  reflect  the  maxi- 
mum amount  of  light,  and  it  is  much  easier  to  keep 


1 The  Universal  Window. 


27S 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


clean  than  any  other  finish.  There  are  several  styles, 
but  the  top  roll  blind  is  best  for  school  work.  This 
operates  so  as  to  insure  the  bottom  of  the  blind  being 
raised  evenly.  The  blinds  should  be  made  so  that  the 
slats  tilt  easily  and  positively  to  give  control  over  the  sun- 
light entering  the  room. 


The  advantage  gained  by  the  use  of  Venetian  blinds 
is  that  in  localities  of  intense  sunlight  the  south  and 
west  exposures  need  not  be  avoided,  making  possible 
more  economic  planning,  especially  if  the  architect  is 
confronted  with  the  problem  of  east  light  only  for 
classrooms. 


t 


CHAPTER  XIII 


KINDERGARTEN 

By  John  J.  Donovan,  B.S.,  Architect,  A.I.A. 

I.  General  Remarks.  II.  Exposure.  III.  Size.  IV.  Furnishings.  V.  Subjects  Taught,  (i)  Music.  (2)  Language.  (3)  Literature. 
(4)  Rhythm.  (5)  Games.  (6)  Nature- Study.  (7)  Manual  Training.  (8)  Socialization. 


General  Remarks.  — There  is  very  little  opportunity 
in  the  elementary  school  for  the  architect  to  depart 
from  the  uniform  fixed  requirements  in  planning  class- 
rooms, but  when  he  comes  to  the  kindergarten  there  is 
every  incentive  and  great  possibility  for  freedom  to 
do  something  out  of  the  ordinary  and  the  conventional. 
In  its  broadest  sense,  the  kindergarten  is  a room  more  for 
supervised  play  than  for  study,  with  its  dances,  games, 

I singing,  and  its  beautiful  make-believes.  It  is  where  the 
child  receives  its  first  impression  of  school  life,  and  the 
room  and  environment  should  be  made  as  attractive  and 
interesting  as  possible,  so  that  the  little  ones  may  get 

I as  much  joy  out  of  their  first  school  year  as  comfortable 
and  pleasing  quarters  may  provide.  Therefore,  the 
architect  should  feel  free  to  exercise  his  taste  and  imagi- 
nation in  making  this  room  a little  wonderland  of 
childhood. 

I 

Exposure.  — Its  exposure  should  be  the  southeast 
corner  of  the  building,  on  the  ground  floor,  for  warmth 
and  cheer.  That  location  makes  it  possible  to  have 
separate  playgrounds,  a pergola,  covered  porch  or  sun 
room  just  off  the  main  room,  and  a small  garden  where 
the  children  may  have  practical  lessons  in  nature  study. 
The  garden  should  be  large  enough  to  provide  a small 
plot  for  each  child.  Mural  decorations  or  paintings  of 
children  at  play,  animals,  allegorical  subjects  and  nursery 
rhymes  told  by  good  paintings,  applied  to  the  frieze  or 
wall  spaces  above  the  door  headline  or  above  the  black- 
board space,  if  well  done,  will  be  worth  the  expense  for 
the  children’s  mental  welfare  and  for  the  pleasure  and 
happiness  they  will  give. 

Size.  — In  size,  the  room  should  be  equivalent  to  one 
and  one-half  or  two  classrooms.  It  is  a room  which  might 
be  described  as  having  elastic  dimensions,  as  there  are 
no  fixed  seats  or  desks.  Where  there  is  an  alcove  for 
sand  tables,  piano,  racks,  etc.,  a room  24'X4o'  will 
give  ample  space,  especially  if  there  is  an  outdoor  porch 
or  sun  room.  Figure  238  shows  a plan  of  the  kindergarten 


in  the  Clawson  School,  Oakland,  California,  which  ad- 
mirably lent  itself  to  the  general  plan  of  the  school. 

This  plan  provides  for  fifty  children  divided  into  two 
classes,  a morning  and  an  afternoon  class.  Figure  239  is  a 
view  of  the  interior  of  the  room,  showing  the  fireplace 
around  which  the  children  gather  at  Hallowe’en  and 
Thanksgiving  to  pop  corn,  and  where  at  Christmas  time 
stockings  are  hung  and  filled.  On  dark  and  rainy  days 
it  is  pleasant  and  cheerful  to  have  a log  fire  and  to  gather 
around  it  for  stories  and  tales  which  linger  long  in  the 
child’s  memory  and  engender  an  affection  for  school 
hours.  The  cases  and  drawers  on  either  side  of  the  small 
stage  are  for  the  children’s  work  and  material.  There 
should  be  drawers  10  inches  wide,  12  inches  deep,  and 
6 inches  high  for  each  child,  and  the  top  drawer  should 
not  be  more  than  3'  o"  above  the  floor,  so  each  child 
may  take  out  and  replace  his  own  work.  The  cases 
above  the  drawers  are  for  the  teacher’s  use. 

A circle  16'  o " in  diameter  is  often  painted  on  the 
floor  with  an  allowance  of  4 o"  outside  of  that  for  clear 
space  for  many  of  the  games.  The  alcove,  about 
15'  o,/Xix/  o",  is  a convenient  place  for  the  sandbox 
and  the  piano,  and  gives  more  freedom  to  the  main  room. 
Juvenile  plumbing  fixtures,  such  as  the  water-closet 
10  inches  high  and  the  regular  chinaware  lavatory,  are 
necessary  and  should  be  in  a room  adjacent  to  the  main 
room.  One  such  toilet  room  is  sufficient  for  children 
of  kindergarten  age.  Special  care  should  be  taken  to 
place  the  wardrobe  hooks  and  rails  at  a height  easily 
reached  by  the  children.  The  lower  rail  should  be  not 
over  30  inches  from  the  floor.  (See  Figure  232,  p.  266.) 

Figure  240  shows  the  covered  porch  at  the  Clawson 
School.  It  is  adjacent  to  the  kindergarten  playground, 
and  here  the  children  go  to  play  during  pleasant  weather 
and  to  do  carpenter  work  in  the  making  of  doll  houses, 
wagons,  boxes,  houses  for  pets,  etc.  Discarded  pieces 
of  lumber  from  the  manual-training  shop  find  ready  use 
in  the  kindergarten.  The  porch  could  easily  be  inclosed 


279 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


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KINDERGARTEN 


281 


Fig.  239.  — Interior  — Kindergarten  Clawson  School,  Oakland,  California. 


Mr.  John  J . Donovan,  Architect. 


with  removable  doors  and  sash,  so  that  in  the  winter  it 
might  serve  as  a sun  porch.  Here  is  a good  place  for 
the  sanitary  drinking-fountain,  placed  low  enough  for 
the  smallest  child.  The  playground  should  have  small 
slides,  several  swings  and  sandboxes  and  boxes  and  cages 
for  pets  of  different  kinds.  These  may  be  had  at  very 
little  cost  and  go  to  make  up  the  equipment  for  the  day’s 
study  and  play. 

When  boards  of  education  are  restricted  in  funds  and 
cannot  afford  the  additional  room  for  the  alcove  or  the 
porch,  Figure  241  is  a good  example  of  a room  which  will 
very  well  serve  the  purpose.  This  room  is  24  feet  wide 
by  45  feet  long  and  should  be  at  least  13  feet  high.  The 
drawers  and  lockers  are  built  into  the  wall  as  shown. 
Apart  from  the  omission  of  the  alcove  and  the  porch 
there  is  very  little  difference  between  Figure  241  and 
Figure  238.  Figure  238,  however,  permits  opportunity 
for  wider  use  and  activity  for  kindergarten  work. 

Furnishings.  — The  furnishings  for  the  room  are  as 
follows : 

Piano. 

8 tables  36"  X 20"  X 18"  high. 

8 tables  36”  X 20"  X 20"  high. 

15  chairs  10"  high. 

15  chairs  12"  high. 

1 chair  15"  high  for  teacher. 


1 rack  large  enough  for  30  yards  of  square  matting 
rugs,  used  by  the  children  when  working  on  the  floor. 

1 small  table  for  a fish  globe. 

2 taborets  or  pedestals  for  plants. 

1 doll  house  containing  four  rooms  each  3 feet  square. 

1 folding  burlap  screen  with  four  leaves,  each  leaf 
S'  o"  wide  by  4 o"  high.  This  is  to  be  used  as  a portable 
playhouse. 

Picture  frames  should  be  arranged  with  a hinged  door 
in  the  back  in  order  that  pictures  may  be  changed 
easily. 

Subjects  Taught.  — Some  of  the  things  taught  in  the 
kindergarten  are  as  follows  : 

Music.  Calls  and  exercises  for  proper  placement  of 
voice.  Songs  — both  by  group  and  solos. 

Languages.  Children  are  given  an  opportunity  to 
talk  and  are  helped  in  their  choice  and  use  of  good 
English. 

Literature.  Children  receive  and  learn  to  appreciate 
the  best  in  literature  when  they  are  given  such  master- 
pieces as  the  Mother  Goose  Nursery  Rhymes  and  such 
stories  as  “ The  Little  Red  Hen,”  “ The  Three  Bears,” 
“ The  Three  Little  Pigs,”  etc. 

Rhythm.  Children  are  taught  to  recognize  the  differ- 
ence in  the  time  of  music.  They  learn  the  difference 
between  music  for  skipping,  marching,  galloping,  etc. 


282 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Fig.  240.  — Kindergarten  Porch,  Clawson  School,  Oakland,  California. 


Mr.  John  J.  Donovan , ArchUecx. 


They  are  very  soon  able  to  keep  perfect  time  to  any  kind 
of  music. 

Games  are  a very  important  part  of  the  kindergarten 
curriculum.  Children  of  this  age  love  activity,  so  the 
simple  games  with  a great  deal  of  activity  are  chosen, 
also  imitative  games.  The  games  are  developed  usually 
through  suggestions  from  the  children,  and  are  seldom 
given  “ ready  made.”  Through  the  games  the  children 
gain  physical  grace  and  coordination,  rhythm,  and  best 
of  all,  the  spirit  of  true  sportsmanship.  Some  games 
which  are  full  of  activity  and  are  great  favorites  are : 
“ Stooping  Tag,”  “ The  Merry-Go-Round  ” and  “ The 
Shoemaker  Dance.” 

Nature  Study.  Gardening,  gathering  of  seeds,  cocoons, 
etc.  Care  of  pets. 

Manual  Training.  Some  of  the  occupations  in  the 
kindergarten  are : sewing,  weaving,  paper  folding,  paper 
cutting,  drawing,  painting,  clay  modeling,  and  stringing. 

Socia  ization  is  emphasized  greatly  in  the  kindergarten 
and  so  cultivates  the  community  feeling  and  thought. 
All  of  the  children  take  part  and  are  interested  in  the 


building  or  furnishing  of  the  doll’s  house,  dressing  of  the 
doll,  planting  of  the  garden,  seeds,  caring  for  the  fish 
and  the  plants. 

It  can  be  seen  from  the  above  description  of  the  equip- 
ment and  program  of  studies  that  the  kindergarten  is 
hardly  more  than  a pleasant  room  where  the  child’s  welfare, 
deportment  and  discipline  are  of  more  concern  than  what 
it  is  taught,  and  in  consequence  of  the  kindergarten  being 
the  first  step  from  home  to  the  care  of  society,  a further 
plea  for  attractiveness  to  the  room,  its  accessory  rooms, 
and  adjacent  planting  and  playgrounds  is  not  amiss. 

There  is  no  end  to  the  possibilities  that  the  future  may 
have  in  store  for  this  very  elementary  grade.  The  writer 
is  optimistic  regarding  the  future  planning  and  develop- 
ment of  the  kindergarten. 

Referring  to  Figures  244  and  245,  kindergarten  rooms 
executed  by  Mr.  Wm.  B.  Ittner,  Architect,  and  to  Figures 
246,  247  A and  247  B,  Downers’  Grove  Kindergarten,  by 
Messrs,  Perkins,  Fellows  and  Hamilton.  Architects,  it 
will  be  observed  that  these  gentlemen  have  struck  a high 
note  in  the  planning  and  decorative  work  of  these  rooms 


KINDERGARTEN 


283 


284 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


KINDERGARTEN 


Mr.  Edwin  M.  Gee,  Architect. 


Fig.  243.  — Kindergarten,  Lincoln  School,  Toledo,  Ohio. 


Page  287  Fig.  245. — Kindergarten,  Laclede  School,  St.  Louis,  Missouri. 


288 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


• DOWNEL5  GR.OVE  * ILL  * 

•Pf.fLK.mS'  FELLOWS  & HAMILTON*  ARCHITECTS  • 

Fig.  246. 


KINDERGARTEN  289 


Messrs.  Perkins,  Fellows  & Hamilton , Architects. 
Fic.  247  a. — -Kindergarten,  Downer’s  Grove,  Illinois. 


Fig.  247  b.  - — Kindergarten,  F) owner’s  Grove,  Illinois. 


2go 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Messrs.  tsellons  & Pearson,  Architects. 

Fig.  248.  — Open-air  Kindergarten  — Fremont  School,  Sacramento,  California. 


Messrs.  Guiibert  <£  Beielle,  Architects. 

Fig.  249.  — Kindergarten,  Cleveland  School,  Newark,  New  Jersey. 


CHAPTER  XIV 


THE  SCHOOL  LIBRARY 

By  John  J.  Donovan,  B.S.,  Architect,  A.I.A. 


I.  The  Importance  of  the  School  Library.  II.  The  Location. 

(3)  Flooring.  V.  Ventilation.  VI.  Lighting  and  Illumination. 

(3)  Desks.  IX.  Fireproofing. 

The  Importance  of  the  School  Library.1  — The  school 
library,  in  the  importance  of  its  relation  to  the  whole 
school  plant,  is  second  to  no  other  department.  Indeed, 
the  time  is  not  so  far  distant  when  it  will  serve  the  second- 
ary school  and  the  community  as  the  college  library  serves 
the  needs  of  the  university.  Like  the  school  itself,  it  has 
not  yet  been  fully  discovered.  Not  so  long  ago,  cities  and 
smaller  communities  reclined  in  satisfaction  upon  the  fact 
that  their  school  operated  but  six  hours  out  of  the  twenty- 
four.  There  was  no  conception  of  the  intellectual 
stimulus  that  comes  to  the  adult  long  after  he  has  left 
school,  — an  activity  that  has  in  it  possibilities  for  a 
more  complete  development  both  intellectually  and  in- 
dustrially, and  which,  when  the  opportunity  is  offered, 
brings  the  adult  back  to  the  school  for  further  training 
that  will  make  him  more  valuable  to  himself  and  the 
nation.  There  was  no  appreciation  of  the  fact  that  the 
operation  of  the  school  plant  between  7.15  in  the  morning 
and  9.30  in  the  evening  would  offer  such  an  opportunity 
without  appreciable  wear  and  tear  to  the  machinery. 

At  that  time  the  school  library  was  considered  sufficient 
if  it  consisted  of  a single  small  room  with  a few  shelves 
containing  duplicate  text  books  or  a few  editions  for 
supplementary  reading.  The  principal  or  the  English 
teacher  supervised  the  library  in  conjunction  with  his 
other  duties.  It  was  considered  a duplication  of  the 
same  function  to  have  a library  department  directed  by 
a school  librarian  if  the  community  possessed  a public 
library.  The  distinct  functions  of  both  were  not  clearly 
understood,  and  consequently  the  other  departments  of 


III.  Size.  IV.  Interior  Construction.  (1)  Stacks.  (2)  Doors. 

VII.  Finish.  VIII.  Equipment.  (1)  Shelving.  (2)  Chairs. 

the  school  advanced  more  rapidly  in  personnel  and 
equipment. 

To-day  it  is  different.  It  is  generally  understood  that 
the  public  library  is  an  institution  endowed  for  the 
purpose  of  providing  intellectual  enlightenment  for  the 
entire  community,  and  that  the  school  library  is  a depart- 
ment of  the  school  serving  the  school  as  the  public 
library  serves  the  community,  except  in  a more  inten- 
sive and  specialized  manner.  The  school  library  so 
functions  with  the  school  organization  that  if  it  is 
inadequate  in  size  and  equipment,  or  poorly  located  and 
administered,  the  educational  efficiency  of  the  school 
as  a whole  is  greatly  impaired.  On  the  other  hand,  an 
adequate  well-conducted  library  may  offset  a number 
of  deficiencies  in  other  departments.  The  library  is  of 
such  importance  to  the  school  plant  that  it  might  be 
stated  as  an  educational  axiom  that  the  prospective 
value  of  the  student  to  the  state,  society  in  general,  and 
to  himself,  is  largely  dependent  upon  his  regard  for  the 
library  and  his  ability  to  make  the  fullest  possible  intelli- 
gent use  of  it. 

Happily,  the  tendency  is  to  train  students  now  to 
use  the  room  and  its  contents.  A letter  at  hand  states 
that  at  Rochester,  Minnesota,  the  junior  and  senior 
high  school  students  are  allowed  to  enter  the  library  only 
at  the  beginning  of  a period  and  must  remain  until  the 
close  of  that  period.  By  this  wise  regulation,  confusion 
of  movement  is  avoided  and  there  is  afforded  at  least 
thirty  to  thirty-five  minutes  of  absolute  quietness. 
(Figure  250.)  It  is  also  stated  that  as  students  enter  the 


1 In  presenting  this  chapter,  the  writer  feels  indebted  to  the  following  people  for  the  valuable  information  contained  in  their  writings  on  “The  School 
Library” : 

Miss  Irene  Warren,  Chicago,  111.,  through  the  courtesy  of  The  American  School  Board  Journal. 

Miss  Mary  E.  Hall,  Librarian,  Girls’  High  School,  Brooklyn,  N.Y. 

Mr.  Gilbert  O.  Ward,  Cleveland  Public  Library,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

Professor  C.  C.  Certain,  Cass  Technical  High  School,  Detroit,  Mich. 

Mrs.  Elizabeth  Madison,  Librarian,  Oakland  High  School,  Oakland,  Cal. 

The  Library  Bureau,  for  their  many  illustrations  of  equipment  and  interiors. 

291 


292 


SCHOOL  architecture 


* Jr 

1 1 

91  m 

i 

J . ! 
M ' 

Fig.  250.  — High  School  Library,  Rochester,  Minnesota. 


room,  they  are  required  to  sign  their  names  in  an  enroll- 
ment book,  and  the  records  show  that  out  of  a total  of 
700  students,  350  or  50  per  cent  of  the  school  use  the 
room  daily.  This  is  a gratifying  indication  of  the 
measure  of  usefulness  and  service  of  this  room.1 

The  library  should  have  the  same  relation  to  the 
student  as  the  tool  room  of  the  machine  shop  has  to  the 
mechanic.  The  latter  knows  that  to  perform  special 
work,  special  tools  are  necessary,  and  experience  has 
given  him  judgment  in  selecting  the  right  equipment  to 
execute  accurately  the  work  at  hand.  In  like  manner, 
the  student  should  receive  a training  in  the  intelligent 
and  independent  use  of  the  library,  which  knowledge  will 
enable  him  to  find  quickly  the  means  of  illuminating  the 
way  and  strengthening  his  grasp  on  the  problems  of 
education  and  industry.  If  he  passes  through  the  high 
school  without  this  training,  it  is  not  unlikely  he  will 
leave  college  without  it,  and  as  the  majority  of  high 
school  students  do  not  go  to  college  the  loss  is  all  the 
greater  to  both  the  state  and  the  individual.  To  one 


unaccustomed  to  the  use  of  a library,  the  room  with  its 
vast  number  of  books  is  a bewildering  maze ; but  to 
the  trained  user,  it  is  a quiet  spot  where  tried  friends  and 
wise  counselors  may  be  met  in  valuable  association. 

It  is  earnestly  recommended  by  authorities  on  school 
libraries  that  the  curriculum  of  the  first  year’s  work 
should  include  a thorough  course  in  the  use  of  the  library, 
with  directions  as  to  the  use  of  reference  books,  encyclo- 
pedias, dictionaries,  works  of  literature,  science,  card 
indexes,  etc.  This  will  lead  to  direct  methods  for 
intelligent  research  and  a later  saving  in  time  in  the  use 
of  the  college  or  public  libraries. 

Location.  — The  library  should  be  centrally  located, 
so  that  it  may  be  conveniently  and  quickly  reached  by 
the  students  from  the  departments  whose  use  of  the  room 
is  greatest.  Consequently,  it  should  be  nearest  to  the 
rooms  assigned  to  academic  studies,  such  as  history. 
English,  literature,  civics,  and  the  sciences.  Inasmuch 
as  the  library  is  a special  room  and  generally  large,  its 
location  and  importance  should  have  a decided  influence 


1 This  system  is  in  use  in  many  other  schools,  for  instance  the  high  schools  of  Los  Angeles,  California. 


THE  SCHOOL  LIBRARY 


293 


upon  the  architectural  treatment  of  the  plan  and  eleva- 
tion. Very  often  it  is  the  motive  for  special  accent  in 
the  exterior  design  of  the  building;  and  if  it  is  well 
handled  in  plan,  it  should  be  an  influential  factor  in  the 
composition. 

Whether  it  should  be  on  the  second  floor  or  on  the 
ground  floor,  is  largely  dependent  upon  the  policy  of  its 
use.  If  it  is  to  be  used  by  the  pupils  only,  the  second 
floor  because  of  quietness  is  by  far  the  more  desirable. 
If  its  use  is  to  be  shared  by  the  public,  it  should  be  located 
so  that  the  community  patrons  will  cause  the  least 
interruption  of  the  work  of  the  school  and  that  of  the 
pupils  in  the  library.  After  weighing  the  probable 
advantages  to  the  public,  it  should  be  remembered  that 
the  room  is  primarily  a school  study  or  reference  room 
under  the  administration  and  discipline 
of  the  school  librarian,  and  that  any 
outside  interference  or  interruptions  will 
seriously  affect  the  efficiency  of  the 
students’  use  of  it.  This  outweighs  any 
i advantage  gained  by  admitting  a small 
percentage  of  the  community  to  its  use. 

However,  if  it  has  a combined  purpose, 
it  should  be  arranged  so  that  the  public 
and  the  students  are  completely  sepa- 
rated ; in  order  to  do  this,  the  room 
should  then  be  placed  on  the  ground 
floor,  with  a separate  entrance  for  the 
public,  and  an  additional  librarian  pro- 
vided to  serve  them.  There  is  still 
another  very  important  factor  regarding 
this  phase,  and  that  is,  the  use  of  the 
library  by  the  students  enrolled  in  the 
continuation  school.  A striking  example 
is  that  of  the  Technical  High  School  in 
Oakland,  California.  In  this  institu- 
tion there  are  2000  day  students  and  4400  continuation 
students.  Of  this  latter  number,  there  are  1500  who 
attend  the  school  between  the  hours  of  1 p.m.  and  9.30 
p.m.  daily.  About  60,  or  4 per  cent,  of  the  continuation 
attendance  have  occasion  to  use  the  library  constantly. 
Also,  many  arrive  at  the  school  before  the  hour  of  class- 
room or  laboratory  work  and  sensibly  drift  into  the 
library  instead  of  waiting  in  the  corridors  or  outside  the 
building.  It  is  evident  from  this  that  the  library  should 
be  located  so  that  it  is  also  easily  accessible  from  one  of 
the  entrances  in  order  that  the  continuation  school 
students  may  quickly  reach  the  room  without  having  to 
add  to  the  congestion  of  the  corridors.  Service  is  the 
important  factor  in  deciding  matters  of  this  kind,  and 
in  the  construction  of  a school,  it  is  only  after  the  condi- 
tions of  policy,  arrangement,  and  equipment,  for  both 
present  and  future  needs,  have  been  studied  with  the 


librarian  that  the  location  of  the  department  should  be 
determined.  Furthermore,  the  library  is  very  rapid  in 
its  growth,  and  wherever  located,  provision  should  be 
made  so  that  logical  expansion  will  always  be  possible. 

Size.  — For  elementary  schools,  the  library  need  not 
be  more  than  about  two-thirds  the  size  of  the  average 
classroom,  as  there  is  very  little  reference  work  in  this 
grade  of  school  organization.  However,  there  should 
be  shelving  space  for  about  800  to  1000  books  for  both 
the  teachers’  and  older  pupils’  use  for  outside  reading. 
Public  School  29,  Brooklyn,  N.Y.,  designed  by  Mr. 
C.  B.  J.  Snyder,  Architect,  contains  a library  seating 
forty  pupils,  and  which  communicates  with  the  office 
of  the  vice-principal  by  means  of  a door  at  one  end  of 
the  room  and  with  the  adjacent  classroom  by  a folding 


partition  at  the  other  end.  (See  Figure  251.)  The 
library  and  adjoining  classroom  may  therefore  be  thrown 
into  one  and  used  as  a study  room  if  so  desired.  This 
school  has  a capacity  of  1986  pupils  and  includes  grades 
from  iA  to  9B  inclusive,  which  is  equivalent  in  number 
to  the  grades  of  the  elementary  and  junior  high  schools. 

For  the  intermediate  or  junior  high  school,  the  library 
assumes  more  importance  and  should  offer  space  to 
seat  at  least  6 per  cent  of  the  school  enrollment,  as  the 
majority  of  the  pupils  will  not  advance  to  the  regular 
high  school.  (See  Figure  252.)  It  is  at  this  time  that 
pupils  should  receive  a training  in  the  use  of  the  library 
and  be  induced  to  make  a practice  of  using  the  room 
and  to  cultivate  a liking  and  desire  for  books  of  literature, 
fiction,  travel,  industry,  and  the  sciences.  They  are 
entitled  to  the  opportunity,  and  the  room  and  training 
should  be  made  attractive  so  that  attendance  will  be 


c o tt tun  o to 


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VIC.I,  PRINCIPALS 
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•PLAN  OF  LLMAMY  IN  LLLM.QTA1LY  SCHOOLS 

S' Jff 15" 


S CA  Li, 
Fig.  251. 


294 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Fig.  252. — Library,  Junior  High  School,  Trenton,  New  Jersey. 


Mr.  William  A.  Poland,  Architect. 


voluntary  rather  than  compulsory.  What  follows  re- 
garding the  high  school  is  equally  applicable  to  the 
intermediate,  modified  in  proportion  to  the  relative  sizes 
of  the  two  schools. 

It  is,  however,  around  the  high  school  that  the  greatest 
activity  in  library  work  exists,  and  in  discussing  size, 
the  question  of  the  number  of  rooms  given  to  the  library 
department  is  important.  In  a high  school  of  from 
150  to  1000  pupils,  a single  reference  room  capable  of 
seating  from  25  to  60  pupils,  with  a small  workroom 
about  io/Xi2/  for  the  librarian,  is  probably  ample, 
and  all  that  such  a school  plant  can  afford.  (See  Figure 
253-)  But  for  the  large  high  school  of  from  1200  to  2500, 
exclusive  of  the  number  of  continuation  students,  there 
should  be  a reference  room,  workroom,  combined 
museum  and  classroom,  and  a stackroom.  (See 
Figure  254.)  The  reference  or  reading  room  should  be 
large  enough  to  seat  at  least  8 per  cent  of  the  day  school 
enrollment,  and  this  should  be  increased  to  10  per  cent  if 


the  plant  is  used  also  as  a continuation  school.  The  basis 
of  measurement  is  to  allow  20  to  25  square  feet  for  each 
reader.  This  will  provide  floor  space  for  aisles,  tables, 
cases,  etc.  (See  Figure  255.)  If  the  library  is  to  be  used 
as  a study  room,  replacing  or  supplementing  one  of  the 
prevailing  systems,  the  room  will  necessarily  have  to 
be  larger,  and  the  problem  then  becomes  a subject  for 
special  investigation,  with  the  administrative  policy  of 
the  school  a very  determining  factor. 

The  library  classroom  is  really  a small  lecture  room 
capable  of  seating  from  30  to  40  students.  It  should 
also  serve  as  the  library  museum,  the  museum  cases 
being  placed  along  the  walls  of  the  room.  An  area 
included  within  25'  X3s'  will  be  sufficient  to  seat  the 
class  and  give  considerable  wall  space  for  the  museum 
cases.  Besides  having  museum  cases,  it  should  be 
equipped  with  tablet  armchairs,  electrical  receptacle 
for  a low-power  reflectroscope,  a screen  for  lantern 
projections,  a small  stage,  bulletin  boards,  and  a black- 


THE  SCHOOL  LIBRARY 


295 


» T LA  N OF  LIBILAHY  FOIL  A SMALL  SCHOOL  OF  FILOM.  500  TO  1000  PUPILS  • 


3 CALI, 

Fig.  253. 


board  at  the  front  of  the  room  above  the  stage.  In 
order  that  the  room  may  be  darkened,  the  window  casing 
should  be  recessed  as  described  under  Physics  (page  353). 
Two  sets  of  window  shades,  opaque  and  translucent,  are 
necessary. 

The  workroom  and  stackroom  might  very  well  be 
combined,  allowing  a section  of  about  i2'Xi6r  of  the 
room  for  the  repair  and  cataloguing  of  books.  The 
space  for  repairing  should  be  provided  with  a lavatory, 
work  tables,  and  ample  shelf  space  for  the  storage  of 


floor.  In  each  tier  there  are  usually  six  movable  shelves 
and  one  fixed  shelf,  3'  o"  long,  adjustable  on  1"  centers, 
and  8"  or  10"  deep.  (See  Figure  256.)  An  allowance  of 
from  30  to  35  pounds  per  cubic  foot  should  be  made 
for  the  book  ranges.  Book  capacities  per  linear  foot  of 
shelving  may  be  figured  on  the  following  basis : law 
books,  five  volumes  ; reference  books,  six  volumes  ; scien- 
tific books,  seven  volumes  ; general  literature,  from  eight 
to  ten  volumes. 

In  cases  where  lack  of  floor  space  necessitates  the  use 


C O HR  1 P Olb 


• PLAN  OF  UBLAHY  FPL  A HIGH  SCHOOL  OF  1800  TQ  2500  PUPILS  • 

S CA.LI* 

Fig.  254. 


books.  A stackroom  will  be  found  desirable  in  the 
future  high  school  to  store  special  books  and  those  that, 
having  outlived  their  usefulness,  should  still  be  saved  for 
reference  work.  A stackroom  is  the  best  means  of 
providing  expansion  for  the  reference  or  reading  room. 

Interior  Construction.  Stacks } — In  the  construction 
of  the  standard  metal  stack,  the  book  ranges  are  usually 
double  faced,  and  the  aisles  at  least  2'  8/;  in  width. 
The  regular  tiers  are  7'  o"  or  7'  6"  high.  A footboard 
, should  raise  the  lowest  shelf  four  to  six  inches  from  the 


of  double  tiers,  the  following  suggestion  is  offered  regard- 
ing the  construction  of  metal  book  stacks,  as  a saving  in 
cost  of  installation,  and  for  convenience  to  the  librarian : 
if  the  aisles  between  stacks  are  made  3'  4"  in  width  and 
the  double  tiers  are  equipped  with  a horizontal  sliding 
step-ladder  similar  to  those  used  in  shoe  stores,  hung  on 
a guide  supported  on  the  frame  of  the  top  tier,  then  easy 
access  to  each  stack  is  attainable  without  having  to  re- 
peatedly climb  stairs  and  retrace  steps.  This  is  more 
applicable  to  a school  library  where  the  accessions  will 


1 Kidder’s  Hand  Book , Sixteenth  Edition. 


296 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


never  be  extremely  large  than  to  a general  library  where 
unlimited  expansion  must  be  provided  by  means  of  the 
usual  tiers  of  stacks  and  the  dividing  floors. 

Doors.  — While  there  should  be  more  than  one  pair 
of  double  doors  to  a large  reference  room,  it  will  be 
found  advantageous  for  the  discipline  of  the  reference 
room,  if  the  students  enter  and  leave  the  room  near  the 
charging  desk.  All  doors  should  be  equipped  with 
liquid  door  checks  to  prevent  them  from  closing  noisily. 
While  locks  are  necessary,  push-plates  and  pull-handles 
should  replace  the  knob  and  latch  so  that  the  doors  are 
opened  with  the  least  possible  disturbance.  It  is  a good 
investment  to  have  all  doors  and  door  frames  of  hollow 
metal  and  wire  glass  construction,  the  former  equipped 
to  close  automatically.  The  mechanical  difficulty  of 
rapidly  opening  and  closing  automatically  controlled 
doors  during  rush  periods  between  classes  can  be  over- 
come by  opening  the  library  doors  during  the  period  of 
the  intermission.  This  will  permit  a steady  flow  of 
students  into  the  room  without  the  interference  of  the 
constantly  moving  door. 


Flooring.  — Battleship  linoleum  or  cork  tiling  is  the 
most  satisfactory  for  library  floors,  as  they  are  serviceable 
and  cause  very  little  noise  from  use. 

Ventilation.  — The  library  rooms  should  be  well 
ventilated  by  the  plenum  system,  and  except  in  sections 
of  the  country  having  severe  winter  weather,  it  would  be 
better  to  have  the  room  heated  by  this  means,  as  the 
space  under  the  windows  is  valuable  for  shelving.  Where 
the  winters  are  rigorous,  the  dual  systems  of  radiators 
and  tempered  air  are  necessary. 

Lighting  and  Illumination.  — The  library  should  have 
the  equivalent  of  20  per  cent  of  the  floor  area  in  glass 
area,  and  if  the  room  has  a sunny  exposure,  it  will  prove 
to  be  cheerful  and  inviting.  For  artificial  lighting,  the 
semi-indirect  system  is  the  most  practical  and  the  least 
expensive.  The  illumination  should  be  designed  so  that 
the  minimum  candle-foot  intensity  in  any  part  of  the 
room  is  not  less  than  3.0  and.  if  possible,  as  high  as  6.0. 
All  lighting  should  be  from  above,  as  the  tables  in  a 
school  library  are  movable  in  order  that  the  room  may 
be  adaptable  for  many  activities. 


THE  SCHOOL  LIBRARY 


297 


Mr.  Edward  Stoll,  Architect. 

Fig.  256. — Library  Showing  Single  Bookstack,  University  of  California,  Berkeley,  California. 


Finish.  — It  is  most  desirable  that  the  ceiling,  walls, 
and  trim  be  finished  in  light  tones  in  order  to  reflect  the 
greatest  amount  of  light.  Tones  just  off  the  white  are 
best  for  ceilings ; buffs,  tans,  and  grays  for  the  walls ; 
and  white  oak,  treated  natural,  for  the  trim.  These 
will  always  give  the  best  effect  for  school  libraries. 
Finishing  the  room  in  oak  simplifies  the  matter  of  color 
harmony  in  the  selection  of  the  equipment.  The  walls 
above  the  bookcases  are  usually  formed  into  pleasing 
panels  by  the  use  of  stencils  of  good  patterns  in  keeping 
with  the  room.  Picture  moldings  should  be  provided 
for  the  hanging  of  pictures  and  bas-relief  casts  of  sculp- 
ture. (See  Figures  257  and  258.)  Well-executed  mural 
paintings,  decorative  designs,  and  good  casts  are  most 
appropriate  for  the  reference  room,  and  should  be 
acquired  from  time  to  time  with  a good  deal  of  judgment 
in  their  selection.  By  its  composition  in  proportion, 
symmetry,  and  finish,  and  by  its  appointments,  the 
library  will  reflect  the  quiet  refined  thought  of  the 
school.  There  is  no  department  so  capable  of  diffusing 


an  intellectual  atmosphere,  or  that  can  represent  so  well 
the  dignity  of  the  school,  as  the  library. 

Equipment.  — The  equipment  of  the  library  should 
be  chosen  for  service  and  durability.  It  should  be  so 
arranged  as  not  to  restrict  the  discipline  or  obstruct  a 
complete  view  of  the  entire  room.  Alcoves  formed  by 
stacks  will  affect  the  administration,  but  if  required  for 
additional  shelving,  they  should  be  placed  at  the  ends 
of  the  room  so  that  the  openings  are  towards  the  libra- 
rian’s desk  or  station.  (See  Figures  259  and  260.) 

The  following  is  a summary  of  the  equipment  needed 
in  every  high  school  library  : 

Tables. 

Shelving. 

Chairs. 

Charging  desk. 

Librarian’s  desk. 

Catalogue  case. 

Periodical  rack. 

Atlas  and  dictionary  case. 

Bulletin  boards. 


298 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


LlJB 

1 CJ 

i 

— '1  1 

Mr.  H.  Osgood  Holland,  Architccl. 


Fig.  257.  — Library,  Hutchinson  Central  High  School,  Buffalo,  New  York. 


Display  cases. 

Cabinets  for  pictures,  pamphlets,  etc. 

Museum  cases. 

Map  cases. 

Phonograph  and  cabinet  for  records. 

The  tables  should  be  arranged  in  rows  with  the  ends 
parallel  to  the  windows  in  order  that  the  greater  number 
may  have  the  best  lighting  conditions.  Also  it  is  better 
to  have  a low  limit  to  the  number  of  pupils  to  each  table 
for  discipline  and  quietness.  School  library  tables  are 
30"  high,  and  a table  2,'X$'  will  accommodate  six  pupils, 
two  at  each  side  and  one  at  each  end.1  The  unit  of 
lateral  measurement  is  30"  for  each  seat.  Pupils  may 
be  seated  closer,  but  it  is  not  good  practice  to  crowd 
them  and  expect  efficient  work.  Elbow  room  is  as 
essential  for  reading  and  studying  as  for  other  forms  of 
work.  Crowding  also  restricts  full  use  of  the  table  for 


writing  and  drawing.  Therefore,  the  unit  of  30  should 
be  maintained  in  planning  the  table  arrangement  of  the 
room.  All  furniture  edges  should  be  rounded,  particu- 
larly those  of  tables.  If  the  tables  are  made  3X3'  it 
will  be  found  that  this  size  is  convenient  for  easily  re- 
arranging the  equipment  of  the  room  for  other  activities 
than  that  of  regular  library  work.  (Figures  261  and  262 
show  some  of  the  possibilities.) 

Shelving.  — In  the  reference  library,  the  book  shelving 
should  extend  around  the  room  on  all  available  wall 
space,  leaving  the  center  of  the  room  free  for  tables, 
cases,  and  desks.  On  account  of  its  attractiveness, 
wood  shelving  is  preferable  to  steel.  The  standard 
shelving  (see  Figures  263  and  264)  is  6'  10"  high,  which 
permits  the  use  of  seven  shelves  8”  deep,  allowing  io' 
in  height  between  shelves.  The  bottom  shelf  is  usually 
fixed,  and  all  other  shelves  are  adjustable  on  one  inch 


1 The  study-room  library  of  the  San  Diego  High  School,  San  Diego,  Cal.,  provides  each  reader  with  a small  individual  study  table.  Excellent 
concentration  is  thus  attained. 


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3°° 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


C.  3.  J.  5 KTDIU  ALCHITECT 


O.  S'  IQ  15' 

S CALI, 

Fig.  259. 


centers.  The  length  of  each  section  is  3'  o".  About 
10  per  cent  of  the  total  shelving  should  be  10"  deep, 
and  about  4 per  cent  12"  deep,  which  will  provide  for 
over-sized  books.  All  shelving  should  be  open,  with  the 
exception  of  a few  sections  which  should  have  glass 
doors  with  locks  for  the  display  of  rare  and  finely  il- 
lustrated editions. 

Chairs.  — This  subject  requires  brief  mention.  Under 
the  seat  of  chairs  there  should  be  a shelf  for  the  tempo- 
rary placing  of  text  books  carried  to  the  room  by  the 
students,  or  to  provide  hat  space.  This  will  keep  the 
table  free  for  active  work. 

Desks.  — Every  school  library  should  have  a charging 
desk  located  near  the  exit.  (See  Figures  264,  265,  266.) 
This  desk  should  be  provided  with  sunken  charging 
trays  having  a roll  curtain,  cash  drawer,  registration 
tray,  book  shelving,  drawers,  and  cupboards  for  miscel- 
laneous uses.  In  a very  large  school  library,  the  stock 


charging  desk  may  be  found  inadequate  to  handle  the 
work  of  charging  the  loan  and  return  of  books  between 
periods.  It  may  be  necessary  to  provide  means  so  that 
the  charging  may  be  done  by  several  attendants  simul- 
taneously. Here  the  librarian’s  ideas  on  the  problem 
must  be  taken  into  consideration,  and  a special  design 
of  desk  wmrked  out  through  the  collaboration  of  the 
librarian  and  the  architect. 

The  librarian  should  be  provided  with  a desk  ample 
to  provide  space  for  her  needs.  Every  year  she  orders 
hundreds  of  dollars  worth  of  books,  keeps  numerous 
accounts,  attends  to  correspondence,  and  interviews 
pupils  and  visitors.  None  of  these  can  be  done  in 
connection  with  the  charging  of  books.  In  fact,  it  is 
the  librarian’s  desk  that  is  the  center  of  library  discipline 
and  not  the  charging  desk.  The  latter  should  be  situ- 
ated as  near  as  possible  to  the  door  which  is  used  as  the 
one  exit  from  the  room  in  order  to  expedite  the  work  and 


302 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Fig. 


-Library,  Girls’  High  School,  Brooklyn,  New  York. 


Mr.  C.  B.  J.  Snyder , Architect . 


Fig.  262. 


THE  SCHOOL  LIBRARY 


3°3 


Fig.  263.  — Wall  Shelving. 


Fig.  265.  — Charging  Desk. 


Lib' ary  Bureau 


Library  Bureau. 

Fig.  266.  — Charging  Desk. 


Library  Bureau 

Fig.  267.  — Magazine  Rack. 


Fig.  264.  — Charging  Desk. 


3°4 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


to  enable  the  attendant  at  the  desk  to  see  that  no  one 
takes  a book  from  the  library  without  first  having  it 
charged.  The  work  of  the  charging  desk  constitutes  the 
simplest  and  most  mechanical  part  of  library  business, 
and  it  is  usually  deputed  to  student  helpers  or  to  the 
librarian’s  assistant.  No  capable  school  librarian  should 
be  doing  the  work  of  charging  books.  Her  activity 
should  center  about  her  own  desk,  which,  because  it  is 
the  disciplinary  center  of  the  department,  should  be  so 
located  that  from  it  can  be  commanded  a view  of  the 
entire  library  room  and,  through  the  glass  partition,  of 
the  workroom,  also. 

The  remaining  equipment,  such  as  the  catalogue  cases, 
periodical  racks,  bulletin  boards,  etc.,  etc.,  are  stock 
furniture  and  require  no  description  as  they  are  fixtures 
with  which  every  school  librarian  is  familiar.  In 
planning  the  library,  however,  the  furniture  should  be 
carefully  shown  on  the  preliminary  drawings,  and  its 


location  should  be  determined  by  the  librarian  as  a 
check  to  show  that  the  space  allowed  is  adequate  and 
also  as  an  aid  towards  economic  planning. 

Fireproofing.  — Because  of  the  great  value  of  the 
contents  of  the  rooms,  and  on  account  of  time  necessary 
to  acquire  a good  collection  of  books,  the  library  depart- 
ment should  be  housed  in  fireproof  rooms.  Usually  a 
library  fire  loss  is  irreparable,  and  for  that  reason  every 
precaution  should  be  taken  to  safeguard  this  section  cf 
the  school  plant.  It  has  been  previously  mentioned  that 
the  doors  should  be  of  hollow  metal  and  wire  glass, 
closing  authmatically.  This  is  but  one  step  in  the  right 
direction;  others  should  be  taken  to  have  the  floor 
construction  of  reenforced  concrete,  the  walls  of  masonry 
construction,  and  the  floors  above  of  reenforced  con- 
crete ; then  a fire  in  another  part  of  the  building  would 
very  likely  be  controlled  before  seriously  damaging  the 
library 


CHAPTER  XV 


CORRIDORS,  STAIRWAYS,  AND  ENTRANCES 

By  John  J.  Donovan,  B.S.,  Architect,  A. I. A. 

I.  Corridors,  (i)  Width  of  Corridors  in  Elementary  Schools.  (2)  Minimum  Widths  of  Corridors,  Elementary  Schools.  (3)  Width 
of  Corridors,  High  Schools.  (4)  Natural  Lighting  of  Corridors.  (5)  Walls  <f  C.r.idos.  (6)  Corridor  Painting.  (7)  Corridor 
Floors.  (8)  Corridor  Base.  (9)  Picture  Moldings.  (10)  Recesses  for  Radiators.  (11)  Bulletin  Boards.  (12;  Doors.  II.  Stairs 
and  Stairways.  (1)  Location  and  Number  of  Stairways.  (2)  Stairway  Inclosures.  (3)  Width  of  Stairs.  (4)  Stair  Landings. 
(5)  Balustrades  and  Handrails.  (6)  Risers  and  Treads.  (7)  Lighting  of  Stairways.  (8)  Storage  Spaces  under  Stairs.  (9)  Stair- 
ways in  the  Schools  of  the  City  of  New  York.  (10)  Inclines  or  Ramps.  (11)  Construction  of  Stairways  and  Corridors. 
III.  Entrances  and  Exits.  IV.  Fire  Escapes. 


Corridors.  — The  excellence  of  any  school  building 
plan  is  largely  dependent  upon  the  orderly  arrangement 
of  the  corridors,  stairways,  entrances  and  exits.  When- 
ever they  are  skillfully  handled,  the  scheme  immediately 
gives  an  impression  of  balance ; and  whenever  they  are 
unskillfully  arranged  the  absence  of  this  feeling  is  just 
as  apparent.  Correct  plans  of  buildings  are  distinguished 
by  the  superiority  of  treatment  of  the  channels  of  circu- 
lation. The  psychology  of  this  is  the  sense  of  safety 
conveyed,  the  directness  of  access  to  the  different  rooms 
and  floors,  and  the  adequacy  of  the  passages  to  handle 
the  flow  of  either  occupants  or  material.  With  the 
requirements  at  hand,  usually  it  is  simple  enough  to 
assign  spaces  bounded  by  corridors,  so  that  rooms  and 
departments  may  be  properly  correlated. 

The  awful  dread  of  fires  in  school  buildings  arises 
more  from  the  anticipation  of  panics  than  from  fear  of 
the  fire,  and  on  this  account  corridors  and  exits  should 
be  planned  to  preclude  as  far  as  possible  such  dangers  by 
having  the  corridor  widths  ample,  the  direction  straight, 
and  the  lower  termination  at  an  exit.  The  time  required 
to  empty  a building,  and  the  number  of  rooms  the  cor- 
ridor shall  accommodate  are  matters  to  be  considered 
in  determining  the  amplitude  of  both  corridors  and  exits. 
Whenever  it  requires  more  than  three  to  three  and  a half 
minutes  to  vacate  a school  building  completely,  either 
the  means  of  evacuation  and  the  number  of  exits  are 
inadequate,  or  the  fire  drill  is  poorly  organized. 
Throughout  the  country,  there  is  a desire  for  economy 
in  the  planning  and  construction  of  schools.  That 
desire  should  be  responded  to  in  every  sensible  way ; 
but  the  safety  of  children  cannot  be  jeopardized  by 
reducing  the  size  of  corridors  and  the  number  of 
stairways  to  an  extent  that  would  unwisely  limit 
the  possibilities  for  quick  and  orderly  egress  from  the 
building. 


Width  of  Corridors  in  Elementary  Schools.  — Consider- 
ing the  elementary  school  first : The  Boston  School- 
house  Department  requires  corridors  not  less  than  eight 
feet  in  width  for  four  rooms  on  a floor ; not  less  than  ten 
feet  in  width  for  over  four  rooms ; and  greater  width  in 
others  according  to  their  length  and  accessibility  to 
stairs,  etc.  This  requirement  does  not  appear  to  be 
sufficiently  definite,  as  it  leaves  the  question  open  for 
debate  until  such  time  as  the  preliminary  plans  are 
presented  for  examination,  thus  leading  to  a waste  of 
effort  and  time.  Fixed  standards  of  widths  for  corridors 
that  will  provide  safety  and  comfort,  and  determined  by 
the  exact  number  of  classrooms  accommodated,  should 
be  arbitrarily  established  by  laws  that  would  forbid  devi- 
ation therefrom.  Accessibility  to  stairs  is  the  governing 
factor  in  determining  the  width  of  the  corridor,  but 
assuming  that  no  schoolhouse  of  more  than  one  story  in 
height  would  ever  be  built  with  less  than  two  stairways, 
the  following  widths  are  given  as  a basis  to  work  from  : 

Corridors  with  classrooms  and  departmental  rooms  on 
one  side  only,  accommodating  four  rooms  or  less,  should 
be  9 o"  in  width  ; for  each  additional  room  6"  should 
be  added.  Corridors  with  rooms  on  each  side,  accommo- 
dating four  rooms  or  less,  should  be  9'  o"  wide ; addi- 
tional two  rooms,  T o"  should  be  added  to  this  width. 
From  this  may  be  formulated  the  following  table  : 

Minimum  widths  of  corridors  in  Elementary  ■ School 
Buildings  of  more  than  one  story: 

Rooms  on  one  side  only. 

Table  No.  i 
Number  of  Rooms 

4 or  less,  corridor  width,  9'  o". 

5 or  less,  corridor  width,  9'  6". 

6 or  less,  corridor  width,  io'  o". 

7 or  less,  corridor  width,  10'  6". 

8 or  less,  corridor  width,  1 1'  o". 


30S 


Mr.  Win.  H.  Ittncr,  Architect. 


CORRIDORS,  STAIRWAYS,  AND  ENTRANCES 


307 


Rooms  on  each  side. 

Table  No.  2 

4 rooms,  corridor  width,  g'  o". 

6 rooms,  corridor  width,  10'  o". 

8 rooms,  corridor  width,  ii'  o". 

10  rooms,  corridor  width,  12'  o" . 

12  rooms,  corridor  width,  13'  o". 

14  rooms,  corridor  width,  14'  o". 

16  rooms,  corridor  width,  15'  o". 

18  rooms,  corridor  width,  16'  o". 

It  is  unlikely  that  secondary  corridors  would  be 
planned  to  accommodate  more  than  four  rooms,  that 
main  corridors  with  rooms  on  one  side  only  would  have 
more  than  six  to  eight  classrooms  to  accommodate.  It 
would  not  be  economical  to  go  beyond  that  number  in 
planning  a school  of  this  type.  For  this  reason,  the 
corridor  with  rooms  on  each  side  requires  more  considera- 
tion. 

The  minimum  width  of  10'  o"  is  better  if  stairways 
are  at  either  end,  as  the  width  of  stairs  between  hand- 
rails, or  between  divisions  of  stairs  in  elementary  schools, 
should  be  4'  o"  or  multiples  of  4'  o".  This  subject  is 
further  discussed  under  the  consideration  of  stairways. 
When  stairways  are  at  right  angles  to  the  long  axis  of 
the  corridor,  and  a stairway  is  provided  for  each  bank  of 
four  classrooms  or  the  equivalent  in  pupil  capacity,  it  is 
possible  to  limit  the  maximum  width  of  corridor  with 
rooms  on  one  side  to  12'  o" . This  dimension  is  given  to 
encourage  choosing  wide  corridors  for  school  buildings 
of  this  type,  as  it  forestalls  congestion  should  boards  of 
education  later  place  additional  rooms  on  the  open  side 
of  such  passageways.  In  St.  Louis,  the  Bryan  Hill  and 
Wm.  Glasgow  Jr.  schools,  both  designed  by  Wm.  B. 
Ittner,  Architect,  and  excellent  examples  of  elementary 
school  planning,  have  the  main  corridors  14'  o"  in 
width.  The  former  has  twelve  classrooms  on  the 
second  floor  and  eight  classrooms  and  kindergarten  on 
the  first  floor ; while  the  Glasgow  school  has  fourteen 
classrooms  on  the  second  floor  and  eleven  classrooms  and 
kindergarten  on  the  first  floor.  The  ample  width  of 
these  corridors  gives  an  impression  of  safety  to  these 
two  plans. 

Width  of  Corridors  in  High  Schools.  — Corridors  in 
high  schools  should  be  wider  than  those  in  elementary 
schools  of  approximately  the  same  number  of  rooms  and 
pupils,  on  account  of  the  larger  size  of  the  pupils  and  the 
undesirability  of  having  boys  and  girls  of  high  school 
age  crowd  together  in  passing  and  moving  along  the 
corridors.  Secondary  corridors  ought  to  be  not  less 
than  io'  o"  in  width,  and  the  width  of  main  corridors 
which  are  flanked  by  rooms  on  each  side  should  be  based 
an  the  following  table  which  has  been  compiled  from 
most  reliable  data : 


Table  No.  3 

6 rooms  or  less,  corridor  width,  10'  o". 

8 rooms  or  less,  corridor  width,  n'  o". 

10  rooms  or  less,  corridor  width,  12'  o" . 

12  rooms  or  less,  corridor  width,  13'  o". 

14  rooms  or  less,  corridor  width,  14'  o". 

16  rooms  or  less,  corridor  width,  15'  o" . 

18  rooms  or  less,  corridor  width,  16'  o" . 

20  rooms  or  less,  corridor  width,  if  o" . 

Natural  Lighting  of  Corridors.  — When  rooms  are  only 
on  one  side  of  a corridor,  there  is  ample  natural  light. 
(See  Figure  269.)  But  when  corridors  have  rooms  on  each 
side,  the  corridor  should  be  lighted  by  spacious  light 
courts,  or  better  yet,  by  recesses  in  the  plan  so  placed 
that  each  section  of  the  corridor  will  be  given  direct 
light.  Unhygienic  conditions  are  ever  present  in  a poorly 
lighted  corridor  and  in  those  having  only  borrowed 
or  reflected  light.  The  feeling  of  danger  is  always 
magnified.  It  is  not  sufficient  to  light  long  corridors 
from  the  ends  when  stairways  are  placed  there,  as  the 
stairs  obstruct  the  greater  part  of  the  light.  This 
obstruction  is,  of  course,  increased  when  the  stairs  are 
crowded  with  pupils.  Whenever  these  conditions  pre- 
vail, light  should  be  borrowed  most  generously  by  means 
of  transoms  and  glass  panel  doors,  glazed  with  a diffusing 
glass.  The  latter  method  of  lighting  a corridor  is  war- 
ranted only  in  exceptional  cases,  such  as  in  corridors 
of  short  length.  It  should  be  a fundamental  principle 
in  planning  school  buildings  that  corridors  shall  be 
properly  lighted  by  direct  light  and  at  the  same  time  be 
capable  of  ventilation  with  fresh  air  supplied  by  opening 
the  windows. 

Corridor  walls  may  be  made  to  serve  as  the  school 
galleries  for  the  display  of  paintings  and  pieces  of  sculp- 
ture or  the  relics  of  archeology,  and  it  is  of  course  impor- 
tant that  works  of  art  should  receive  proper  light  to 
show  to  best  advantage.  Artificial  light  does  not  reveal 
to  the  best  advantage  the  technical  characteristics  of 
either  paintings  or  casts.  The  E and  H shaped  plans 
are  by  far  the  best  forms  to  provide  direct  light  to 
corridors  for  this  purpose. 

Walls  of  Corridors.  — Corridor  walls  in  school  build- 
ings to  a point  at  least  5'  o"  above  the  floor  are  subjected 
to  hard  usage,  and  it  is  not  an  easy  problem  even  to-day 
to  find  an  inexpensive  material  that  will  withstand 
wear  and  at  the  same  time  prove  sanitary  and  hygienic. 
Whenever  the  structural  walls  are  of  masonry  construc- 
tion, glazed  brick,  bonded  into  the  rough  brickwork, 
serves  very  well.  The  joints,  however,  eventually 
become  dark,  and  offer  lodging  places  for  dust  and  dirt. 
When  glazed  bricks  are  used,  they  should  be  laid  so  the 
face  of  the  wall  is  flush  with  the  finished  plaster.  Glazed 
or  vitreous  tile  wainscoting  gives  a smooth  and  pleasing 
surface,  but  the  ordinary  glazed  tile  is  easily  subject  to 


3°S 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


breakage.  The  expense,  however,  of  such  surfacing  is 
almost  prohibitive  in  a school  of  large  floor  area  or  for 
general  construction.  Burlap,  glued  on  to  a plaster 
wall,  is  often  used,  and  if  it  is  specially  prepared  for 
such  work  and  is  properly  applied,  will  last  for  a long 
time.  But  when  it  starts  to  peel  off,  the  corridor  presents 
an  unsightly  appearance.  Cement  plaster  and  hard 
wall  plaster  are  most  commonly  used  as  the  finish  of 
corridor  walls,  and  were  it  not  for  the  susceptibility  of 
plaster  to  damage,  it  would  be  the  most  satisfactory 
surface.  Wood  wainscoting,  if  of  hard  wood  and  with 
some  attention  to  the  design,  makes  not  only  a pleasing 
finish  for  school  corridor  walls,  but  will  also  withstand  the 
ordinary  rough  usage.  On  the  other  hand,  its  use  in 
a fireproof  or  semi-fireproof  school,  of  course,  nullifies 
the  efforts  to  minimize  the  fire  hazards. 


In  high  schools,  where  the  depth  of  wall  is  12"  or  more, 
the  corridor  walls  are  often  planned  to  hold  built-in 
lockers.  This  admirably  serves  as  a durable  wainscot 
and  is  much  favored  by  many  school  administrators.  If 
the  lockers  are  of  metal  construction  and  are  flush  with 
the  plaster  above  and  with  a cement  base  at  the  floor, 
the  prevailing  sanitary  conditions  are  especially  good. 
Such  lockers  should  have  recessed  handles  in  order  to 
avoid  injury  to  clothing  or  person.  (See  Figure  270.) 

Corridor  Painting.  — The  walls  and  ceilings  should 
be  treated  in  light  colors  so  as  to  reflect  the  greatest 
possible  amount  of  light.  A pleasing  stencil  of  decora- 
tive ornament  will  enhance  the  appearance  and  enliven 
the  walls  of  these  long  spaces.  As  previously  mentioned, 
the  corridor  should  be  the  art  gallery  of  the  school. 
Consequently,  any  special  decoration  of  the  walls  should 


•TYPICAL  5TIXL  LOCLtlLS  IH  CCSIUUDOILS  • 

Fig  27c. 


CORRIDORS,  STAIRWAYS,  AND  ENTRANCES 


3°9 


be  in  good  taste  and  in  keeping  with  the  character  and 
the  grade  of  the  school.  A tone  of  refinement  will 
prevail  throughout  the  school  if  discernment  and  judg- 
ment are  exercised  in  selecting  quiet,  harmonious  colors, 
and  appropriate  decoration  for  corridors  and  entrances. 

Corridor  Floors.  — Were  it  not  that  cost  is  constantly 
the  perplexing  question,  it  would  be  simple  enough  to 
choose  the  materials  for  any  and  all  structures.  Under 
the  heading,  “ Construction  of  Corridors,”  floors  will 
be  discussed  again.  At  this  point  it  ought  to  be  noted 
that  floors  of  corridors  should  be  of  a material  or  compo- 
sition of  materials  which  is  washable,  permanent,  resil- 
ient, noiseless  as  possible  when  walked  upon,  and  possess- 
ing pleasing  and  lasting  color.  It  should  also  be  capable 
of  local  repair  without  entailing  high  cost  or  the  removal 
of  a large  part  of  the  surface. 

Marble  and  ceramic  tile  are  rarely  considered  on 
account  of  cost  and  the  danger  of  accident  on  the 
slippery  surface.  Moreover,  the  noise  from  walking 
on  marble  or  tile  will  prove  distracting  to  adjacent 
classrooms.  Whenever  marble  is  used,  the  exposed 
surface  should  be  honed. 

Cement  is  dusty  unless  treated  with  a successful 
floor  hardener  and  then  painted  with  at  least  three  good 
coats  of  a good  concrete  floor  paint.  It  will  also  be 
found  that  cement  surfaces  for  corridor  floors  will 
require  frequent  repainting,  and  that  generally  they 
should  be  avoided. 

Terrazzo,  which  is  made  of  marble  or  granite  chips, 
coarse  sand,  and  cement,  makes  a fairly  good  and  endur- 
ing corridor  floor.  Unless  the  floor  area  is  divided  off 
into  panels  about  10  feet  in  length  and  formed  with 
marble  strips  or  separately  laid  borders  of  terrazzo, 
cracks,  due  to  expansion  and  contraction  of  the  cement, 
are  bound  to  occur.  This  is  true  of  cement  floors  as 
well  as  of  terrazzo.  Terrazzo  and  cement  are  more 
nearly  noiseless  than  either  marble  or  tile  and  may  be 
easily  cleaned. 

Magnesium  compositions  are  resilient,  make  pleasing 
floors  to  walk  upon  and  reflect  very  little  noise.  But 
the  important  factor  in  using  composition  flooring  is  to 
be  able  to  select  the  right  kind  of  the  many  makes  and 
to  have  experienced  and  capable  mechanics  perform  the 
work.  Battleship  linoleum  is  probably  the  most  adapt- 
able and  gives  the  best  results  for  the  costs,  as  it  meets 
nearly  all  the  requirements  of  a corridor  floor  for  school 
buildings.  Cork  tile  is  by  far  the  best  of  all  the  materials 
were  it  not  for  the  expense.  At  normal  times  it  costs 
.about  seventy  cents  a square  foot  when  laid  in  large 
quantities.  It  has  all  the  good  qualities  of  battleship 
linoleum  and  is  more  permanent.  A good  compromise 
is  to  lay  cork  tile  flooring  6'  o"  wide  along  the  center  of 
the  corridor  and  flank  this  with  wood  or  terrazzo  flooring 


to  the  base.  Then  the  noise  of  walking  in  the  corridor 
during  recitation  or  study  periods  will  not  disturb  the 
pupils  in  the  classrooms.  When  the  corridor  floor  must 
be  of  wood  it  should  be  laid  with  maple  flooring  2\"  xW , 
tongued  and  grooved  and  thoroughly  oiled,  or  treated 
frequently  with  linseed  oil  and  petroleum  naphtha. 
Wood  floors  should  never  be  washed  unless  just  prior 
to  oiling,  as  the  flooring  shrinks  and  leaves  cracks  for 
dirt. 

Corridor  Base.  — Unless  the  floor  is  of  wood  con- 
struction, all  corridor  and  stairway  bases  should  be  of 
cement,  terrazzo,  or  glazed  tile,  coved  at  the  floor  and 
rounded  at  the  top,  or  better  yet,  flush  with  the  wall 
line  above.  Whenever  lockers  are  built  into  the  walls, 
they  should  be  set  on  top  of  the  sanitary  base.  Where 
it  is  obligatory  to  install  a wood  base,  there  should  be 
either  a wood  coved  shoe  at  the  floor,  or  a quarter  round 
or  similar  molding  nailed  to  the  floor,  so  that  cleaning 
at  the  angles  formed  by  the  floor  and  the  base  may  be 
done  effectively. 

Picture  Moldings.  — All  corridors  should  have  picture 
moldings  for  the  hanging  of  pictures  or  casts  of  sculpture. 

Recesses  for  Radiators,  etc.  — Radiators,  hose  reels, 
drinking-fountains,  and  supports  for  fire  extinguishers 
should  be  recessed  into  the  walls  of  the  corridors.  No 
obstruction,  whatever,  should  be  permitted  to  interfere 
with  the  full  width  of  the  passageway. 

Bulletin  Boards.  — Corridor  walls,  when  well  lighted, 
near  the  administration  offices,  are  splendid  locations 
for  large  bulletin  boards  for  the  posting  of  notices  by 
the  principal  and  the  officers  of  the  various  student 
organizations.  These  bulletin  boards  may  be  either 
long  blackboards,  equipped  as  in  classrooms,  or  cork 
mats. 

Doors.  — All  doors  opening  into  the  corridors  should 
be  hung  with  hinges  that  will  permit  the  doors  to  swing 
back  the  full  180  degrees  against  the  wall,  and  they 
should  be  provided  with  fasteners  to  hold  them  in  that 
position.  This  necessitates  hanging  the  doors  flush 
with  the  corridor  wall  surface. 

All  fire  doors  opening  into  the  storage  rooms,  boiler 
rooms,  from  corridors  or  to  stairs  leading  to  the  boiler 
rooms  should  be  of  hollow  metal  construction  or  metal- 
covered  on  both  sides,  and  the  frames  should  be  similarly 
made.  There  ought  to  be  some  design  to  these  doors 
on  the  corridor  side  so  as  not  to  mar  the  general  appear- 
ance of  the  corridor.  When  such  doors  have  the  upper 
panel  in  glass  they  should  be  glazed  with  corrugated 
wire  glass,  j"  thick.  All  such  doors  should  open  into 
the  room  or  stairs  from  the  corridor  and  should  close 
automatically.  Such  construction  will  prevent  the 
passage  of  smoke  into  the  corridor,  should  a fire  or 
explosion  occur  in  the  boiler  room. 


3IQ 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Stairs  and  Stairways.  — A school  building  may  be 
what  is  generally  recognized  as  a fire-resisting  structure 
and  yet  be  a hazardous  building  for  the  occupants. 
This  may  be  easily  demonstrated.  Imagine  a school 
building  with  its  structural  members  of  steel  encased 


in  fireproofed  materials,  or  of  reenforced  concrete,  and 
its  floors  and  exterior  walls  of  concrete  or  masonry 
construction ; the  interior  partitions  and  finish  are  made 
of  incombustible  materials.  What  advantage  would 
there  be  in  the  fireproof  part  of  the  construction  if  the 


'I,LUy TAHY  SCHOOLS  ■ A'-O" 

DMJUfUOL  HIGH  ” -4'-C 

.HIGH  SCHOOLS  *5'-q' 

DOU3LL  ILAILI-NCjS  foil  CLtMtNTAItY  SCHOOLS  ONLY 


s call 


‘ TYPICAL  STALL  PLANS 


O 3'  <Q  q"  1' 

• S CALC  * 

& diituut  typls  or  tieads  and  iuslils 

Fig.  271. 


CORRIDORS,  STAIRWAYS,  AND  ENTRANCES 


stairways  were  inadequate,  or  improperly  constructed  ? 
The  more  serious  danger  is  always  from  the  effects  of 
panic  rather  than  from  fire.  The  only  advantage  would 
be  in  the  failure  of  dead  bodies  to  burn  or  in  the  lessening 
of  some  causes  for  a general  fire.  The  story  of  every 
tragedy  connected  with  fires  in  public  buildings  has 
been,  that  after  the  fire  was  discovered,  a panic  followed, 
and  the  stairs  and  exits  became  jammed  or  were  cut  off 
by  smoke  and  fire.  Panics  are  of  course  not  always 
avoidable  so  long  as  the  human  mind  is  subject  to  fright, 
but  the  physical  conditions  conducive  to  them  can  be 
obviated  if  careful  attention  is  given  to  direct  and 
adequate  means  of  safety.  And  it  is  therefore  a public 
duty  that  all  concerned  give  this  particular  factor  just 
consideration  when  the  merits  of  a school  plan  are  being 
considered.  It  is  highly  probable  that  but  a small 
percentage  of  schools  to  be  built  in  the  next  fifty  years 
will  be  entirely  of  fire-resisting  construction.  The  tax 
burden  would  be  too  heavy.  Beyond  the  fire  limits  of  a 
city,  it  is  not  absolutely  necessary  to  use  such  construc- 
tion, if  the  building  is  not  more  than  two  stories  above 
the  basement,  if  precautionary  methods  are  adopted  in 
the  design  of  the  vital  parts  of  the  structure,  and  if  there 
are  ample  stairways  so  that  the  building  may  be  vacated 
quickly  and  with  safety.  The  country  is  so  far  behind 
the  educational  requirements  for  housing  facilities,  that 
in  order  to  catch  up,  it  will  be  necessary  to  have  to 
resort  to  extraordinary  measures.  These  measures  will 
be  extraordinary  because  they  must  involve  the  construc- 
tion of  a great  number  of  buildings  which  will  meet  all 
educational  demands,  and  at  the  same  time  be  safe, 
economical,  and  satisfactory  in  design  as  public  build- 
ings. One  of  the  most  important  details  in  this  new 
building  movement,  and  one  of  the  first  to  be  mastered, 
is  the  matter  of  the  location  and  number  of  stairways. 

Location  and  Number  of  Stairways.  — In  examining 
the  work  in  school  construction  of  men  of  wide  expe- 
rience, it  is  noticeable  that  a stairway  is  provided  for 
three  and  not  more  than  four  classrooms,  or  the  equiva- 
lent of  one  stairway  for  every  120  to  .140  pupils.  Also 
the  stairs  are  generally  located  so  that  should  any  one 
section  of  the  building  be  cut  off  by  fire  or  smoke,  other 
: sections  and  stairs  are  easily  accessible  for  safety.  The 
lower  number  of  120  pupils  to  a stairway  for  a three-story 
building,  and  the  higher  number,  140  pupils,  for  one  of  a 
two-story  building,  provides  ample  means  of  egress  from 
the  school  at  critical  times.  When  a school  is  more 
than  three  stories  in  height,  the  number  and  location 
of  stairs  becomes  a special  problem  and  must  be  treated 
as  such.  Mr.  C.  B.  J.  Snyder,  Architect  of  the  Schools 
of  the  City  of  New  York,  a man  who,  on  account  of 
conditions  prevailing  in  that  city,  is  most  eminently 


qualified  to  discuss  this  feature  of  school  building,  states 
that,  “ Our  practice  has  been  to  estimate  stair  require- 
ments on  the  basis  of  fifteen  square  feet  per  pupil  for  all 
rooms  or  spaces  used  for  academic  or  other  instruction. 
Frequent  tests  with  a stop  watch  have  shown  that  the 
capacity  of  a properly  designed  and  built  four-foot 
stairway  (for  elementary  schools)  can  be  readily  counted 
upon  at  the  rate  of  100  pupils  in  25  seconds,  or  240 
pupils  per  minute.  In  practice  this  is  taken  at  100 
pupils  in  50  seconds  or  120  pupils  per  minute  for  each 
stair  of  four  feet  in  width.”  1 

From  this  it  is  evident  that,  if  120  pupils,  marching 
two  abreast,  will  pass  a given  point  in  a minute,  that 
should  be  the  number  of  pupils  assigned  to  a stairway 
at  the  third  floor  in  order  to  empty  the  building  in 
three  minutes,  and  in  not  more  than  three  and  one-half 
minutes  after  the  alarm  has  been  sounded.  If  the  pupils 
on  the  second  floor  are  forced  by  circumstances  to  use 
the  same  stairway  as  the  children  on  the  third  floor,  the 
progress  of  exit  of  the  third  floor  pupils  will  be  delayed 
accordingly,  and  under  the  most  favorable  drilling,  any 
delay  will  quickly  consume  the  safe  time  limit  of  egress 
and  lead  to  impatience,  which  is  the  first  sign  of  danger. 
Consequently,  in  planning  for  stairways,  the  architect 
should  be  informed  of  the  formation  and  order  of  school 
fire  drills,  and  he  should  then  study  to  what  extent  the 
plan  will  permit  changes  in  the  line  of  march  without 
causing  confusion  or  congestion.  Stairways  should  be 
located  so  that  the  distance  between  them  and  the 
groups  of  rooms  accommodated  is  as  short  and  direct 
as  possible.  It  is  not  unusual  to  find  they  have  been 
placed  in  some  inconvenient,  out-of-the-way  corner, 
inadaptable  to  any  other  purpose,  with  no  thought  of 
their  distance  from  rooms  or  of  the  number  of  pupils 
or  rooms  served  by  them.  In  studying  the  problem, 
the  assumption  should  be  frequently  made  that  one  or 
two  stairways  have  been  cut  off  by  fire,  smoke,  or  acci- 
dent, after  which  the  adequacy  of  the  remaining  stair- 
ways should  be  estimated.  A test  of  this  kind  will 
quickly  bring  to  light  whether  or  not  pupils  in  rooms  or 
groups  of  rooms  may  become  trapped.  It  is  far  better  to 
take  these  measures  into  account  when  the  preliminary 
drawings  are  presented  for  inspection  than  to  wait  until 
contracts  are  awarded  or  after  the  building  is  erected. 

Stairway  Enclosures.  — With  the  possible  exception 
of  the  main  entrance  stairways,  extending  from  the 
ground  floor  to  the  first  floor  only,  all  stairways  in  build- 
ings of  more  than  two  stories  should  be  enclosed  through- 
out the  height  of  the  building  with  wire  glass  and  metal 
partitions,  and  the  doors  should  always  swing  out  towards 
the  stairs  and  automatically  close.  When  metal  doors 
and  metal  partitions  are  found  to  be  too  expensive, 


Paper  presented  before  the  National  Fire  Protective  Association’s  Twentieth  Annual  Meeting,  Chicago,  111.,  May  9th,  1916. 


312 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


hard  wood  and  wire  glass  should  be  substituted.  Double 
swinging  doors  should  be  prohibited.  The  upper  panels 
of  all  doors  to  stairways  should  be  glazed  with  clear 
wire  glass.  Such  doors  should  be  equipped  with  push 
plates  on  the  corridor  side  and  pulls  on  handles  on  the 
stair  side.  Locks  or  fasteners  to  hold  the  doors  either 
open  or  closed  should  not  be  allowed.  If  stairways  are 
protected  in  this  manner  to  shut  off  smoke  and  fire, 
and  if  they  lead  directly  to  exits,  the  pupils  will  be  well 
protected. 

Width  of  Stairs.  — There  is  some  question  whether 
the  width  of  stairs  in  elementary  schools  should  be 
limited  to  4 ' o"  or  5'  o"  as  a maximum  width  between 
handrails  on  walls  and  balustrades.  The  reason  for 
establishing  either  of  these  widths  is  that  it  is  less 
dangerous  if  children  march  outdoors  from  their  rooms 
two  abreast.  When  marching  three  or  more  abreast, 
the  center  child  has  no  hand-rail  support  and  is  likely 
to  stumble  and  throw  the  entire  formation  into  a jam> 
with  the  result  of  blocking  further  movement  if  not 
creating  a panic  and  disaster.  The  writer  is  of  the 
opinion  that  elementary  schools,  from  the  first  to  the 
sixth  grades  inclusive,  should  have  all  stairs  or  divisions 
of  stairs  between  hand-rails  on  walls  and  balustrades 
4'  o"  in  width ; in  junior  high  or  intermediate  schools 
4'  6"  in  width ; and  in  high  schools  5'  o"  in  width. 
These  widths  will  then  compel  the  files  to  be  limited  to 
two  abreast,  which  is  the  right  way  to  march  pupils 
from  schools.  Whenever  stairways  are  wider  than  the 
above  dimensions,  the  widths  should  be  of  multiples  of 
4 ' o",  4'  6",  5'  o",  such  as  8'  o",  9'  o",  or  io'  o"  ; 
they  should  be  divided  by  a center  railing  or  balustrade 
as  is  shown  in  Figure  271,  and  the  railing  should  extend 
to  the  outside  walls  of  the  landings  or  follow  the  run  of 
the  stairs,  depending  on  the  design  of  the  stairway. 
Stairways  at  the  ends  of  corridors  are  generally  limited  to 
the  width  of  the  corridor,  while  stairways  at  right  angles 
to  the  long  axis  of  the  corridor  may  be  of  any  desirable 
width  over-all.  This  statement,  however,  should  not  be 
considered  a contradiction  of  the  above  estimate  of  the 
maximum  width  of  divisions  of  stairs  given  in  the  tables, 
for  regardless  of  the  number  of  divisions,  the  maximum 
width  of  any  division  should  not  be  greater  than  neces- 
sary for  two  abreast.  It  is  a good  plan  to  avoid  having 
main  stairways  extend  to  the  basement  near  the  boiler 
rooms.  Boiler  rooms  and  rooms  connected  with  or 
near  the  boiler  room  should  be  accessible  by  flights  of 
stairs  entirely  separate  from  the  stairs  used  by  the 
pupils,  and,  as  has  been  previously  mentioned,  they 
should  be  controlled  by  self-closing  fire  doors. 

Stair  Landings.  — All  stairways  should  have  landings 
the  width  of  the  stairs  and  at  one-half  the  story  height. 
All  these  landings  should  be  level.  The  corners  or  angles 


should  be  rounded  or  made  octagonal  so  that  a pupil 
cannot  be  pocketed  during  a rush.  Winders,  under  no 
circumstances,  should  be  permitted.  A straight  run  of 
stairs  with  a landing  is  almost  as  bad  as  though  it  had  no 
break  in  the  flight.  If  a child  should  stumble  above  the 
landing  or  at  the  top,  he  would  undoubtedly  fall  the 
entire  length  of  the  stairs.  This  type  is  uneconomical 
in  consumption  of  floor  area  and  in  construction,  besides 
being  dangerous.  Landings  at  floor  levels  should  be 
spacious  enough  to  give  the  enclosure  doors  full  swing  in 
order  to  allow  space  necessary  for  the  free  passage  of  the 
pupils  on  the  stairs  and  those  coming  into  and  leaving 
them.  When  stairways  are  placed  at  the  ends  of  cor- 
ridors it  is  frequently  convenient  to  place  toilet  rooms 
and  closets  at  the  level  of  the  landing.  This  is  hazardous, 
for  often  little  or  no  attention  is  given  to  the  swing 
of  the  doors,  and  if  they  open  on  to  the  landing,  there  is 
great  danger  of  obstructing  the  stairs  and  causing  con- 
fusion in  the  march  out  of  the  building.  If  the  doors 
to  such  rooms  occur  on  landings,  they  should  be  made  to 
open  into  the  room  and  not  onto  the  landing ; even 
should  this  be  done,  a frightened  child  may  mistake  such 
a door  as  a means  of  escape.  Therefore,  for  safety, 
there  should  be  no  doors,  openings,  or  recesses  in  the 
stairway  walls  except  at  the  entrances  and  exits  of  the 
stairway  at  the  floor  levels.  Seats  on  landings  to  serve 
as  resting  spots  or  nooks  for  sporadic  studying  are  a 
menace,  and  regardless  of  such  thoughtfulness  for 
comfort,  should  never  be  permitted.  Likewise  pedestals 
for  urns,  flower  pots,  or  any  other  obstacles  to  a clear 
passage  should  be  eliminated. 

Balustrades  and  Hand-rails.  — Outside  balustrades  to 
stairs  should  be  of  closed  construction.  (Figure  272.) 
The  open  balustrade  of  iron  bars  or  grilles  give  no 
protection  to  girls  from  those  at  lower  levels.  Further- 
more, open  balustrades  provide  lodgment  for  dust,  and 
as  janitor  service  is  not  always  efficient  in  school  build- 
ings, it  is  better  to  adopt  the  closed  balustrade.  Balus- 
trades on  the  outside,  forming  the  stair  well,  should  be 
at  least  3'  4"  above  the  nosing  of  the  tread  to  prevent 
children  falling  from  haste  or  crowding.  The  top  of 
the  balustrade  should  have  a rounded  hand-rail  with 
square  or  rounded  blocks  for  projections,  spaced  about 
4'  o"  apart  to  prevent  boys  sliding  down  the  top  of  the 
balustrade  and  possibly  falling  the  full  height  of  the 
stair  well.  Lhfless  this  is  done,  a fireproof  glazed  parti- 
tion should  extend  to  the  ceiling  above  the  balustrade 
or  from  the  stair  stringer.  This  is,  however,  too  ex- 
pensive for  general  adoption.  Two  hand-rails  for  use 
by  larger  and  smaller  children  should  be  securely  at- 
tached to  the  walls  of  the  balustrades  and  to  the  side 
walls  of  the  stairway.  The  top  hand-rail  should  be 
about  2'  6"  above  the  tread,  and  on  a fine  with  the 


CORRIDORS,  STAIRWAYS,  AND  ENTRANCES 


3i3 


Fig.  272. — Double  Stairway,  Schenley  High  School,  Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania. 


Mr.  Edward  Stotz , Architect. 


face  of  the  riser;  the  lower  hand-rail  for  the  smaller 
children  should  be  about  8"  to  10"  lower.  If  all  princi- 
pals would  place  the  higher  grades  on  the  upper  floors, 
the  double  run  of  hand-rails  might  not  be  necessary 
except  for  the  lower  flights  of  stairs ; but  we  often  find 
that  school  principals  differ  in  their  administrative 
methods.  Stairways,  if  properly  constructed,  should 
be  built  so  that  if  changes  occur  in  the  management  or 
organization  of  the  school,  the  safety  of  the  pupils 
remains  unaffected. 

Risers  and  Treads.  — In  elementary  schools,  the  height 
of  the  riser  should  not  be  more  than  6",  and  in  junior 
and  senior  high  schools  the  height  should  never  exceed 
j" ; it  is  much  easier  for  climbing  if  they  too  are  limited 
to  6".  There  are  times  in  the  construction  of  high 
schools  when  a compromise  between  6"  and  7"  is  neces- 
sary, but  no  riser  heights  should  exceed  7".  The  width 
of  the  tread  is  complementary  to  the  height  of  the  riser. 
Kidder’s  Architects'  and  Builders'  Pocket  Book,  sixteenth 
edition,  edited  by  Professor  Thomas  Nolan,  of  the 


University  of  Pennsylvania,  states : “ The  width  of  the 
run  should  be  determined  by  the  height  of  the  rise ; the 
less  the  rise,  the  greater  should  be  the  run  and  vice-versa. 
Several  rules  have  been  given  for  proportioning  the  run 
to  the  rise : 

“ (1)  The  sum  of  the  rise  and  the  run  should  be  equal 
to  from  17”  to  17*". 

“ (2)  The  sum  of  two  risers  and  a tread  should  not  be 
less  than  24"  nor  more  than  25”. 

“ (3)  The  product  of  the  rise  and  run  should  not  be  less 
than  jo"  and  not  more  than  75".  These  rules  apply  to 
stairs  with  nosings.” 

From  this  it  would  seem  that  for  a 6"  rise  the  tread 
should  be  from  11”  to  n-k",  and  for  a j"  rise  the  tread 
should  be  from  10”  to  10^-”.  The  measurement  of  a 
tread  is  either  from  nosing  to  nosing,  or  from  riser  to 
riser,  and  not  from  the  riser  to  the  nosing.  For  exterior 
stone  or  cement  steps,  the  risers  should  be  not  more 
than  from  5”  to  5-J-",  and  the  treads  not  less  than  12” 
in  width. 


3U 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


PUN  AT  riLST  UCOU 


PLANS  or  TYPICAL  STAHLS 

o'  S id  IS' 

5 C A L t 


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R LO  O K.  L I If  • W YO  ILKj 
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Fig.  273. 


CORRIDORS,  STAIRWAYS,  AND  ENTRANCES 


39SM 


Fig.  274.  — Main  Entrance  Lobby,  Schenley  High  School,  Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania. 


Mr.  Edward  Stolz,  Architect 


The  material  for  stair  treads  is  somewhat  dependent 
upon  the  type  of  construction  of  the  stairs.  If  the  stairs 
are  of  iron  or  steel,  the  iron  tread  may  be  formed  to 
receive  asphalt,  which  makes  a fine  non-slipping  tread 
md  can  easily  be  replaced  or  repaired,  or  of  North  River 
due  stone,  magnesium  composition,  or  of  cork.  Cork 
reads  require  a metal  nosing  or  llange,  as  does  asphalt, 
which  is  usually  a part  of  the  steel  stair  construction 
ind  set  about  below  the  level  of  the  tread.  A danger 
>f  tripping  exists  here  when  the  surface  of  the  tread 
)ecomes  worn.  Slate  and  marble  treads  will  not  with- 
tand  the  wear,  and  marble  does  not  supply  enough 
: fiction  for  safety.  When  the  stair  structure  is  of  con- 
rete,  the  treads  are  usually  of  cement  finish  or  of 
errazzo,  with  a “ safety  tread  ” consisting  of  steel  and 
orrugations  filled  in  with  lead  or  carborundum  and  set 
ush  with  the  finish  of  the  tread.  The  “ safety  tread  ” 
s placed  at  the  outside  of  the  tread  and  kept  about  4" 
way  from  the  walls. 

Lighting  of  Stairways.  — Stairways  should  be  well 


lighted  naturally  and  electrically.  (See  Figure  272.) 
Any  attempt  to  architecturally  treat  the  exterior  walls 
of  stairways  with  long,  narrow  windows  for  special  effect 
should  be  frowned  upon.  Plenty  of  daylight  will  often 
dispel  fear.  The  old  proverb  that  “ danger  lurks  in 
dark  places  ” is  quite  applicable  to  stairways.  Interior 
stairways,  not  directly  lighted,  should  never  be  permitted, 
regardless  of  the  exigency.  Whenever  schools  are  near 
or  adjacent  to  other  buildings,  the  window  frames  and 
sash  should  be  of  metal  and  glazed  with  wire  glass.  This 
will  prevent  smoke  from  filling  in  stairways  should  a 
fire  occur  on  the  outside.  The  electric  lights  in  corridors 
and  stairways  should  be  of  ample  wattage  to  provide  a 
high  illumination.  Whenever  service  from  two  power 
companies  is  to  be  had,  the  outlets  in  corridors,  stairways, 
and  assembly  halls  should  be  wired  from  both  sources 
of  supply  so  that,  should  the  service  in  one  fail,  there 
would  be  sufficient  light  to  prevent  serious  accidents. 
This  can  be  accomplished  by  having  more  than  one  lamp 
in  each  fixture  and  by  dividing  the  lamps  between  the 


Page  316  Fig.  275. — Main  Entrance  Lobby,  Carter  FI.  Harrison  Technical  High  School,  Chicago,  Illinois. 


53 

•SS 


Page  317  Fig.  276. — Main  Entrance  Vestibule,  Edward  Lee  McLean  High  School,  Greenfield,  Ohio. 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


318 


different  circuits.  This  is  more  necessary  since  the 
school  has  come  to  be  used  as  much  in  the  evening  as 
during  the  day. 

Storage  Spaces  under  Stairs.  — There  is  no  better 
way  to  plan  for  a calamity  in  a school  than  to  use  the 
space  under  stairs  for  janitor’s  closets.  Such  spaces 
should  be  either  sealed  or  left  entirely  open  to  view. 

Stairways  in  the  Schools  of  City  of  New  York.  — • Much 
credit  is  due  to  Mr.  C.  B.  J.  Snyder,  Architect  for  the 
Board  of  Education  of  the  City  of  New  York,  for  his 
contributions  to  schoolhouse  planning  and  construction. 
His  fireproof  stairways,  which  so  admirably  provide  for 
the  safety  of  the  occupants  of  schools  that  are  special 
problems  in  the  congested  sections  of  that  city,  are 
decidedly  ingenious.  Figure  273  shows  the  construction 
and  runs  of  these  stairs.  “ The  stairways  are  all  of 
steel  with  cut  stone  or  asphalt  treads,  and  are  enclosed 
from  bottom  to  top  with  partitions  on  the  corridor  side 
made  of  wire  glass  set  in  steel  frames,  access  being  had 
to  each  floor  landing  by  means  of  fireproof  doors,  all 
fitted  with  automatic  checks  and  springs.  This  arrange- 
ment of  stairways  permits  of  a great  saving  in  floor 
space  and,  while  quite  confusing  to  a stranger,  is  highly 
appreciated  by  the  teacher  who  finds  in  them  the  cer- 
tainty of  easy  and  complete  control  of  the  pupils,  and 
the  pupils  themselves  quickly  realize  the  fact  that  in 
these  stairways  lies  perfect  safety  from  the  perils  of 
fire,  smoke,  or  overcrowding.”  1 

Inclines  or  Ramps.  — Inclines,  unless  placed  in 
separate  towers,  are  not  practical  for  school  buildings, 
and  even  then,  are  out  of  all  reason  in  cost  compared  to 
the  cost  of  well-built  stairways.  The  proof  of  this  lies 
in  the  floor  space  necessary  to  accommodate  the  rise  and 
run  of  the  incline.  For  instance,  no  ramp  or  incline 
should  be  installed  when  the  slope  is  greater  than  1 to  8. 
In  other  words,  for  every  foot  of  height  there  should  be 
8 feet  of  run ; for  a story  height  of  14/  3”,  the  horizontal 
distance  traveled  back  and  forth  should  equal  114  feet; 
for  two  stories  228  feet.  Just  what  might  happen  at 
the  turns,  and  particularly  if  the  incline  is  steep,  is 
entirely  problematical. 

Construction  of  Stairways  and  Corridors.  — Notwith- 
standing an  inclination  to  economize  in  the  construction 
of  school  buildings,  boards  of  education  should  deliberate 
on  the  wisdom  of  sane  measures  in  safeguarding  the 
lives  of  the  occupants  even  if  they  involve  some  additional 
expense.  One  disaster  is  sufficient  to  cause  a revulsion 
of  feeling  towards  those  in  authority  who  consciously 
or  unconsciously  measure  expense  against  safety  of  life. 
Very  often,  without  a reliable  estimate  of  the  cost  of  the 
proposed  buildings,  requirements  are  established  and 
bond  issues  set  and  placed  before  the  electors,  only  to 


find,  when  it  is  too  late,  that  the  fixed  amount  is  not 
sufficient  to  provide  the  necessary  facilities.  The  usual 
recourse  then  is  not  only  to  reduce  the  number  and  often 
the  size  of  rooms,  but  what  is  worse,  to  eliminate  sub- 
stantial construction  in  the  parts  of  the  building  needing 
that  sort  of  construction  to  assure  safety.  Architects 
are  often  as  culpable  as  the  laymen,  and  perhaps  even 
more  so,  by  underestimating  the  value  of  the  work  either 
through  a desire  to  impress  boards  favorably  or  by  a 
failure  to  grasp  the  many  additional  requirements  of 
a school  building  beside  rooms  for  instruction.  The 
corridors  and  stairways  should  be  the  last  section  of  the 
building  to  be  cut  in  construction.  The  reader  is 
requested  to  keep  in  mind  that  the  author  has  a keen 
realization  of  the  difference  between  substantial  and 
extravagant  planning  and  construction.  What  is  set 
forth  as  substantial  construction  is  intended  to  mean  the 
actual,  economical  use  of  materials  in  a manner  that  will 
serve  the  purpose  without  embellishment.  The  addi- 
tional percentage,  in  cost  of  building  the  corridor  floors 
of  reinforced  concrete  supported  by  reinforced  concrete 
columns,  and  stairways  of  the  same  construction  or  of 
fireproof  steel  is  small  when  compared  with  the  total 
cost  of  the  building.  Corridor  and  stairway  walls  like- 
wise should  be  of  fireproof  construction,  whether  of 
masonry,  concrete,  or  metal  lath  and  plaster.  The  last 
is  not  as  desirable  for  the  walls  of  stairways  as  brick  or 
concrete,  as  the  plaster  applied  to  these  materials  is 
less  subject  to  injury,  and  they  are  essentially  fire 
resisting  materials. 

Entrances  and  Exits.  — Entrances  and  exits  to  stairs 
and  corridors  should  be  like  the  wide  end  of  a funnel. 
(See  Figures  274,  275,  and  276.)  Particularly  is  this  true 
of  main  entrances  where  corridors  intersect,  and  at  corri- 
dor entrances  to  assembly  halls  and  rooms  provided  for 
large  assemblages.  Doors  at  entrances  and  exits  should 
always  open  outwards  and  be  equipped  with  panic 
bolts.  Top  and  bottom  bolts  applied  to  the  standing 
leaves  of  double  doors  are  positively  dangerous  unless 
these  bolts  are  controlled  by  panic  bolt  levers  which 
cause  the  bolts  to  slide  and  the  doors  to  fly  open  when 
the  pressure  of  the  body  is  applied  to  the  horizontal 
levers,  which  should  be  about  3'  o"  above  the  floor. 
Double  acting  and  revolving  doors  at  entrances  to 
schools  should  be  prohibited.  Where  inclosed  vesti- 
bules are  necessary  to  exclude  the  cold  drafts  of  winter 
and  a double  set  of  doors  is  necessary,  the  vestibule 
should  be  wide  enough  to  allow  plenty  of  room  for  the 
inner  doors  to  swing  clear  and  then  sufficient  space  left 
to  give  room  to  the  vestibule.  The  inner  set  of  doors 
should  have  no  locks,  and  their  equipment  should  consist 
of  a push  plate  on  the  inside,  and  a pull  handle  on  the 


1 Mr.  Snyder  in  Modern  School  Houses. 


CORRIDORS,  STAIRWAYS , AND  ENTRANCES 


3*9 


outside,  with  a door  check  to  automatically  close  the 
doors.  All  exterior  doors  should  have  some  fastening 
device  to  hold  them  open  when  this  is  desired. 

Fire  Escapes.  — A school  building  that  requires  fire 
escapes  is  an  example  of  decidedly  bad  planning.  The 
danger  of  falling  from  them  is  always  so  great  they  can 
never  take  the  place  of  stairways,  for  children  are  not 
trained  to  use  them.  Fire  marshals,  experienced  chiefs 


of  fire  departments,  and  those  whose  duty  it  is  to 
fight  fire,  have  generally  agreed  that  they  should  not 
be  used,  except  on  old  school  buildings  and  then  only 
when  it  is  not  practical  to  install  stairways.  When 
they  are  used,  they  should  be  4 o"  wide  and  en- 
closed with  wire  glass  and  metal  frames  and  equipped 
like  a fireproof  stairway.  They  then  become  outside 
stair  towers. 


CHAPTER  XVI 


THE  ASSEMBLY  HALL 

By  John  J.  Donovan,  B.S.,  Architect,  A.I. A. 

I.  Assembly  Hall.  II.  Assembly  Hall  for  Elementary  School.  III.  Assembly  Hall  for  Junior  and  Regular  High  Schools, 
(i)  Seating  Capacity.  (2)  Height.  (3)  Floor.  (4)  Divisions.  (5)  Location.  IV.  Stage.  (r)  Size  of  Stage.  (2)  Moving 
Picture  Screen.  (3)  Control  of  Lights.  V.  Acoustics.  (1)  Source  of  Sound.  (2)  Control  of  Sound  Waves.  (3)  Absorption 
of  Sound  Waves.  (4)  Coefficients  of  Absorption.  (5)  Reflecting  Surfaces.  (6)  Wall  Surfaces.  VI.  Organs.  VII.  Quietness. 
VIII.  Moving  Pictures.  (1)  Equipment  and  Current.  (2)  Construction.  IX.  Lighting  and  Illumination.  X.  Aisles. 
XI.  Exits.  XII.  Painting  and  Decoration. 


Assembly  Hall.  — No  modern  school  can  be  properly 
equipped  without  an  assembly  hall.  This  part  of  the 
school  organization  has  proved  its  worth.  Its  activ- 
ities, fully  as  much  as  the  activities  of  the  classrooms, 
have  stimulated  young  students  to  lives  of  useful 
endeavor.  No  other  division  of  the  intellectual  equip- 
ment can  exert  a stronger  moral  influence  on  the  student 
body.  It  is  a kind  of  clearing  house  of  ideas ; a place 
of  action,  where  the  theories  of  learning  are  turned 
into  realities.  Nor  is  its  use  confined  to  the  school 
alone.  Without  it  many  a community  would  be  with- 
out a decent,  safe,  and  comfortable  hall  to  gather  in. 
The  old  idea,  that  the  assembly  hall,  like  the  old- 
fashioned  family  parlor,  was  a room  to  be  used  only 
on  very  special  occasions,  has  given  way  to  the  realiza- 
tion that  it  should  be  used  most  intensively,  not  only 
during  the  day,  but  in  the  evenings  and  on  Sundays 
as  well.  As  the  unfolding  spirit  of  Democracy  comes 
more  and  more  to  find  expression  in  community  singing, 
the  organ  will  before  long  be  considered  as  much  a 
necessity  in  the  school  assembly  hall  as  the  moving 
picture  booth  is  at  the  present  time.  When  this  point 
is  reached,  the  assembly  hall  will  offer  the  full  value 
of  its  construction  in  terms  of  service  to  the  day 
school,  the  continuation  and  evening  schools,  and  to  the 
community  in  community  activities. 

In  the  consideration  of  the  appointments  of  an 
assembly  hall,  the  question  of  the  kind  of  stage  to  be 
built  is  of  first  importance.  With  the  expansion  of  the 
modern  school,  the  simple  lecture  platform  can  no 
longer  be  considered  sufficient.  It  cannot  possibly 
be  made  to  answer  the  increasing  uses  to  which  the 
assembly  hall  is  being  put.  The  modern  high  school 
assembly  hall  stage  must  have  all  the  essentials  of  a 
theater  stage  to  provide  the  student  with  the  appro- 


priate environments  for  dramatic  expression.  The 
public  is  awake  to  the  advantages  of  the  assembly 
hall  and  appreciative  of  the  pleasure  derived  from  its 
use  when  it  is  constructed  with  good  acoustical  quality. 
The  means  and  the  knowledge  are  at  hand,  so  that  all 
such  rooms  may  be  built  and  finished  to  possess  not 
only  architectural  merit  but  acoustical  merit  as  well. 

Whether  or  not  every  school  should  have  an  assembly 
hall  is  a question  that  is  usually  decided  affirmatively 
by  educators,  but  often  to  the  contrary  by  those 
responsible  for  the  tax  rate.  However,  everyT  school 
should  have  some  arrangement  for  convocations,  and 
if  it  is  not  possible  at  first  to  build  an  assembly  hall, 
the  dividing  partitions  of  a number  of  classrooms 
should  be  constructed  with  folding  doors  so  that  two 
or  three  rooms  may  be  formed  into  one  long  room. 
This  plan  is  not  very  satisfactory^,  and  on  account  of 
its  limitations,  is  merely  better  than  nothing  at  all. 
Whenever  an  assembly  hall  must  be  omitted,  arrange- 
ment should  be  made  in  the  general  plan  so  that  it 
can  be  added  without  becoming  a misfit  or  seriously 
affecting  the  symmetry^  of  the  building. 

Assembly  Hall  for  Elementary  Schools.  — Elementary- 
schools  of  five  or  more  classrooms  should  have  an 
assembly  hall  in  order  that  the  principal  may  call  the 
school  together  for  talks,  or  for  choral  instruction  by 
the  music  teacher.  The  small  school  assembly  hall 
should  be  simple  in  character  and  should  be  equipped 
with  a small  stage,  moving  picture  booth,  level  floor, 
and  movable  chairs.  The  room  can  then  be  used  for 
folk  dancing  and  games  by-  the  pupils,  and  for  social 
meetings  byT  the  communityu  The  assembly  hall  for 
the  large  elementary  school  should  be  much  the  same, 
except  that  it  should  have  a greater  seating  capacity. 
It  is  a question  -whether  or  not  the  hall  should  be  capable 


320 


TEE  ASSEMBLY  HALL 


321 


of  seating  the  entire  school  enrollment.  For  elementary 
schools  a seating  capacity  of  four-sevenths  of  the 
enrollment  is  probably  the  correct  estimate,  as  the 
pupils  of  the  lower  grades  are  usually  excused  from  the 
general  convocations. 

Assembly  Hall  for  Junior  and  Senior  High  Schools. 

— It  is,  however,  in  the  assembly  hall  for  the  junior  and 
senior  high  schools|that  good  planning'is-most  essential. 


It  is  absolutely  necessary  that  auditoriums  for  high 
schools  should  be  large  enough  to  seat  slightly  more  than 
the  entire  school  enrollment,  including  the  teaching  staff, 
so  as  to  provide  for  the  future  growth  of  the  school. 
Any  high  school  is  at  a great  disadvantage  if  the  entire 
school  cannot  be  called  together  at  the  same  time  to 
hear  an  influential  speaker  or  to  discuss,  as  a student 
body,  matters  concerning  the  welfare  of  the  school. 


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322 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


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LAItGL  HIGH  SCHOOL  ASSEMBLY  HALL  SLATING  2200  5TUDLHTS 


Fig.  278. 


THE  ASSEMBLY  HALL 


323 


Seating  Capacity.  • — To  determine  the  seating  capac- 
ity, an  allowance  of  6^  square  feet  per  seat  is  generally 
adopted  for  seats  in  straight  rows,  and  about  7^  square 
feet  for  those  in  curved  rows.  These  dimensions  pro- 
vide for  aisles,  are  confined  to  fixed  seats,  and  do 
not  include  the  space  for  the  stage.  Movable  chairs 
will  require  a larger  unit  of  measurement.  Also  a 
greater  allowance  should  be  made  for  tablet  chairs. 
Assembly  hall  or  theater  chairs  are  made  19",  20", 
21",  and  22"  wide.  From  this  it  is  evident  that,  in 
order  to  seat  a school  of  1200,  the  main  floor  would 
have  to  be  about  6o'  wide  X 75'  long;  this  area  would 
accommodate  approximately  700,  leaving  it  for  the 
balcony  to  seat  the  remaining  500.  In  order  to  seat 
a school  of  2000,  the  main  floor  should  be  about  100' 
wide  X 7 5'  long,  a space  which  would  comfortably 
seat  1200.  The  balcony  must  extend  well  out  over 
the  main  floor  and  return  along  the  sides  to  the  pro- 
scenium wall  in  order  to  accommodate  the  remaining 
800.  More  than  one  balcony  is  not  desirable,  for  it 
is  always  difficult  to  preserve  order  and  hold  the  at- 
tention of  pupils  seated  in  the  upper  balcony  or  the 
gallery,  as  it  is  usually  termed  to  distinguish  it  from 
the  balcony  proper. 

Height.  — The  height  of  the  assembly  hall  should  be 
governed  somewhat  by  the  architectural  treatment  of  the 
room,  but  more  so  by  the  correct  cubic  space  necessary 
to  provide  for  adequate  ventilation.  Thirty  cubic  feet 
of  air  per  minute  per  person  and  six  changes  per  hour 
are  the  standards  generally  required  and  adopted.  A 
hall  ioo'  X 75',  seating  2000,  would  require  a height 
of  about  40'  above  the  stage  level  in  order  to  meet  the 
requirements  of  150  cubic  feet  of  space  per  seat,  which 
is  a moderate  allowance.  Some  ordinances  require 
200  cubic  feet  per  seat.  Very  often  the  noise  of  ven- 
tilating systems  in  assembly  halls  is  due  to  the  attempt 
to  provide  a volume  of  air  computed  upon  the  seating 
capacity  without  consideration  of  the  cubical  contents 
of  the  room.  There  are  other  causes  such  as  poor 
engineering  and  faulty  mechanical  installations,  but  it 
is  evident  that  the  ventilating  system  will  be  handi- 
capped if  the  cubic  capacity  of  the  room  is  too  low. 
There  is  a tendency  to  cut  down  on  the  heights  of 
assembly  halls  in  order  to  reduce  the  cubage  of  the 
building,  but  it  should  be  observed  that  this  practice 
affects  the  acoustics  of  the  room  as  well  as  the  ventilation. 

Floor.  — ■ Whenever  the  seating  capacity  of  the  main 
floor  is  greater  than  500,  the  floor  should  be  sloped  or 
made  saucer-shaped,  and  the  seats  should  be  set  on 
steps.  Otherwise,  it  is  necessary  to  elevate  the  stage 
to  an  abnormal  height,  and  even  then  a full  view  of  the 
stage  floor  will  be  obstructed  by  the  footlight  apron. 
It  is  very  important  that  every  occupant  of  the  audi- 


torium have  a clear  view  of  the  stage.  With  a sloping 
or  saucer-shaped  floor,  the  level  of  the  eye  should  be 
established  at  a height  of  4'  o"  above  the  level  of  the 
steps  for  the  seats,  with  each  step  4"  above  the  one  in 
front.  This  will  provide  unobstructed  views  and  de- 
termine the  slope  of  the  curved  section  of  the  saucer. 
The  height  of  the  stage  is  established  3'  9"  to  4 o" 
above  the  low  point  of  the  assembly  hall  floor  at  a point 
located  about  5'  o"  back  of  the  apron.  From  this 
height  lines  of  vision  are  drawn  to  every  row  of  seats. 

Divisions.  — The  numerous  uses  to  which  the  assembly 
hall  is  put  have  brought  about  the  very  practical  divi- 
sion of  the  main  floor  into  three  sections  as  shown  in 
Figs.  277  and  278.  This  division  requires  the  use  of 
rolling  partitions  back  of  the  balcony  supports  and  a 
small  stage  or  rostrum  at  the  front  end  of  each  of 
the  side  sections.  By  having  especially  deep  recesses 
in  the  vertical  frames  of  the  rolling  partitions,  the  three 
sections  may  be  used  at  the  same  time  with  very  little 
disturbance  to  any  section. 

Location.  — For  safety  the  main  entrance  of  the 
assembly  hall  should  be  on  a level  with  the  first  floor. 
It  is  a serious  mistake  to  have  it  higher  than  this,  for 
then  the  lives  of  the  occupants  will  be  jeopardized  if 
for  any  reason  it  should  be  necessary  for  the  entire 
audience  to  descend  stairs  within  the  building  in  order 
to  reach  the  exits  quickly.  Usually  the  room  is 
placed  on  axis  with  the  main  entrance  for  convenience 
to  the  pupils  and  the  public.  If  the  hall  is  used  to  any 
extent  by  the  latter,  collapsible  iron  gates  should  be 
installed  across  the  corridors  to  prevent  outsiders  from 
wandering  through  other  parts  of  the  school  building. 
Not  infrequently  the  assembly  hall  occupies  an  end  of  the 
general  plan,  or  projects  in  front  of  the  school.  Some- 
times it  may  be  a detached  building  connected  to  the 
main  building  by  a cloister  or  an  inclosed  arcade.  These 
schemes  give  more  direct  access  to  the  room  for  the  public, 
and  there  is  then  very  little  opportunity  for  promiscuous 
roaming  through  the  school.  The  Technical  High 
School,  Oakland,  California,  the  Oak  Park  School, 
Sacramento,  California,  and  the  Elko  County  High 
School,  Elko,  Nevada,  are  examples  of  three  different 
methods  of  locating  the  assembly  hall  as  above  described. 

The  Stage.  — For  the  lower  grade  schools,  the  rostrum 
at  the  end  of  the  hall  or  the  stage  with  small  dressing 
rooms  at  the  side  and  a moving  picture  screen  may  suffice 
for  the  activities  within  the  hall.  But  for  the  junior 
and  senior  high  schools,  an  effort  should  be  made  to 
provide  form  and  equipment  in  order  to  widen  the  pos- 
sibilities for  development  in  expression,  interpretation, 
and  dramatics. 

The  semi-inclosed  stage,  with  the  space  so  limited  as 
to  be  suitable  for  graduation  exercises  or  speaking  and 


324 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


singing  programs,  will  not  meet  the  requirements  of  the 
modern  high  school.  Consequently,  there  should  be 
no  obstructions  to  a free  use  of  scenery  suspended  from 
a gridiron  above. 

Size.  — For  a school  of  2000  the  stage  should  be  about 
40'  X 100'  within  the  stage  walls.  The  stage  can  then  be 
used  as  a gymnasium,  and  if  the  proscenium  opening  is  of 
ample  width  (about  65  feet),  athletic  contests  such  as 
basket  ball,  handball,  volley  ball,  and  even  tennis  may 
be  played,  with  the  audience  comfortably  seated  in  the 
auditorium.  If  a gridiron  is  installed,  its  height  above 
the  stage  should  be  a few  feet  more  than  twice  the  height 
of  the  proscenium  opening,  and  a space  of  about  6'  6" 
above  the  grids  should  be  allowed  for  adjusting  scenery 
tackle  and  blocks.  The  pin-rails  and  pin-rail  balconies 
should  be  installed  at  the  time  of  constructing  the 
building.  It  is  wise,  however,  to  limit  the  scenery  to 
two  changes  (interior  and  exterior  sets)  until  the  school 
performances  bring  returns  for  additional  scenery 
equipment. 

Moving  Picture  Screen.  ■ — - The  moving  picture  screen 
and  machine  are  discussed  under  the  chapter  on  Physics , 
but  it  should  be  noted  that  the  screen  should  be  rigidly 
fastened  at  the  lower  edge  to  the  stage  floor  at  an  angle 
nearly  perpendicular  to  the  lantern’s  rays. 

Control  of  Lights.  — Footlights,  border  lights,  and  all 
illumination  in  the  hall  should  be  controlled  at  the  main 
switchboard  on  the  stage  and  in  the  moving  picture 
booth.  This  operation  requires  on  the  switchboard  an 
automatic  electrically  controlled  switch,  which  in  turn 
can  be  operated  by  a simple  switch  in  the  moving 
picture  booth. 

To  some  it  may  seem  that  equipping  an  assembly 
hall  stage  in  this  manner  borders  on  extravagance,  but 
a number  of  years  of  close  relation  with  the  large  high 
school  and  acquaintance  with  the  many  educational 
activities  related  to  the  assembly  hall  prompts  the 
writer  to  advocate  the  furnishing  of  facilities  which 
will  aid  the  development  of  the  large  number  of  students 
who  will  never  have  the  opportunity  to  attend  a univer- 
sity. Moreover,  from  the  point  of  view  of  expense,  the 
cost  will  be  outbalanced  by  the  uses  to  which  the  large 
well-equipped  stage  can  be  put.  The  smaller  rostrum, 
with  its  many  restrictions,  can  never  be  as  satisfactory. 

Acoustics.  — This  subject,  on  account  of  its  technical 
character,  will  not  admit  of  more  than  a simple,  practical 
explanation  of  how  to  treat  the  interior  surfaces  of  the 
assembly  hall  in  order  to  obtain  the  proper  acoustical 
quality  for  the  room.1  Much  attention  has  been  at- 
tracted to  this  matter  during  the  last  two  decades  on 


account  of  the  noticeable  lack  of  acoustical  qualities 
of  many  school  assembly  halls  and  large  public  audi- 
toriums in  which  audiences  have  heard  indistinctly 
and  sometimes  not  at  all.  This  condition  has  been 
caused  largely  by  the  use  of  certain  materials  that  have 
been  favored  by  building  ordinances  because  they  are 
good  fire  retardants,  and  by  builders  because  they 
require  less  effort  in  preparation  and  erection.  Among 
these  are  metal  lath,  gypsum,  plaster,  plaster  on  brick, 
terra  cotta  tile,  brick,  and  glass.  Now  while  these 
materials  have  excellent  qualities  for  the  retardation 
of  fire  and  for  expedition  in  building,  at  the  same  time 
they  have  very  low  coefficients  of  the  absorption  of 
sound  waves,  and  hence  afford  poor  acoustical  conditions 
for  the  halls  in  which  they  are  used. 

Source  of  Sound.  — Sound  is  a form  of  energy  that  sets 
in  motion  the  ether  waves  of  space,  by  means  of  which  it 
is  carried  to  its  final  destination.  These  sound  waves 
move  in  all  directions,  assuming  spherical  form  after 
leaving  the  source,  a single  note  or  uttered  syllable  setting 
up  an  infinite  number.  Very  few  of  them  travel  directly 
to  the  listener ; most  of  them  impinge  against  the  walls, 
floors,  seats,  and  the  ceiling,  from  which,  unless  the 
building  material  is  absorbent,  they  are  reflected  to 
travel  again  about  the  room.  It  is  these  reflected  or 
secondary  waves  that  accentuate  the  strength  of  the 
direct  wave  and  add  loudness  to  the  sound.  If  both 
waves  fail  to  reach  the  listener  simultaneously,  or  within 
one-fifteenth  of  a second,  of  each  other,  he  becomes 
conscious  of  a duplication  of  the  same  sound,  usually 
called  an  echo.  It  is  possible  for  one  sound  to  produce 
several  echoes  in  a room  of  ample  size  when  the  walls, 
ceiling,  seats,  and  floors  are  constructed  of  hard  and 
dense  material  against  which  the  direct  waves  are  readily 
reflected  into  secondary  ones. 

Control  of  Sound  Waves.  — It  is  evident  that,  if  good 
acoustical  quality  is  to  be  had  in  an  assembly  hall,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  control  reflection  and  prevent  the  dissipa- 
tion of  secondary  waves.  It  is  a well-known  principle  in 
physics,  that,  although  energy  is  indestructible,  it  is. 
nevertheless,  convertible,  that  is,  when  it  is  lost  or  ab- 
sorbed, it  has  simply  passed  into  some  other  form,  such 
as  heat  or  motion.  Since  ordinary  sound  is  low  in  energy, 
its  conversion  into  heat  would  be  unappreciable.  To 
control  the  secondary  waves,  it  is  necessary  merely  to 
replace  sections  of  the  reflecting  surfaces  with  materials 
which  will  absorb  these  waves  in  such  measure,  that 
either  their  return  to  the  audience  is  prevented  or  their 
strength  is  so  diminished  that  they  cannot  interfere  with 
the  intensity  and  audibility  of  the  direct  waves.  Ma- 


1 For  a more  comprehensive  study  of  this  subject  the  reader  should  consult  the  works  of  Professor  Wallace  C.  Sabine,  Harvard  University,  and 
those  of  Professor  F.  R.  Watson  of  the  University  of  Illinois.  “Architectural  Acoustics”  in  the  American  Architect,  1900,  by  the  former,  and 
Bulletins  No.  73  and  No.  87,  University  of  Illinois,  by  the  latter. 


THE  ASSEMBLY  HALL 


325 


terials  have  much  the  same  relation  to  sound  waves  as 
they  have  to  light  waves;  that  is,  they  absorb,  trans- 
mit, or  reflect  the  waves ; or  they  may  do  all  three. 
For  instance,  when  a thin  oiled  skin  like  a drum  head  is 
placed  over  an  opening  exposed  to  the  sun’s  rays,  some 
light  will  pass  through,  some  will  be  reflected,  and  some 
will  be  absorbed  by  it.  The  last  will  be  made  evident 
by  placing  the  hand  upon  the  skin  and  noting  its  warmth. 
On  the  other  hand,  a plain  sheet  of  glass  will  almost 
totally  transmit  light,  while  the  mirror  nearly  totally 
reflects  light.  Likewise,  materials  of  soft  texture,  such 
as  fabrics,  transmit,  absorb,  and  dissipate  the  sound 
waves ; materials  such  as  plaster,  brick,  steel,  wood,  glass, 
and  cement  absorb  but  little  and  greatly  reflect  sound. 

Absorption  of  Sound  Waves.  — Such  materials  as 
“ acoustical  ” hair  felt,  covered  with  burlap  or  rep, 
will  suffice  to  absorb  the  secondary  waves.  Often 
rep  is  used  alone.  In  this  case  it  is  placed  over  a 
cotton  twill  membrane  fastened  to  furring  strips  so  as 
to  allow  for  an  air  space  between  the  membrane  and  the 
structural  wall.  If  the  side  and  rear  walls  are  divided 
into  large  panels,  and  the  panels  covered  in  this  manner 
so  that  the  greater  number  of  secondary  waves  are  pre- 
vented from  returning  with  force  to  the  listener,  the 
room  will  most  likely  have  a good  acoustical  quality, 
providing  other  conditions  are  fulfilled.  Some  of  these 
conditions  will  be  set  forth  later. 

Coefficients  of  Absorption.  — Professor  Wallace  C. 
Sabine,  Professor  of  Physics,  Harvard  University,  after 
a large  number  of  experiments,  determined  the  absorbing 
powers  of  many  different  materials.  He  called  the 
open  window  a perfect  absorber,  and  gave  it  a coeffi- 
cient of  one;  in  comparison  with  the  open  window 
the  following  materials  would  have  the  following  pro- 


portional coefficients : 1 

One  square  meter  of  open  window  space  . . . 1.000 

One  square  meter  of  audience 0.96 

One  square  meter  of  hair  felt  1"  thick  ....  0.75 
One  square  meter  of  heavy  rugs  and  curtains  . .0.25 

One  square  meter  of  linoleum  loose  on  floor  . .0.12 

One  square  meter  of  hard  pine  sheathing  . . .0.161 

One  square  meter  of  plaster  on  wood  lath  . . . 0.034 

One  square  meter  of  plaster  on  wire  lath  . . . 0.033 

One  square  meter  of  plaster  on  tile 0.025 

One  square  meter  of  glass,  single  thickness  . . . 0.025 


One  square  meter  of  brick  set  in  Portland  cement  0.025 

From  the  above  table  it  is  noticeable  that  hair  felt 
and  textile  materials  are  considerably  higher  in  absorp- 
tion power  than  the  harder  and  more  compact  building 
materials.  Recently  a Gustivino  tile  has  been  developed 
which  is  said  to  have  a high  coefficient  of  absorption,  for 
by  the  roughness  of  its  surface  the  generation  of  friction 
dissipates  the  secondary  waves  so  as  to  produce  acoustical 

1 Bulletin  No.  73  University  of  Illinois,  and  Kidder’ 


quality  in  the  room.  A permanent  material  of  this  kind 
is  highly  desirable,  as  it  reduces  the  fire  hazard,  is  more 
durable,  and  makes  possible  better  architectural  treat- 
ment of  the  interior  of  the  room.  It  should  be  noted  also 
that  the  square  meter  of  audience  has  a high  coefficient 
of  absorption.  This  accounts  for  the  distinct  difference 
in  the  acoustics  observed  when  a hall  is  empty  and  when 
filled  with  people. 

Reflecting  Surfaces.  — Very  few  school  assembly  halls 
are  equipped  with  upholstered  chairs.  This  is  a draw- 
back to  good  acoustics,  as  the  wooden  seats  and  backs 
are  severe  reflectors  of  both  the  direct  and  secondary 
sound  waves.  Likewise  wood  and  concrete  floors  and 
glass  are  high  reflectors.  Therefore,  whenever  it  is 
possible,  the  windows  should  be  draped  with  heavy  cur- 
tains and  the  aisles  and  passages  should  be  covered  with 
a carpet  or  with  linoleum.  Ceiling  lights  to  admit  sky- 
light or  indirect  illumination  should  be  avoided  ; instead 
the  ceilings  should  be  paneled,  with  hair  felt  and  rep 
installed  within  the  panels. 

Wall  Surfaces.  — The  shape  of  the  room  also  has  much 
to  do  with  the  formation  of  echoes.  Long  and  narrow 
rooms  are  conducive  to  sound  reflection  and  particularly 
so  are  rooms  hemispherical  in  form,  the  latter  serving  very 
much  in  the  manner  of  parabolic  reflectors  in  the  search- 
light. A room  more  than  75  feet  deep  from  the  stage 
must  have  some  means  of  focusing  the  sound  waves  to 
carry  well  beyond  this  point,  as  it  has  been  found  that 
beyond  this  distance  the  voice  of  the  average  public 
speaker  is  hardly  audible.  Of  course,  there  is  a danger  in 
overpadding  the  interior  of  a room,  so  that  on  account 
of  a lack  of  resonance  sound  becomes  stifled.  For  this 
reason  certain  well-defined  sections  of  the  side  walls 
should  be  of  a material  like  plaster  or  brick  which  will 
reflect  the  secondary  wave  in  such  a way  that  it  will 
arrive  not  later  than  one-fifteenth  of  a second  after  the 
arrival  of  the  direct  wave.  This  construction  requires 
careful  calculation  and  exact  measurements,  and  the 
locations  should  be  determined  by  some  one  expert  in 
the  study  of  acoustics. 

Let  it  not  be  thought  that  what  has  been  presented 
here  is  in  any  way  a complete  discussion  of  the  subject. 
The  writer  has  intentionally  avoided  a technical  discourse 
which  would  involve  not  only  physics  but  advanced 
mathematics  as  well. 

Figure  279  shows  the  application  of  the  hair  felt  and  the 
rep.  These  materials  should  first  be  chemically  treated 
to  withstand  fire  and  also  be  repellent  to  vermin.  The 
rep  should  be  dyed  to  the  color  desired  for  the  finish 
tone ; it  should  never  be  painted,  as  the  paint  fills  the 
pores  of  the  weave  and  forms  a membrane  over  the 
material.  This  nullifies  its  purpose  because  the  painted 
s Architects'  and  Builders'  Pocket  Book,  16th  Edition. 


326 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


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327 


surface  acts  like  a drum-head,  and  the  waves  cannot 
freely  penetrate  through  or  be  absorbed  by  the  fabric. 

Organs.  — In  describing  the  modern  assembly  hall, 
one  cannot  omit  mention  of  the  organ  any  more  than  of 
the  moving  picture  equipment.  It  should  be  borne  in 
mind  that  even  though  an  organ  is  not  possible  at  the 
time  of  building  the  school  and  the  assembly  hall,  there 
is  no  reason  why  the  space  and  provisions  for  a future 
installation  should  not  be  allowed.  It  costs  a community 
many  times  more  to  be  lacking  in  vision  than  it  ever 
does  to  spend  freely  with  a clear  vision  of  future  needs. 
Good  music,  next  to  eloquence,  will  do  more  to  stir 
humanity  to  right  living  and  right  action  than  any  other 
force ; it  should  be  encouraged  to  the  fullest  extent, 
especially  during  the  formative  period  of  young  manhood 
and  young  womanhood. 

During  the  study  and  deliberation  of  the  general 
problem,  and  particularly  that  of  the  assembly  hall,  an 
expert  in  organ  installations  should  be  consulted  regard- 
ing the  size  of  an  organ  most  appropriate  for  the  volume 
of  the  room,  and  the  other  necessities,  such  as  space  and 
size  of  pipes,  bellows,  fan,  motor,  etc.  A word  may  not 
be  amiss  to  call  attention  to  the  archaic  use  of  false 

I pipes  for  decorative  effect.  Usually  the  display  is 
cumbrously  done  and  seems  to  proclaim  the  vanity  of 
some  one  in  authority.  Unless  very  cleverly  constructed 
and  so  arranged  as  to  convey  the  impression  of  a sunburst 
accenting  an  axis  of  the  room,  it  is  far  better  taste  in 
design  to  substitute  a simple  decorative  plaster  grille 
which  will  provide  openings  for  the  sound  to  pass  through. 
It  is  then  possible  to  have  echo  pipes  in  different  sections 
of  the  room.  The  cost  of  things  constructed  in  good 
taste  is  usually  less  than  that  of  mere  showy  and  decora- 
tive features. 

Quietness.  — The  assembly  hall,  like  the  library,  should 
be  located  where  quietness  will  prevail.  It  is  the  ordi- 
nary thing  to  place  the  boiler  room,  the  fan  room,  or  the 
cafeteria  under  the  assembly  hall.  It  is  really  the  worst 
place  to  locate  them,  both  for  safety  to  the  audience  and 
for  the  full  and  satisfactory  use  of  the  room.  The 
discomfort  occasioned  by  straining  to  hear  a speaker,  or 
to  listen  to  a musical  or  dramatic  entertainment,  destroys 
the  possibility  of  wholesome  pleasure.  No  excuse  can 
be  found  for  architects,  and  especially  engineers,  who 
will  negligently  overlook  the  necessities  of  locating  the 
mechanical  installations  where  they  will  function  to  the 
desired  efficiency,  and  at  the  same  time  operate  without 
the  world  knowing  it.  Boards  of  Education  and  the 
public  are  fast  realizing  that  it  sometimes  costs  a little 
more  to  have  ideal  conditions,  but  if  they  are  made 
acquainted  with  the  facts  in  time,  they  generally  accede 
to  the  requirements.  On  the  other  hand,  preliminary 
study  and  premeditation  very  often  will  bring  the  cost 


of  good  conditions  below  that  of  permanently  bad 
conditions.  Boiler  rooms  should  be  located  in  isolated 
buildings  or  in  wings  where  they  may  be  built  entirely 
of  fireproof  materials  such  as  masonry  or  concrete. 
Cafeterias  likewise  may  better  be  located  in  separate 
buildings  or  in  such  part  of  the  main  building  that  no 
odors  from  the  kitchens  can  permeate  the  school. 

Moving  Picture  Booth.  — To  have  good  pictures 
requires  not  only  a good  machine,  but  a booth  so  con- 
structed that  the  machine  is  not  handicapped.  (See 
Figure  280.)  First  of  all,  the  booth  should  be  solidly 
built,  and  the  floor  should  have  such  rigidity  as  to  obviate 
machine  vibration,  which  makes  the  pictures  dance  and 
is  harmful  to  the  eyes  of  the  observer.  The  vertical 
and  horizontal  axes  of  the  picture  rays  should  strike 
the  center  of  the  screen.  This  adjustment  necessitates 
placing  the  booth,  and  especially  the  opening  for  the 
moving  picture  rays,  directly  on  a line  at  right  angles 
with  the  center  of  the  screen.  If  the  booth  is  at  a high 
elevation,  the  screen  should  be  tilted  so  the  rays  will 
strike  it  at  right  angles  or  nearly  so.  The  screen  should 
be  rigidly  fastened  to  prevent  movement.  When  a 
gridiron  is  included  in  the  stage  equipment,  it  is  possible 
to  have  the  screen  constructed  of  metal  lath  and  plaster 
applied  to  a frame  of  channel  and  angle  iron  construc- 
tion. The  space  for  the  picture  should  be  painted  an 
ivory  white  with  a black  border  outside  the  limits  of 
the  rays,  serving  as  a contrast  to  give  distinctness  to  the 
picture. 

Equipment  and,  Current.  — The  equipment  should  con- 
sist of  a good  moving  picture  machine  and  a stereopticon 
lantern.  If  possible,  the  booth  should  also  contain  a 
spotlight  for  use  during  dramas  and  “ skits  ” staged  by 
the  students.  Light  from  alternating  current  is  not  as 
steady  or  as  brilliant  as  that  supplied  by  direct  current. 
Where  the  latter  is  not  available  from  the  street  service 
the  motor  generator  set  in  the  physics  laboratory  should 
supply  the  current.  As  a matter  of  good  engineering, 
the  current  should  be  supplied  from  that  source  anyway. 

Construction.  — All  fire  ordinances  require  that  moving 
picture  booths  shall  be  constructed  of  fireproof  materials 
such  as  concrete,  brick,  or,  as  is  generally  used,  wood 
sheathing  covered  with  No.  26  gauge  galvanized  iron, 
locked-seamed  for  walls,  floors,  and  ceilings.  All  doors, 
door  frames,  and  shutters  should  be  of  metal,  or  be  metal 
covered,  and  the  shutters  for  the  rays  should  be  suspended 
by  cotton  strings  attached  to  counterweights  so  that  a 
flash  of  fire  will  burn  the  ties  of  string,  allowing  the  shut- 
ters to  close  tight.  All  doors  to  the  booths  should  close 
automatically  and  be  kept  closed  during  a performance. 
A metal  film  box  which  can  be  tightly  closed  should  be 
provided  in  which  to  store  the  films  within  the  booth. 
The  combustion  of  a film  is  so  rapid  and  intense  that 


328 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


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Mr.  John  J.  Donovan,  Architect,  and  Mr.  Henry  Hombostcl,  Consulting  Architect. 


THE  ASSEMBLY  HALL 


33i 


Mr.  Wm.  B.  Ittner,  Architect. 


Fig.  283.  — Grover  Cleveland  High  School,  St.  Louis,  Missouri. 


the  operator  seldom  has  time  to  escape  should  one 
catch  tire  while  he  is  operating  the  machine.  This  film 
box  may  contain  the  rewinding  machine  so  often  needed 
in  a much  used  picture  booth.  Without  fail,  the  booth 
should  be  provided  with  a fireproof  vent  flue  having  a 
minimum  cross  sectional  area  of  50  square  inches.  It 
is  best  to  locate  this  flue  right  over  the  machine  and 
have  it  lead  directly  to  the  outdoor  air.  A fireproof 
inlet  supplying  30  cubic  feet  of  air  per  minute  should 
also  be  provided  for  ventilation,  so  that  the  operator  will 
not  expose  the  audience  to  the  danger  of  fire  and  panic 
by  opening  the  door  for  ventilation  when  the  booth 
becomes  heated  by  the  machine  light.  A signal  button 
and  buzzer  in  the  booth  and  on  the  stage  should  be 
provided  so  that  a lecturer  may  direct  the  changing  of 
stereopticon  slides.  An  inter-communication  telephone 
system  between  the  stage  and  the  booth  is  desirable, 
and  the  expense  is  inappreciable  compared  to  the  con- 
venience. 

The  construction  of  the  front  wall  of  the  moving 
licture  booth  as  shown  in  Figure  280  should  be  observed, 
is  it  is  the  most  practical  method  found  by  the  writer. 
The  asbestos  board  is  not  secured  in  place  until  the 
>icture  machine  is  properly  located  with  relation  to  the 
urtain  and  then  the  openings  in  the  asbestos  board  are 
neatly  formed.  This  asbestos  board  is  about  £"  thick 
nd  should  be  fastened  so  it  can  be  easily  removed  in 


order  that  new  machines  may  be  correctly  placed  with 
relation  to  the  curtain. 

Lighting  and  Illumination.  - If  at  all  possible,  the 
assembly  hall  should  be  well  provided  with  good,  natural 
lighting  for  the  hygienic  effect  of  the  sun’s  rays  in  purify- 
ing the  room.  In  fact,  as  we  have  previously  said,  all 
rooms  in  a school  building  should,  if  possible,  have  the 
benefit  of  the  cheerfulness  and  natural  warmth  of 
sunshine. 

The  windows  should  have  opaque  shades  operated 
within  slides  so  that  the  room  may  be  darkened  for  the 
use  of  moving  pictures  and  stereopticon  views.  The 
method  is  quite  fully  described  in  the  chapter  on  Physics. 
Heavy  drapes  or  curtains  will  be  found  advantageous  for 
the  acoustical  quality  of  the  room,  as  well  as  for  decora- 
tive purposes.  Under  “ Electric  Wiring  and  Illumina- 
tion ” the  lighting  of  the  auditorium  will  be  described 
fully.  However,  the  writer  favors  the  semi-direct 
method,  as  it  is  more  cheerful  than  the  indirect  and 
costs  considerably  less.  On  the  other  hand,  direct  light- 
ing should  be  avoided,  as  the  glare  is  decidedly  tiring, 
and  painful  after  a very  short  time.  Either  all  fixtures 
should  have  double  service,  or  certain  fixtures  should  be 
wired  to  separate  street  service  lines  in  order  to  have 
light,  should  the  main  service  to.  the  building  fail  for 
any  reason.  This  is  a precautionary  measure  that 
ought  to  be  adopted  in  halls  of  large  seating  capacity. 


332 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Fig.  284.  — Auditorium,  Clawson  School,  Oakland,  California. 


Mr.  John  J.  Donovan,  Architect. 


One  of  the  short-sighted  regulations  of  many  ordinances 
is  the  absurd  size  required  for  exit  light  boxes.  They 
are  unnecessarily  large  and  out  of  keeping  with  the 
surrounding  details.  There  is  no  reason  why  good 
judgment  and  consideration  for  proportion  should  not 
prevail  in  safety  measures  as  in  other  matters.  Exit 
lights  should  be  placed  over  every  exit  and  kept  lighted 
during  the  occupancy  of  the  room  whenever  the  room 
is  darkened. 

Aisles.  — The  building  laws  of  nearly  all  cities  agree 
on  the  following  as  to  the  width  of  the  aisles : 

All  aisles  having  seats  on  each  side  shall  not  be  less 
than  three  feet  wide  where  they  begin  near  the  stage 
and  shall  be  increased  in  width  towards  the  exits-  in  the 
ratio  of  x\"  to  5 running  feet.  Aisles  having  seats  on 
one  side  only  shall  not  be  less  than  two  feet  wide  at 
the  beginning  and  increase  in  width  x\"  in  10  running 
feet. 

Ordinances  further  require  that  all  seats  except  those 
contained  in  boxes  shall  not  be  less  than  32"  back  to 


back,  measured  in  a horizontal  direction.  No  seat  in 
the  auditorium  or  theater  shall  have  more  than  six 
seats  intervening  between  it  and  an  aisle. 

The  above  has  been  taken  literally  from  Building 
Ordinances  Controlling  the  Construction  of  Auditoriums 
and  Theaters,  which  the  construction  of  school  audi- 
toriums should  follow. 

Exits.  - All  assembly  halls  should  have  more  than 
one  means  of  exit.  Exits  should  be  arranged  on  the 
front  and  sides  if  possible  as  well  as  at  the  rear  or 
entrance.  This  arrangement  will  give  a sense  of  secur- 
ity which  is  important  in  the  elimination  of  panics. 
Steps  of  any  kind  should  be  avoided  either  at  exits  or 
in  any  passage  or  aisle  leading  to  the  exits.  Openings 
5'  o"  wide  with  double  doors  opening  outward  and 
operated  with  panic  bolts  should  be  provided  for  even- 
250  seats  up  to  1000,  and  then  one  for  even-  300  seats 
additional. 

Painting  and  Decoration.  — In  order  that  harmony 
should  prevail,  the  color  scheme  of  the  assembly  hall 


333 


THE  ASSEMBLY  HALL 


should  receive  careful  study.  Unlike  a theater,  it  is 
not  adapted  to  a wide  range  of  decorative  ornament 
and  free  use  of  color.  On  the  other  hand,  somber  tones 
are  likely  to  reflect  melancholy,  which  is  entirely  out  of 
[keeping  with  the  buoyant  spirit  of  the  students.  The 
room  has  so  many  uses  that  no  particular  one  should 
control  the  color  scheme.  Consequently,  any  light, 
cheerful  coloring  will  usually  be  found  appropriate. 
The  chairs,  curtains,  hangings,  and  especially  the 
scenery  for  the  stage,  should  be  selected  so  as  to  produce 
ajj  general  harmonious  effect.  The  usual  method  is  for 
the  architect  to  select  colors  for  the  walls,  ceilings,  etc. ; 
the  purchasing  agent  selects  the  chairs  and  hangings; 
the  principal  selects  the  scenery ; and  the  final  result  is 
i free-for-all,  everlasting  clash  in  the  general  scheme. 
Like  everything  else  in  the  study  of  the  plan,  there 
should  be  collaboration  and  good  team-work  throughout ; 
hen  not  only  harmony  but  happiness  will  prevail. 

The  assembly  hall  is  the  ideal  room  for  a terse  inscrip- 
ion  which  will  attract  the  students’  attention  and  lead 
o thoughts  of  the  higher  purposes  of  life.  A well-chosen 
pigram  often  will  do  more  to  displace  frivolity  with 
arnestness  and  seriousness  than  a full  course  of  lectures 
n self-efficiency.  Likewise,  the  intellectual  enrichment 


diffused  by  a fine  mural  painting  is  immeasurable.  And 
there  is  no  spot  in  the  entire  community  where  it  can 
be  observed  by  more  people  than  upon  the  proscenium 
walls  of  the  school  auditorium.  Here,  again,  is  the 
opportunity  for  vision.  Even  though  the  available 
funds  will  not  permit  of  a mural  painting  at  the  time  of 
constructing  the  building,  there  is  no  excuse  for  not 
arranging  space  for  such  a future  acquisition.  The 
country  is  alive  with  fine  young  artists  fully  capable  of 
producing  wonderful  visions  of  inspiration,  who  are 
glad  to  have  the  opportunity  to  demonstrate  their 
ability  and  give  life  to  their  conceptions.  A slight 
investigation  will  bring  to  light  what  may  be  accom- 
plished at  a very  small  expense.  In  order  to  avoid 
hasty  action  in  the  selection  of  the  man  and  in  choosing 
the  subject,  it  is  probably  far  better  to  have  this  piece 
of  work  done  some  time  after  the  building  is  completed. 
Also,  the  artist  should  never  be  rushed  in  his  work. 
For  if  done  at  all,  it  should  be  done  well,  as  it  is  to  be 
done  for  all  time.  Nothing  is  so  disgusting  as  a preten- 
tious or  badly  executed  mural  painting.  A painting  is 
indicative  of  the  intelligence  and  skill  of  the  painter,  but 
it  is  also  a measure  of  the  taste  and  intelligence  of  the 
client,  and  in  a school  building,  of  the  community. 


334 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Mr.  Edward  Stalz,  Architect 


Fig.  286.  — Schenley  High  School,  Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania 


THE  ASSEMBLY  HALL 


335 


; 


Mr.  A.  F.  Hussanaer,  Arcniiect. 


Fig.  287.  — Assembly  Hall,  Carter  H.  Harrison  Technical  High  School,  Chicago,  Illinois. 


Fig.  288.  — Carter  H.  Harrison  Technical  High  School,  Chicago,  Illinois. 


Mr.  A.  F.  Hussaruler,  Architect. 


THE  ASSEMBLY]  HALL 


337 


Messrs.  Perkins.  Fellows  & Hamilton , Architects. 

Fig.  289.  — Assembly  Hall  Gymnasium,  Edward  S.  Bragg  School,  Fond  du  Lac,  Wisconsin. 


33§ 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Messrs.  Perkins,  Fellows  & Hamilton,  Architects. 

Fig.  290.  — Assembly  Hall,  Lincolnwood  School,  District  #75,  Evanston,  Illinois. 


page  339  Fig.  291.  — Oliver  School,  Lawrence,  Massachusetts. 


340 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Messrs.  GuUberl  & BeleUe.  ArcniUcts. 


Fig.  292.  — South  Side  High  School,  Newark,  New  Jersey. 


THE  ASSEMBLY  HALL 


34i 


Fig.  293.  — Parkersburg,  West  Virginia. 


Mr.  Frank  L.  Packard.  Architect. 


CHAPTER  XVII 


THE  MUSIC  DEPARTMENT 

By  Glen  H.  Woods,  A.A.G.O.,  Director  of  Music  School  Department,  Oakland,  California 

I.  Elementary  Schools.  II.  Intermediate  or  Junior  High  School.  III.  Senior  or  Regular  High  School.  IV.  Assembly  Hall. 
V.  Vocational  Music,  (i)  Equipment.  (2)  Office  and  Library.  (.3)  Acoustics  and  Noise  Deadening. 


Elementary  Schools.  — On  account  of  the  rapidly 
increasing  interest  in  the  study  and  teaching  of  instru- 
mental and  choral  music  in  the  public  schools,  this  divi- 
sion of  the  school  organization  requires  careful  consider- 
ation in  the  plan  of  the  new  school  building.  Two 
phases  should  be  considered  in  the  elementary  school : 
first,  small  rehearsal  rooms  about  io/Xi2/  in  which 
private  individual  instrumental  instruction  may  be 
given ; and  second,  the  stage  of  the  assembly  hall, 
which  should  be  sufficiently  large  to  accommodate  an 
ensemble  rehearsal  of  all  the  players  in  the  school. 
When  assembly  halls  in  elementary  schools  are  equipped 
with  movable  chairs,  it  is  possible  to  use  them  for  other 
activities  besides  convocations  and  assemblies.  Conse- 
quently, whenever  the  stage  is  too  small,  it  is  possible  to 
use  the  floor  for  the  rehearsals  of  the  band  and  orchestra, 
and  each  player  may  have  sufficient  space  so  as  to  be 
seated  comfortably  and  have  enough  elbow  room  to 
play  without  interference  from  his  neighbor.  Fixed 
audience  seats  placed  close  to  the  stage  eliminate  the 
use  of  the  floor  for  rehearsals,  and  the  stage  is  the  only 
resource.  Therefore,  it  is  advisable  to  keep  in  mind  the 
many  uses  to  which  the  stage  and  floor  may  be  assigned, 
and  one  of  the  most  valuable  uses  is  for  orchestral  con- 
certs and  rehearsals.  In  order  to  seat  an  orchestra  of 
30  pieces,  the  stage  should  be  at  least  32  feet  wide  by 
17  feet  deep.  Figure  294  shows  the  seating  arrangement 
of  the  players  and  the  areas  required  for  each  group. 

The  Clawson  Elementary  School,  Oakland,  California, 
illustrated  on  pages  91,  332,  is  a good  example  of  a 
model  elementary  school  with  excellent  appointments 
for  instrumental  and  orchestral  instruction.  The  stage 
is  elevated  to  a height  of  4'  o"  above  the  floor  and  is 
sufficiently  large  to  accommodate  an  orchestra  of  30 
pieces.  The  small  dressing  rooms  adjoining  the  stage 
are  used  for  giving  individual  instrumental  lessons,  and 
when  well  lighted,  ventilated,  and  far  removed  from  the 
study  classrooms,  as  in  this  case,  they  serve  well  for  this 


purpose.  The  acoustical  quality  of  this  assembly  room 
is  almost  perfect,  as  the  walls  of  the  room  have  a paneled 
wood  wainscot  about  nine  feet  high  and  above  this  the 
masonry  walls  are  covered  with  acoustical  hair-felt  and 
burlap.  Also  the  ceiling  is  finished  with  wood  beams 
and  panels.  It  is  an  ideal  room  for  an  ensemble  practice, 
there  being  no  perceptible  echoes  even  when  only  the 
players  are  present.  No  doubt  this  is  due  to  the  special 
treatment  of  the  interior  design. 

In  schools  without  assembly  halls  it  is  necessary  to 
resort  to  the  use  of  corridors  or  even  to  poorly  lighted 
basement  rooms.  The  serious  danger  of  causing  confusion 
in  blocking  the  corridor  in  times  of  fire  and  panics  makes 
it  mandatory  that  in  such  cases  temporary  quarters  like 
portable  buildings  should  be  furnished,  pending  the 
permanent  assembly  hall.  Makeshift  quarters  are 
usually  devoid  of  the  proper  natural  and  artificial  light- 
ing facilities,  and  the  study  of  music  requires  both  in 
order  to  save  the  pupils  from  eye  strain. 

The  Intermediate  or  Junior  High  School.  — As  the 
enrollment  in  the  junior  high  school  is  much  larger  than 
that  of  the  average  elementary  school,  the  musical  activi- 
ties are  more  intense,  and  consequently,  the  accommo- 
dations should  be  well  thought  out  to  provide  for  private 
individual  lessons,  orchestra  practice,  and  choral  classes. 
The  small  rooms,  previously  mentioned  under  Elementary 
Schools,  and  the  stage  of  the  assembly  hall,  will  provide 
for  the  first  two,  and  the  average  classroom  can  be 
used  to  good  advantage  for  choral  instruction  where  the 
classes  are  small. 

However,  in  a school  of  this  size  and  character,  there 
should  be  a special  music  room  which  would  have  a 
seating  capacity  of  about  150.  This  would  then  ac- 
commodate large  choral  classes  for  community  singing. 
This  room  would  relieve  the  assembly  hall  and  serve  for 
many  other  school  purposes.  The  seating  arrangement 
should  be  that  of  the  amphitheater  or  “ clinic  ” type  so 
that  the  line  of  sight  from  each  seat  will  focus  upon  the 


342 


THE  MUSIC  DEPARTMENT 


343 


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THE  MUSIC  DEPARTMENT 


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346 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


instructor.  With  the  seats  elevated  on  steps  or  on  a 
sloping  floor,  each  pupil  can  be  seen  by  the  teacher,  and 
the  tone  of  each  voice  is  not  impeded  or  obstructed  by 
the  student  in  front.  There  are  many  objections  to  a 
level  floor.  A small  stage  or  rostrum  two  feet  high  and 
about  seven  feet  deep  is  very  desirable.  It  should  be 
about  sixteen  feet  long  so  as  to  accommodate  a piano 
and  a victrola  and  to  allow  sufficient  room  for  the  teacher 
to  move  about  freely.  Music  cases  that  may  be  securely 
locked  could  very  well  be  built  into  the  wall  back  of  the 
rostrum,  forming  a paneled  wainscot.  These  cases 
should  be  deep  enough  (about  r5  inches)  for  books, 
records,  and  octavo  music.  For  instrumental  instruc- 
tion, the  plan  of  the  elementary  school  should  be  increased 
to  include  more  small  rooms  for  individual  instruction. 
For  orchestral  practice,  the  stage  should  be  large  enough 
to  seat  at  least  fifty  players,  that  is,  there  should  be  a 
floor  area  of  about  750  square  feet,  which  allows  15 
square  feet  per  player.  A stage  35  feet  wide  and  25  feet 
deep  is  just  about  adequate  to  meet  these  requirements. 
(See  Figure  295.) 

The  intermediate  school  should  have  a special  teacher 
in  charge  of  all  music  work,  having  a small  room  set 
apart  for  a combination  office  and  music  library.  This 
should  be  provided  with  wall  cases  for  the  storage  of  all 
kinds  of  music,  records,  and  song  books. 

Senior  or  Regular  High  Schools.  (See  Figures  295, 
296,  and  297.)  In  the  last  five  years  the  development  of 
instrumental  music  in  the  high  schools  has  met  with 
such  favorable  approval  and  has  been  so  generally  ac- 
cepted in  all  school  systems  that  it  is  necessary  to  con- 
sider this  phase  of  music  instruction  in  connection  with 
the  construction  of  all  new  high  schools.  The  average 
large  high  school  will  offer  as  electives  in  its  curriculum, 
choral,  harmony,  and  history ; band,  and  orchestra ; 
and  individual  instruction  on  all  instruments,  including 
the  piano.  Where  the  choral  class  is  small,  the  average 
classroom  accommodating  thirty  to  forty  pupils  can  be 
used.  Inasmuch  as  the  enrollment  in  the  harmony  and 
history  classes  is  usually  not  large,  these  same  class- 
rooms can  be  used  for  such  classes,  provided  there  is 
sufficient  space  between  the  front  row  of  seats  and  the 
wall  to  accommodate  a piano  and  a victrola,  besides  the 
teacher’s  desk.  (See  Figure  295.)  In  rooms  where  har- 
mony instruction  is  given  regularly,  the  blackboards 
should  be  ruled  with  double  staves  of  five  lines,  each 
wide,  with  1"  spaces  between  the  lines  and  3"  spans 
between  the  staves ; the  three  sides  of  such  rooms  should 
be  equipped  with  blackboards. 

Where  band  and  orchestra  instruction  is  offered  as  a 
regular  subject,  it  is  advisable  to  have  one  room  espe- 
cially equipped  for  these  organizations.  If  the  same 
room  is  used  for  more  than  one  phase  of  musical  instruc- 


tion, it  is  necessary  to  arrange  the  racks,  chairs,  and 
music  for  either  or  both  of  these  organizations.  For 
that  reason  the  program  should  be  arranged  so  as  to 
concentrate  the  instrumental  rehearsals  in  the  afternoon. 
This  will  obviate  the  necessity  of  rearranging  the  room 
each  time  for  these  and  other  classes.  While  such  a 
plan  might  indicate  a rather  expensive  outlay,  choice 
must  be  made  between  greater  efficiency  in  handling 
such  organizations  with  the  minimum  expenditure  of 
time  in  getting  ready  for  active  work,  or  accepting  the 
alternative  of  spending  a large  part  of  the  lesson  period 
in  arranging  the  room  for  the  rehearsal.  The  latter  is 
a perpetual  waste  of  the  students’  and  instructor’s  time 
and  is  decidedly  an  economic  loss. 

This  room  should  be  well  lighted,  and  the  chairs  should 
be  arranged  so  that  the  backs  of  the  students  are  turned 
towards  the  windows  in  order  to  have  the  light  fall 
directly  upon  the  music  sheets.  Figure  297  shows  the 
desired  arrangement.  The  orchestra  and  band  room 
should  be  large  enough  to  seat  fifty  players,  and  should 
have  wall  cases  for  the  storage  of  instruments  at  either 
end  and  under  the  window  stools.  These  cases  should 
be  specially  designed  to  hold  such  instruments  as  the 
string-bass,  bass-drum,  cello,  horns,  trombones,  violins, 
noncollapsible  racks,  etc.  The  last  require  considerable 
space  for  storage.  Facilities  should  be  at  hand  for 
quickly  clearing  the  room,  as  it  should  be  of  a size  very 
desirable  for  many  of  the  school  affairs. 

The  Assembly  Hall.  — Most  of  the  assembly  halls  in 
even  the  modern  high  schools  have  little  or  no  con- 
venience for  performances  which  require  the  accompani- 
ment of  an  orchestra.  Chorals  given  from  the  stage 
necessitate  placing  the  orchestra  on  the  floor  in  a way 
similar  to  that  of  the  theater  plan.  Therefore,  there 
must  be  sufficient  space  between  the  first  row  of  seats 
and  the  stage  apron  so  as  to  accommodate  at  least  thirty 
players  comfortably  seated  and  in  full  view  of  the  leader. 
Sixteen  feet  is  none  too  large  an  allowance  for  this  depth. 
(See  Figure  294.)  The  space  is  always  available  for  seats 
on  skids  or  movable  chairs  which  can  be  easily"  removed 
and  stored  away.  The  main  point  to  keep  in  mind  is 
that  when  once  the  fixed  seats  are  fastened  to  the  floor,; 
this  prohibits  the  use  of  the  floor  by  the  orchestra,  and 
it  is  more  difficult  to  have  the  fixed  chairs  removed  than 
movable  ones.  Another  important  matter  is  to  see  that 
sufficient  electrical  base  and  floor  receptacles  are  provided 
in  the  stage  apron  and  in  the  floor  from  which  extension 
cords  may  lead  to  the  fighting  fixtures  on  the  music 
racks.  Each  music  rack  should  be  equipped  with  a 
semi-closed  reflector  similar  to  those  used  by  theater 
orchestras. 

Vocational  Music.  — Quite  a few  school  department.- 
in  the  country,  believing  thoroughly’-  in  music  instruction 


Page  347  Fig.  297. 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


348 


have  established  vocational  courses  which  often  require 
a special  building,  or  at  least  a specially  equipped  music 
department.  The  preceding  suggestions  and  the  draw- 
ings shown  will  be  found  adaptable  for  vocational  in- 
struction with  certain  modifications,  enlargements,  and 
additional  special  rooms  in  order  to  have  the  school 
fit  the  community. 

Equipment.  — Music  cases  should  be  built  to  accom- 
modate octavo  music,  7"  Xii^;  piano  music,  ii'7  X 
14";  orchestra  music,  8"Xi2//;  band  music,  $"X%" 


Fig.  298. 

and  7//Xii'/;  books,  5"x8",  7//XiT/,  and  8,/Xi2,/, 
and  records,  12"  in  diameter. 

In  constructing  cases  sufficient  inside  clearance  should 
be  allowed  to  facilitate  ease  in  handling  the  music  and 
to  avoid  tearing  it  when  removing  it  or  returning  it  to 
its  place  in  the  case.  Open  shelves  15"  deep,  one  foot 
apart,  are  preferable  to  partitioned  sections  that  are  too 
small.  (See  Figure  298.) 

The  best  music  rack  for  use  at  rehearsal  on  the  stage 
or  in  the  orchestra  pit  is  a noncollapsible  rack  with  a 
heavy  iron-casting  base  with  a pipe  upright.  The 
nickel  collapsible  and  folding  rack  used  by  musicians  as 


a portable  rack  is  convenient  but  not  strong  enough  to 
withstand  the  wear  and  tear  of  a rehearsal  room,  and  is 
so  light  it  is  very  easily  turned  over.  The  manual  train- 
ing department  in  any  high  school  can  easily  make  these 
noncollapsible  racks  at  a moderate  cost  of  about  $1.00 
apiece. 

When  pupils  bring  their  own  instruments  to  school, 
some  place  of  safety  must  be  provided  for  storing  them 
during  the  periods  when  the  pupil  is  reciting  in  his  other 
classes.  Such  instruments  as  the  string  bass,  tuba,  cello, 
trombone,  and  saxophone  are  more  or  less 
clumsy  and  need  special  provision  for  their 
accommodation  in  order  to  protect  them  from 
injury  by  being  knocked  down  or  bumped  into. 
Figure  299  is  a suggestion  for  such  instrument 
cases. 

The  chairs  used  for  band  and  orchestra  in 
the  elementary  schools  should  be  plain,  solid 
oak  chairs  with  straight  backs  and  flat  bottom 
seats  about  16"  from  the  floor.  Such  chairs 
will  stand  the  wear  and  tear  received  in  a 
rehearsal  room  and  not  be  easily  broken.  The 
folding  chairs,  while  more  convenient  for  stor- 
ing, are  easily  broken  and  are  too  unsteady  and 
flimsy  for  the  comfort  of  violin  players.  The 
same  style  of  chairs  can  be  used  for  high 
schools,  except  that  the  seat  should  be  18”  from  the 
floor. 

The  pipe  organ  has  been  referred  to  in  the  chapter  on 
Assembly  Halls,  but  a word  here  will  not  be  amiss.  The 
school  body  and  the  public  will  find  that  the  installation 
of  a pipe  organ  is  a great  acquisition  to  any  high  school. 
A .good  two  manual  organ,  fully  equipped,  will  cost 
between  six  thousand  and  eight  thousand  dollars.  The 
day  is  near  at  hand  when  the  organ  will  be  considered 
as  essential  to  the  equipment  of  the  music  depart- 
ment and  the  assembly  hall  as  the  lathe  is  to  the 
machine  shop. 


Fig.  299. 


the  music  department 


349 


Mr.  Wm.  B.  inner , Architect. 

Fig.  300.  — Music  Room,  Grover  Cleveland  High  School,  St.  Louis,  Missouri. 


Office  and  Library.  ■ — - A music  office  and  library  is  an 
conomical  combination  of  two  essential  features  in 
ny  music  department  of  a large  high  school.  A clerk 
r office  assistant  can  also  serve  as  the  music  librarian, 
ad  all  books  and  music  used  in  the  school  can  be  con- 
■olled  and  distributed  from  a central  office. 

Acoustics  and  Noise  Deadening.  — Rooms  used  for 
lorals,  orchestra,  band,  and  individual  instrumental 
struction  should  be  specially  treated  by  padding  the 
irfaces  of  the  walls  and  the  ceilings  with  acoustical 
lir  felt  covered  with  rep  or  burlap.  It  will  also  be 
und  helpful  if  the  floors  are  covered  with  linoleum.  The 
bject  of  acoustics  is  very  fully  covered  in  the  chapter 
a Assembly  Halls.  It  should  be  remembered  that  it 
utterly  impossible  to  teach  or  study  effectively  in 
usic  rooms  unless  the  echoes  and  reverberations  are 
iduced  to  the  minimum.  Likewise,  it  is  important 


that  the  transmission  of  sound  from  one  room  to  another 
should  be  carefully  guarded  against  in  the  construction 
of  the  walls,  ceilings,  and  floors  of  the  building.  Figure 
297,  in  the  chapter  on  Assembly  Halls , shows  how  this 
may  be  done  as  effectively  as  building  conditions  will 
permit.  Double  doors  are  quite  necessary  between 
rooms,  although  there  is  a single  soundproof  door  in 
use  at  the  School  of  Music,  Northwestern  University, 
Evanston,  Illinois,  and  in  the  music  department  at 
Yale  University,  which  seems  to  answer  the  purpose 
quite  well.  These  are  matters  which  distinguish  a 
good  plant  from  a poor  one,  and  no  matter  how  adequate 
the  scheme  and  plant  may  be,  if  the  essential  details  for 
controlling  the  sounds  and  echoes  within  the  rooms  are 
not  cared  for,  the  educational  results  are  bound  to  fall 
below  the  standards  possible  where  favorable  conditions 
prevail. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 


PHYSICS  AND  CHEMISTRY 

By  Arthur  L.  Jordan,  Head  of  Department  of  Science,  Polytechnic  High  School,  San  Francisco,  California 

I.  Science  Department,  (i)  Preliminary  Note.  (2)  Intermediate  School,  Regular  High  School  and  Junior  College.  (3)  Location 
of  the  Science  Group  Rooms.  (4)  Furniture.  (5)  Workshop.  (6)  Library.  (7)  Special  Plumbing.  (8)  Dark  Room  Picture  Pro- 
jection. (9)  School  Camera.  (10)  Laboratory  Breakage  Fund. 

II.  Physics.  (1)  Lecture  Room.  (2)  Storeroom  for  Lecture  Table  Apparatus.  (3)  The  Laboratory.  (4)  Equipment. 

(5)  Storerooms.  (6)  Dark  Rooms. 

III.  Applied  Physics.  (1)  Special  Laboratories.  (2)  Laboratory  for  Mechanics,  Strength  of  Materials  and  Hydraulics.  (3)  Steam 
and  Gas  Engine  Laboratory.  (4)  Laboratory  for  Direct  and  Alternating  Current  Electricity.  (5)  The  Machines.  (6)  Measuring 
Instruments.  (7)  Switchboards.  (8)  Lamp-Bank.  (9)  Apparatus.  (10)  Storerooms,  (nj  Lecture  Rooms. 

IV.  Chemistry.  (1)  The  Lecture  Room.  (2)  Storerooms  for  Lecture  Table  Apparatus.  (3)  The  Chemistry  Laboratory. 
(4)  Switchboards.  (5)  Laboratory  Tables.  (6)  Balance  Room. 

V.  Applied  Chemistry.  (1)  Planning  of  Courses.  (2)  Technical  Chemistry  (for  young  men).  (3)  Household  and  Domestic 
Chemistry,  the  Chemistry  of  Foods  (girls).  (4)  Lighting  of  Laboratories.  (5)  Technical  Education  for  Adults,  for  Crippled  Soldiers. 

(6)  Lessons  from  the  War. 


I.  The  Science  Department.  Preliminary  Note. — -No 
apology  seems  necessary  in  demanding  for  the  science 
department  a most  important  place  in  the  plans  for 
building  an  equipment  of  a high  school.  Science  at- 
tained great  prominence  in  world  affairs  before  the  war, 
and  every  one  knows  of  the  vital  part  which  it  played 
during  the  war. 

The  science  department  has  two  special  relations 
to  the  community : first,  the  use  of  the  projection  ap- 
paratus (for  fixed  or  moving  pictures),  the  electric  cur- 
rent for  and  the  adjustment  of  which  are  most  com- 
monly a science  department  problem ; second,  the 
need  of  the  community  for  certain  special  courses,  as 
Assaying,  Agriculture,  Applied  Courses  in  Electricity, 
Hydraulics,  Mechanics,  Strength  of  Materials,  includ- 
ing Cement  and  Concrete  (for  boys),  Biology,  Physi- 
ology, Household  Chemistry,  First  Aid  and  Nursing 
(for  girls).  These,  in  general,  are  not  essentially  for 
college  preparation,  but  some  communities  believe 
very  strongly  in  the  preparatory  courses,  and  the  work 
should  then  be  modified  accordingly.  The  rooms 
needed  for  the  department  will  be  referred  to  as  the 
“ Science  Group.” 

Certain  assumptions  are  necessary:  (1)  That  gen- 
eral science  (or  some  other  equivalent  “ First  Year 
Science  ”)  is  given  in  the  first  year,  and  we  should  con- 
sider whether  it  is  a “ required  ” or  an  “ elective  ” 
subject.  If  the  former,  large  classroom  space  and  teach- 
ing force  are  necessary.  (2)  Chemistry  and  physics 
are  usually  given  in  the  third  or  fourth  years  except 


where  special  courses  like  those  mentioned  above  are 
given,  in  which  case  the  following  plan  works  well: 
At  the  end  of  the  first  year  the  students  are  divided 
into  two  groups,  “ College  Preparatory  ” and  “ Non- 
College  ” or  “ Industrial.”  The  former  take  a course 
in  elementary  physics  of  four  periods  (45  minutes  each) 
per  week  during  the  second  (sophomore)  year,  chemis- 
try or  biological  work  during  the  third  year,  and  the 
completion  of  the  physics  (6  periods  per  week)  in  the 
fourth  year.  The  latter  are  given  a course  in  the  second 
year  (6  periods  per  week  instead  of  4)  called  “ Practical 
Physics.”  This  leaves  the  entire  third  and  fourth  years 
for  the  special  courses  referred  to.  (3)  The  above-men- 
tioned three  subjects  with  one  other  (say  biology 
form  the  more  or  less  standard  group  of  courses,  the 
rooms  for  which  constitute  the  “ Science  Group  ” men 
tioned  above.  One  other  room  of  the  utmost  use  to  the 
public  as  well  as  to  the  school  is  one  intermediate  in  size 
between  an  ordinary  science  lecture  room  and  the  mail 
auditorium,  and  holding  from  150  to  250  people  with  ; 
raised  bank  of  tablet  chairs.  This  is  much  better  fo 
meetings  than  the  “ study  room  ” sometimes  presset 
into  service.  This  room  can  be  used  for  Science,  an< 
called  the  “ large  lecture  room,”  its  projection  lantern 
and  lantern  screen  being  useful  to  teachers  of  English 
history,  etc.,  as  well  as  for  public  lectures,  communit 
singing,  and  similar  meetings.  (4)  While  the  relativ 
numbers  of  students  of  the  two  sexes  may  vary  at  difiei 
ent  times  and  in  different  places,  it  may  be  assumed  tha 
the  two  are  about  equal  in  the  “ first  year  science,; 


35° 


PHYSICS  AND  CHEMISTRY 


351 


that  there  will  be  more  girls  than  boys  in  the  biological 
sciences  and  the  reverse  in  the  physical  sciences. 

Intermediate  School,  Senior  or  Regular  High  School 
and  Junior  College.  — - If  the  community  decides  to 
change  the  prevalent  system  (elementary  school  8 years, 
high  school  4 years),  it  can  do  so  according  to  one 
of  two  or  three  plans.  For  example:  elementary 
school  the  first  six  years,  intermediate  3 years  (7th- 


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UJ  T IACHLR.S  SIDE. 

6CILNCL  LLCTUfLfi  TABLE. 

Fig.  301. 

9th),  high  school  3 years  (ioth-i2th),  junior  college  2 
years  (13th- 14th).  Following  this  plan,  the  work 
outlined  below  under  heading  “ Applied  Physics  ” and 
“ Applied  Chemistry  ” would  come  in  the  junior  col- 
lege, and  the  additional  rooms,  apparatus,  and  ma- 
chinery required  must  be  of  the  same  character  as  those 
used  in  university  work.  Instructions  cannot  be  given, 
as  in  English  or  mathematics,  by  simply  employing  a 
qualified  instructor ; nor  can  it  be  given  with  the 
science  apparatus  of  the  high  school ; and  the  cost  of 
the  additional  equipment  must  be  understood  and  pro- 
vided for.  (See  paragraph  on  “ Cost  Estimates’’  later.) 

Location  of  the  Science  Group  Rooms.  — - If  the  ground- 
floor  story  is  high  and  well-lighted,  this  is  the  best 
location  on  account  of  its  freedom  from  vibration. 
Vibration  interferes  seriously  with  accurate  balance  work 
in  chemistry,  with  the  use  of  the  microscope  in  biology 
and  all  uses  of  delicate  galvanometers  in  electricity. 

If  the  floor  is  of  cement,  it  should  be  smooth-coated 
and  then  be  covered  with  a good  grade  of  battleship 
linoleum.  This  will  prevent  the  serious  tiring  of  feet 
which  is  sure  to  occur ; also  the  cold  during  winter,  if 
uncovered  cement  is  used. 

In  answer  to  the  argument  that  the  fumes  from  chemi- 
cal processes  will  be  objectionable  if  the  laboratory  is 
on  the  ground  floor,  it  can  be  stated  that  experience 
shows  that  a good  ventilating  system  with  motor-driven 
exhaust  or  suction  fan  will  discharge  them  through  an 
outlet  above  the  roof. 

The  first  floor  is,  of  course,  next  best,  and  it  is  far  better 
to  have  the  group  all  on  one  floor  rather  than  to  sepa- 


rate the  rooms  and  have  the  discomfort  of  stair-climb- 
ing. 

In  a small  high  school  one  lecture  room  can  be  used 
for  two  sciences,  as  physics  and  chemistry,  and  the 
ideal  location  would  be  midway  between  the  two  lab- 
oratories. The  only  difference  in  equipment  if  the 
room  is  used  for  chemistry  would  be  to  have  a some- 
what deeper  sink  in  the  lecture  table  and  a fume-closet 


I 1 t V A TIO  X SECTION 


L161AR,r  FPL  SC11NCL  BGDiCS. 

Fig.  302. 

built  near  the  front  of  the  room.  Forced  ventilation 
will  be  treated  later.  In  large  schools  separate  rooms 
should  be  provided,  as  they  are  in  continual  demand  for 
meeting  places  of  various  school  activities. 

Science  Department  Furniture.  — Furniture  for  the 
department  should  be  planned  at  one  time,  and  it  should 
be  alike  as  far  as  possible.  This  facilitates  interchang- 
ing, allows  for  expansions,  etc.,  and  produces  flexibility. 
It  may  be  classified  into  : (1)  Standard  (as  stools  and 
chairs,  filing  cabinets,  some  laboratory  and  lecture 
tables).  (See  Figure  301.)  (2)  Built-in,  as  sliding  black- 
boards ; lecture  tables,  chemistry  laboratory  tables  and 
all  other  fixtures  requiring  plumbing  or  electricity ; 
apparatus  wall  cabinets  for  physics,  for  chemistry,  for 
biology  ; library  for  science  books  (see  figure  302  for  type 
of  bookcase),  etc.  (3)  Special,  as  bulletin  boards, 
keyboards,  display  cabinets,  etc.  (4)  Mill  work,  as 
cabinets  for  the  ordinary  9 X 1 1 inch  science  binder  — 
60  shelves,  holding  120  binders,  which  should  be  built 
in  the  walls,  double  and  single  direction  boards,  lantern- 
slide  cabinets,  tool  cases  for  workshop,  two  kinds  of  wall 
cabinets,  narrow  and  wide  (with  glass  doors  and  mov- 
able shelves)  which  should  be  located  in  convenient 
places,  and  fastened  to  the  walls  after  rooms  are  finished. 
Designs  for  these  are  given  later. 

Science  Department  Workshop.  — One  small  room 
should  be  fitted  up  as  a workroom  or  shop  (one  end  of  a 
large  store  can  be  used).  (See  Figure  303.)  A heavy 
bench  with  a vise  and  anvil  is  the  first  requisite;  the 
second,  a set  of  good  carpenters’  and  metal  workers’  tools. 
Cases  with  good  locks  should  be  provided  for  them. 


352 

If  the  school  has  no  machine  shop  or  woodworking 
department,  the  investment  of  a few  hundred  dollars 
in  a machinist’s  lathe,  a wood  lathe,  a sensitive  drill, 
and  a “ polishing  head  ” (fitted  with  circular  saws 
and  saw-table),  with  the  necessary  shafting  and  driv- 
ing motor,  would  certainly  pay.  This  equipment  pro- 
vides for  the  repair  of  numerous  pieces  of  apparatus 
and  furniture,  also  for  the  building  of  new  apparatus. 
The  latter  is  not  only  a great  economy,  but  also  allows 
the  progressive  teacher  a chance  to  keep  his  courses  up- 
to-date  with  new  experiments  and  to  prepare  material 
for  popular  science  lectures  and  demonstrations. 

Science  Department  Library.  — Equal  in  importance 
to  a set  of  mechanical  tools  is  a collection  of  good  ref- 
erence books.  In  some  cases  it  may  be  well  to  have  all 
the  science  books  in  one  place,  provided  with  library 
tables  (of  glazed  partitions),  under  the  constant  super- 
vision of  a teacher,  but  experience  has  shown  that 
reference  books  are  most  useful  when  near  at  hand ; 
hence  it  is  usually  better  to  have  the  physics  books  in  the 
physics  laboratory,  those  on  biology  in  the  biology 
laboratory,  and  so  on.  When  the  students’  tables  are 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 

apt  to  be  covered  with  acids,  as  in  chemistry,  a wall- 
table  for  reference  books  should  be  provided.  The 
preservation  of  these  books  is  in  the  hands  of  the  teacher. 

An  important  question  is  that  of  providing  funds  for 
the  renewal  of  books.  A still  more  important  one  is 
the  need  for  new  books,  which,  in  some  cases  ( e.g . wireless 
telegraphy)  as  soon  as  they  are  published,  render  their 
predecessors  obsolete.  Closely  related  to  this  is  the 
subject  of  subscriptions  to  the  scientific  papers  and 
magazines.  Books  are  somewhat  behind  the  times,  and  a 
few  good  papers  are  absolutely  necessary  to  keep  the 
school  up  to  date.  In  no  line  of  human  activity  is  there 
more  rapid  development  than  in  the  lines  of  applied 
science.  The  money  for  the  above  may  be  obtained 
from  the  general  library  fund  of  the  school.  Another 
possibility,  especially  for  the  magazines,  is  a voluntary 
subscription  from  the  students  taking  the  subject  to 
which  that  magazine  applies.  The  best  plan,  how- 
ever, in  most  cases  is  to  draw  from  the  laboratory  or 
breakage  fund  mentioned  later. 

Special  Plumbing.  Gas.  — It  frequently  happens  in 
science  laboratory  work  that  most  of  the  students  need 


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Fig.  303. 


PHYSICS  AND  CHEMISTRY 


bunsen  burners  at  the  same  time.  A large  number  of 
gas  nozzles  therefore  should  be  provided  and  large- 
sized supply  pipes  (at  least  inch  mains,  and  one  inch 
feeders)  should  be  run.  The  pressure  should  not  go 
below  6 inches  of  water  when  the  maximum  number  of 
burners  are  in  operation.  The  nozzles  should  be  of  the 
same  diameter  (TV0  as  the  tube  of  the  standard  bunsen 
burner,  so  they  will  take  the  same  size  rubber  tubing; 
and  a few  fixtures  for  bat-wing  gas  flames  should  be 
provided.  They  are  useful  in  bending  glass  tubing  and 
for  “ objects  ” in  the  study  of  “ Light.”  In  some  special 
cases  (chemistry  lecture  table,  blow-torch  in  shop, 
or  gas  engine  supply)  a larger  nozzle  (§"  to  i")  is  needed. 

Water.  — In  chemistry,  one  sink  should  be  provided 
for  every  two  students ; for  physics,  general  science 
and  biology,  at  least  three  sinks  in  each  room  are  de- 
sirable. On  all  lecture  tables  there  should  be  two  fau- 
cets, one  fitted  with  a f"  hose  bibb.  This  is  so  that  an 
aspirator  can  be  used.  In  general,  they  should  be  high 
enough  (not  less  than  16"  above  bottom  of  sink)  to 
allow  for  tall  jars  being  placed  below  them,  and  all  supply 
pipes  should  have  controlling  valves  below  each  sink. 
All  supply  pipes  to  the  different  floors  should  be  equipped 
with  controlling  valves. 

Hot  Water.  — A separate  heater  (for  the  few  experi- 
ments requiring  hot  water)  will  usually  cost  less  than  the 
installation  of  plumbing  for  hot  water  at  each  sink ; 
but  this  also  depends  upon  the  kind  of  heating  plant 
for  the  building  and  the  possibility  of  a constant  hot 
water  supply. 

Photography.  — Two  or  more  sinks  will  be  needed  in 
each  photographic  dark  room. 

Compressed  Air  or  Vacuum  Piping.  — -For  ordinary 
high  school  science  work,  experiments  requiring  com- 
pressed air  or  vacuum  are  very  rare,  and  it  would  seem  a 
waste  of  money  to  provide  the  plumbing  for  them.  If 
advanced  laboratory  work  is  to  be  given,  an  air  com- 
pressor is  very  desirable.  The  plumbing  used  in  con- 
junction with  it,  as  well  as  that  for  hydraulics,  steam, 
and  gas  engine  work  is  mentioned  in  Part  IV,  Applied 
Physics. 

Darkroom  Picture  Projection  (including  moving  pic- 
tures).— This  subject  involves  the  ordinary  lecture 
rooms  for  all  of  the  divisions  of  science,  for  history, 
English,  modern  languages,  etc. ; the  room  spoken  of 
as  the  “Large  Lecture  Room  ” (seating  150  or  more), 
Sect.  1,  and  the  auditorium  or  assembly  hall. 

Opaque  Curtains.  — All  rooms  where  direct  sunlight 
:an  enter  should  have  a set  of  translucent  curtains  for 
use  during  sunshine  hours.  In  addition  to  these  the 
rooms  mentioned  above  should  have  a set  of  carefully 
fitted  opaque  curtains.  It  is  true  that  for  the  pro- 
ection  of  the  commonly  used  transparent  slides  the 


353 


room  need  not  be  very  dark  — and  for  younger  students 
it  should  never  be  entirely  so  — but  for  the  projection 
of  opaque  objects  (reflectoscope)  and  for  certain  ex- 
periments in  chemistry  (as  phosphorescence),  and  in 
physics  (violet  light,  electric  brush  discharge),  there 
must  be  some  arrangement  that  permits  it  to  be  dark- 
ened completely. 

Curtain  Guides.  — These  should  be  a part  of  the  con- 
tract for  the  building,  and  the  architect  should  see  that 
there  is  ample  clearance  (i.e.  the  slot  in  which  the  cur- 


METAL  CUR.TAIN  GUIDES 


Fig.  304. 


tain  runs  should  not  be  narrow),  that  there  is  plenty  of 
overlap  ( " to  3"),  and  that  the  roller  is  boxed  in  at 
the  top  and  the  guides  closed  at  the  bottom.  These 
guides  can  be  made  of  metal  and  an  insert  of  bone  or 
hard  rubber  provided  so  that  the  cord  which  raises  or 
lowers  the  curtain  will  not  be  frayed  by  use.  (See 
Figure  304.) 

Ventilation.  — If  the  room  is  darkened,  ventilation 
by  doors  and  windows  is  impossible,  and  if  the  build- 
ing has  no  ventilating  system  forced  ventilation  must 
be  resorted  to  for  this  room.  Any  one  who  has  attended 
“ picture  shows  ” in  poorly  ventilated  theaters  will  re- 
call the  ill  effect  of  a large  crowd  added  to  the  heat  from 
the  lantern.  This  is  a good  example  of  the  general 
necessity  for  mechanical  ventilation,  as  mentioned  above. 
Its  installation  should  be  in  the  hands  of  a competent 
ventilating  engineer,  for  the  selection  of  the  proper 
fan,  the  designing  of  ducts  which  will  allow  air  to  enter 
but  no  light,  the  preventing  of  the  noise  of  the  fan  from 
interfering  with  the  speaker,  etc.,  are  jobs  for  an  expert. 

Lanterns.  — Lanterns  using  gas-filled  incandescent 
lamps.  These  are  suitable  for  small  and  medium-sized 
rooms  and  are  primarily  for  slides,  although  some  forms 


354 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


can  be  used  as  “ reflectoscopes.”  They  may  be  at- 
tached to  an  ordinary  electric  lamp  socket,  having  either 
direct  or  alternating  current,  and  do  not  require  an  ex- 
pert operator.  That  is,  the  lamp  requires  no  attention 
until  it  is  burned  out,  and  then  it  is  easily  replaced  by 
a new  one  (costing  about  $5  for  a small  lantern).  One 
type  of  a double  lantern  having  a pleasing  “ dissolving  ” 
effect  can  be  bought  (Bausch  & Lomb  Co.)  for  about  $65. 

Lantern  Using  Arc  Lamp.  — A lantern  using  an  arc 
lamp  for  its  illuminant  is  best  for  a large  room  (audi- 
torium) and  direct  current  is  far  superior  to  alternating. 
This  requires  from  7 to  14  amperes  and  special  wiring 
is  advisable.  The  cost  for  renewing  the  carbons  is  very 
little.  It  can  be  used  for  projecting  the  words  or  music 
of  songs  (if  slides  are  properly  made)  in  a fairly  light 
room. 

Reflectoscopes.  — A small  reflectoscope,  which  will 
show  pictures  slightly  larger  than  post  cards,  cost  (in 
1915)  with  screen,  $46.00;  a larger  one  (also  using  a 
gas-filled  lamp,  but  without  screen)  cost  about  $125.00. 
A very  efficient  reflectoscope,  using  an  arc  lamp  and  di- 
rect current  of  from  25  to  30  amperes,  which  will  show 
8"x8"  pictures,  cost  (without  screen)  $340.00.  Special 
wiring  is  necessary  for  this  type. 

The  lamp  renewals  of  the  first  two,  and  the  replacing 
of  broken  condensing  lenses  of  the  last,  are  very  ex- 
pensive, so  the  matter  should  be  considered  carefully 
before  purchasing  this  form  of  projector. 

Moving  Picture  Projectors.  — The  unquestioned  value 
of  the  moving  picture  film  as  an  aid  to  education  makes 
it  highly  desirable  to  equip  the  assembly  hall  of  the 
school  with  one  good  machine  (e.g.  Simplex,  Powers, 
or  Edison.)1  If  funds  are  not  available  a place  at  least 
should  be  provided  for  it,  and  later,  an  entertainment 
or  other  appeal  to  the  community  may  supply  the 
funds. 

The  projection  booth  should  be  fireproof  and  should 
otherwise  conform  to  the  insurance  regulations.  It  is 
usually  placed  in  the  back  of  the  gallery,  as  space  can 
better  be  spared  there  than  on  the  main  floor.  This 
booth  is  used  for  ordinary  projection  as  well  as  for 
motion  pictures. 

Screens.  — Where  the  lecture  room  is  wider  than  it 
is  long,  the  ordinary  screen  (cream  tinted)  is  satis- 
factory ; where  the  room  is  long,  and  also  where  the 
reflectoscope  will  be  used,  the  “ aluminum  ” screen 
(cloth  covered  with  some  special  aluminum  paint) 
should  be  installed. 


For  the  auditorium,  the  best  screen  is  the  white  plas- 
tered wall  at  the  rear  of  the  stage ; but  as  the  stage  is 
likely  to  be  filled  with  “ scenery  ” it  is  well  to  have  an 
additional  screen  on  a spring-roller.  This  should  be 
mounted  on  a frame  and  hung  from  pulleys  so  that  the 
frame  may  be  hoisted  out  of  the  way  when  not  in  use. 
The  screen  is  held  taut  when  in  use  by  short  cords  at- 
tached to  the  lower  corners  of  the  screen  with  snap 
catches  which  engage  with  rings  set  in  and  flush  with 
the  stage  floor.  These  not  only  prevent  swaying 
(which  spoils  the  pictures),  but  also  allows  the  bottom 
of  the  screen  to  be  pulled  forward  until  it  is  exactly  at 
right  angles  with  a line  from  the  center  of  the  screen  to 
the  lantern  lens.  The  plastered  wall  of  course  cannot 
be  so  adjusted,  but  if  the  lantern  is  not  too  high,  the 
distortion  is  not  very  noticeable. 

To  sharply  define  the  outline  of  the  picture  and  at 
the  same  time  correct  any  slight  errors  in  adjustment, 
a flat  black  border  should  be  painted  around  the  edges 
of  the  screen  and  extended  3 inches  inside  of  the  outer 
border  of  the  picture. 

Electric  Wiring  and  Current  Supply.  — For  all  but 
the  small  lanterns  using  the  gas-filled  lamp,  a heavy- 
current  is  necessary,  and  an  outlet  lock-box  with  fuses 
and  switch  should  be  installed  at  each  place  where  a 
lantern  is  to  be  used.  In  a very  large  room  (audito- 
rium) two  extra  wires,  for  buzzer-signal  or  telephone, 
should  be  run  from  the  stage  to  the  operator’s  booth. 

Current  Supply.  — Direct  current  is  a necessity  for 
all  experimenting  involving  storage  batteries,  electro- 
plating, elementary  electrical  laws,  moving  picture 
projections,  etc.,  and  is  desirable  for  all  projection 
lanterns  using  an  arc  lamp ; so  a reliable  source  of  its 
supply  should  be  provided.  (An  exception  to  the  above 
statement  is  that  the  very  latest  invention  of  an  extra 
high  intensity  gas-filled  lamp  makes  it  possible  to  run 
moving  picture  machines  with  alternating  current; 
but  the  cost  of  bulbs  for  renewals  makes  them  almost 
prohibitive  for  most  schools.)  In  the  rare  case  where 
no  or  1 15  volt  direct  current  street  sendee  is  available, 
it  may  be  run  to  the  main  distributing  board  and  no 
provision  need  be  made  for  alternating  current  except 
where  special  courses  are  given  in  that  subject. 

In  the  usual  case,  the  street  service  is  alternating  and 
may  be  either  single  phase  or  polyphase.  If  both  are 
within  reach,  so  much  the  better.  Some  means  of 
rectifying  or  changing  this  alternating  current  to  direct 
must  be  used,  and  of  all  the  various  schemes  employed, 


1 Many  smaller  and  cheaper  machines  besides  those  mentioned  are  on  the  market,  and  they  have  two  great  advantages: — 1st,  Having  a 
gas-filled  lamp  for  light-source,  they  allow  the  film  to  be  stopped  for  some  time  without  damage  from  heating.  2d,  They  are  more  portable 
and  can  be  used  in  a small  room  from  an  ordinary  lamp  socket.  The  second  point  can  be  met,  in  some  schools,  by  mounting  the  large  projector 
on  a carriage  which  can  be  wheeled  about  the  building,  and  it  can  be  used  in  small  rooms  by  substituting  a different  objective  lens  and  providing 
outlets  for  the  heavy  current  (30  to  35  amperes)  required.  The  large  machines  are  more  durable  and  usually  give  much  better  projection,  besides 
being  less  likely  to  injure  the  film. 


PHYSICS  AND  CHEMISTRY 


355 


at  present  one  stands  out  as  far  superior  — a direct- 
connected  motor-generator  set  of  one  of  the  standard 
makes,  of  from  5 horse  power  up,  with  its  necessary  attach- 
ments. This  should  be  selected  under  the  supervision 
of  an  electrical  engineer,  who  should  be  furnished  with 
data  on  the  maximum  demand  to  be  made  upon  the 
machine. 

Slides.  — An  excellent  assortment  of  slides  for  in- 
struction in  scientific  lines  (including  portraits  of  fa- 
mous men  of  science)  is  now  for  sale  by  such  companies 
as  the  Central  Scientific  Co.,  Chicago  ; Knott  Apparatus 
Co.,  Boston;  Keystone  View  Co.,  Meadville,  Pa.; 
C.  H.  Stoelting  Co.,  Chicago.  A fine  series  of  wood 
sections  (mounted  for  projection),  also  views  of  trees, 


bark,  leaf,  etc.,  is  offered  by  Mr.  R.  B.  Hough,  Low- 
ville,  N.  Y. 

Slides  can  be  made  with  the  school  camera  as  follows : 
1st : If  negatives  can  be  borrowed,  it  is  only  neces- 
sary to  support  them  in  front  of  a uniformly  illuminated 
white  surface  (or  toward  the  sky)  and  photograph 
them  on  a regular  lantern-slide  plate.  The  proper  size 
(a  little  smaller  than  the  plate)  must  be  indicated  on  the 
ground-glass  of  the  camera,  in  pencil.  2d : A picture, 
diagram,  or  plate  in  a book  can  be  supported  in  a strong 
light  at  right  angles  with  the  axis  of  the  lens  of  the 
camera  and  photographed  as  just  described,  but  in  this 
case  producing  a negative.  This,  being  the  correct 
size,  can  be  printed  by  direct  contact  (fdms  together, 


SECTION  TtiLU  LECTURE  LOOM 


EXTR.A  SlCETCh 


PLAN  Of  SCIENCE,  LLCTURI  ROOM 

5C  AU 
Fig.  305 


356 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Mr . John  J.  Donovan,  Architect. 

Fig.  306.  — Physics  Lecture  Room,  Oakland  Technical  High  School,  Oakland,  California. 


black  cloth  backing)  on  another  slide,  thus  producing 
a positive.  The  positive  has  its  film  side  covered  by  a 
clean  cover-glass,  and  a binding-strip,  cut  into  four 
pieces,  fastens  the  two  together  and  completes  the 
slide. 

Moving  Picture  Films.  — The  assortment  now  (1918) 
within  reach  of  educators  is  very  limited,  but  certain 
firms  have  made  a start  and  much  is  to  be  hoped  for  in 
the  future. 

Education  films  are  now  for  rent  and  some  of  them 
are  excellent.  The  teacher  in  charge  of  the  matter 
should  try  to  see  them  himself  before  exhibiting  them. 
He  should  avoid  the  mawkish  “ historical  film  ” (so- 
called)  on  the  one  hand  and  the  uninteresting  “ How 
Canned  Soup  is  Made  ” type  on  the  other. 

Used  “ regular  ” reels  can  be  used  if  selected  with 
care. 

School  Camera.  — A kind  of  universal  or  general 
utility  plate  camera  (say  5"  Xl")  having  an  extension 
bellows  and  several  extra  plate-holders  is  of  very  great 
use  to  the  school  in  general  as  well  as  to  the  science 


department.  It  serves  to  preserve  visual  records  of 
“ great  events  ” in  the  school,  to  photograph  exhibi- 
tions of  students’  work,  to  make  lantern  slides,  to  serve 
as  a practical  illustration  in  Physics  and  to  demonstrate 
in  the  study  of  the  Chemistry  of  Photography. 

A fairly  good  instrument  can  be  obtained  for  from  $25 
to  $45. 

Laboratory  Breakage  Fund.  — A science  lecture  course, 
where  the  instructor  does  the  experiments,  requires 
very  little  for  upkeep ; but  all  courses  where  students  do 
the  experimenting  need  constant  and  close  supervision, 
prompt  repairs,  and  frequent  replacement. 

The  Board  of  Trustees  can  very  properly  be  ex- 
pected to  provide  a yearly  (or  twice  yearly)  allowance 
for  the  larger  repairs,  replacement,  and  apparatus 
for  new  courses,  etc.  But  students  must  be  provided 
at  once  with  a new  piece  for  a broken  piece  of  apparatus, 
and  a new  supply  at  once  if  a certain  necessary  chemi- 
cal, for  example,  is  used  up.  Two  methods  for  raising 
this  fund  in  case  the  school  does  not  pay  for  a student’s 
breakage  are  suggested : one  is  to  have  each  student 


PHYSICS  AND  CHEMISTRY 


357 


contribute  a certain  fixed  amount  on  entering  the  course 
and  pay  his  individual  breakage  later ; the  other  is  to 
have  him  make  a larger  “ deposit,”  the  balance,  after 
the  fixed  amount  and  breakage  are  subtracted,  being 
returned  at  the  end  of  the  course. 

II.  Physics.  The  Physics  Lecture  Room  (See  figure 
No.  305.)  — For  certain  experiments  in  Light,  sunlight 
is  necessary.  This  must  be  available  at  all  hours  of  the 
day  because  in  large  schools  recitations  occur  at  every 
period,  and  even  in  small  ones,  it  is  better  to  avoid  inter- 
rupting the  school  program.  Therefore  the  room  should 
be  on  the  south  side  of  the  building  and  preferably  on  a 
projecting  wing.  Furthermore,  in  many  experiments 
in  Sound  a quiet  room  is  required  ; therefore,  in  locating 
this  room,  attention  should  be  given  to  this  fact. 

Seating.  — There  is  no  doubt  that  the  raised  bank  of 
tablet  chairs  gives  the  student  a distinct  advantage  in 
seeing  the  demonstrations,  and  it  gives  the  instructor  the 
same  advantage  in  observing  the  student.  The  depth 
allowed  for  each  row  of  chairs  should  be  from  34”  to 
38”,  depending  upon  the  length  of  the  tablet  of  the 
chair,  and  the  rise  for  each  6"  to  11",  depending  upon 


the  height  of  the  ceiling  and  the  length  of  the  room.  By 
far  the  best  way  for  light  to  enter  is  from  the  student’s 
left  side,  so  the  chairs  should  be  faced  accordingly ; and 
as  crosslights  are  unendurable,  and  neither  class  nor 
instructor  can  face  the  light,  it  follows  that  windows 
should  be  on  one  side  only,  which  may  be  supplemented 
with  skylights  if  necessary. 

Seating  Capacity.  — Assuming  the  laboratory  section 
to  consist  of  from  20  to  24  pupils,  and  it  should  not 
exceed  the  latter  figure,  and  as  it  is  sometimes  conven- 
ient (especially  in  large  schools  where  program  arrange- 
ments are  difficult)  to  place  two  laboratory  sections  in 
one  lecture  section,  a minimum  of  fifty  tablet  chairs 
should  be  provided.  Any  number  between  this  and 
one  hundred  is  therefore  satisfactory,  the  size  of  the 
room  being  partly  determined  by  the  general  build- 
ing plan. 

Blackboards  and  Chart-Posting  Space.  — The  black- 
boards should  be  of  good  quality,  to  avoid  reflec- 
tion of  light,  and  where  several  subjects  are  taught 
or  where  more  than  one  teacher  uses  the  room,  one 
or  two  sets  of  vertically  sliding  blackboards  should  be 


fO  LtCJUR-E,  AND  E.XP  JABU.S 


D.C.  SUPPLY 


BACK-  VIEW 


TRjONT  VI£-W 

TYPICAL  -SWlfCH  BOARD  fOIL  PHYSIC'S  LICTLULj  RCDA 

QR.  TOR.  LABORATORY  WOR-iC  IN  PRACTICAL  LUC  jk  I CITY 


RANGE  ••  USING  LAMPS  ONLY  1-24  AMP.,  P-HEOSTAT5  ONLY  j - 40  AMP. 


Fig.  307. 


358 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


BACK.  VIEW 


SCIENCE,  IICTURl  R-QOA  3WIJCH  BOARD  ♦ TWO  WRt  SUPPLY  (NO  LMVS) 

Fig.  308. 


FR£)N7  VIEW 

SCIENCE  1XCTURE  HQDM  OH  UBOUTORY  3WlfCH  BOARJ)  - FOUR.  WIRE,  SUPPLY  U.C.frP-O 

Fig.  309. 


PHYSICS  AND  CHEMISTRY 


359 


ELEVATION  OF  CABINETS 
WITH  SLIDING  BLACKBOARDS 


END  ELEVATION  OF  SCIENCE  LECTURE  REDM 

Fig.  310. 


installed.  These  should  consist  of  two  sliding  pieces 
mounted  in  front  of  the  usual  board,  counterweighted 
and  fitted  with  small  rollers  at  the  edges  to  prevent  the 
sliding  pieces  from  binding.  The  fixed  boards  may 
be  of  slate,  but  the  sliding  pieces  may  better  be  of  some 
material  which  will  not  weigh  so  much  nor  be  subject 
to  breakage.  A chart-posting  space  (all  the  front 
space  of  the  room  not  occupied  by  blackboard)  should 
be  provided  by  having  a heavy  cloth  or  canvas  fastened 
to  the  wall,  and  finished  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
remainder  of  the  room. 

Lantern  Screen.  — The  selection  of  the  proper  screen 
has  been  mentioned  previously.  It  should  be  on  a 
spring-roller  and  be  mounted  in  the  center  of  the  front 
of  the  room. 

Framed  Pictures.  — The  walls  may  be  ornamented 
with  framed  pictures  of  the  great  men  of  science,  or  of 
industrial  applications  of  Physics.  A bulletin  board 
of  some  kind  is  a necessity. 

Electric  Circuits. — The  experimental  electric  circuits 
are  distinct  from  those  for  lighting  and  those  for  projec- 
tion lanterns.  The  terminals  should  be  at  the  end  or 
back  of  the  lecture  table  (not  on  the  wall)  and  the 
strength  of  the  currents  used  can  best  be  controlled  by 
a switchboard  visible  to  the  students,  several  designs 
for  which  are  shown  in  figures  307,  308,  and  309. 
The  number  of  wires  to  be  run  from  the  source  of  supply 
depends  upon  the  kind  of  service  available,  but  should 
be  at  least  five  in  number,  two  for  direct  or  single- 
phase alternating  current  and  three  for  two  or  three- 
phase  service. 

The  subjects  of  furniture,  plumbing,  shades,  and 
ventilation  have  been  mentioned  previously. 

Overhead  Fixtures  for  Mechanics.  — For  many  ex- 
periments in  Mechanics  heavy  objects  and  various 
machines  (as  the  block  and  tackle)  must  be  suspended 
from  the  ceiling.  One  method  of  providing  for  this 
is  to  have  a number  of  strong  hooks  fastened  to  the 
floor  or  ceiling  beams  of  the  building  and  projecting  a 


(short  distance  from  the  ceiling.  A better  plan  is  to 
have  a piece  of  two-inch  pipe  about  twelve  feet  long 
fastened  firmly  (at  three  points)  so  as  to  be  about  one 
foot  from  the  ceiling  and  vertically  above  the  front 
of  the  lecture  table.  Two  iron  rings  (one  on  each  part) 
slipped  on  the  pipe  may  have  chains  attached,  terminat- 
ing in  hooks  at  a convenient  height.  See  figure  310. 
( Note : This  idea  was  published,  the  writer  believes,  in 
“ School  Science  and  Mathematics  ” a year  or  more  ago, 
but  he  is  unable  to  recall  the  name  of  the  author.) 

Special  Illumination.  — If  the  lecture  room  is  to 
be  used  for  evening  school  work  or  for  other  even- 
ing gatherings,  two  or  three  “ scoop  ” reflectors,  e.g. 


SCIENCE  UCTUR-L  R-00 M » SPECIAL  UQHT1NQ 

S C A L L 

O 5 


Fig.  311. 


PHYSICS  AND  CHEMISTRY 


361 


Benjamin  No.  5525  angle  reflecting  socket  (see  Figure 
311),  each  holding  a 200- watt  gas-filled  lamp,  should 
be  placed  over  and  in  front  of  the  lecture  table,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  usual  illuminants.  These  must  be  out  of 
the  way  of  the  light  from  the  projection  lantern  and 
should  be  on  a separate  circuit.  In  a narrow  room  it 
may  be  desirable  to  mount  the  lantern  screen  diagonally 
across  one  corner  of  the  room  to  avoid  having  these 
special  lights  interfere  with  projection.  The  lantern,  of 
course,  would  be  changed  to  the  correct  location. 

Some  form  of  “ trough  lighting  ” may  be  used  in- 
stead. 

Storeroom  for  the  Lecture  Room  Apparatus.  — This  ap- 
paratus is  very  bulky  and  yet  must  be  kept  in  dust- 
proof  cabinets.  It  is  totally  different  from  laboratory 
apparatus  and  must  be  left  “ set-up  ” so  that  it  can  be 
carried  quickly  to  the  lecture  table.  This  means  that  a 
room  at  least  8'Xio'  should  be  fitted  up  with  glass- 
front  cabinets  running  clear  to  the  ceiling  (movable 
shelves)  immediately  adjacent  to  the  lecture  room, 
except  where  an  extra  large  lecture  room  may  have  the 
necessary  space  for  these  cabinets  at  the  back  and 
sides.  This  storeroom  may  have  artificial  light  only,  as 
t is  only  occupied  for  a few  minutes  at  a time. 


The  Laboratory.  — - Certain  experiments,  as  the  manu- 
facture of  ice  by  the  evaporation  of  ether  or  setting  up 
a mercury  barometer,  are  expensive  or  use  expensive 
material,  and  are  essentially  lecture  table  experiments. 
Others,  as  seeing  through  gold-leaf  or  the  projection  of 
the  spectrum  in  a dark  room,  while  simple,  can  be  shown 
to  a whole  class  at  once,  and  are  also  commonly  given 
in  the  lecture  room.  On  the  other  hand,  certain  funda- 
mental experiments,  in  each  of  the  great  subdivisions 
of  physics,  must  be  done  by  the  individual  students 
in  order  that  they  may  get  a real  foundation  in  the 
subject.  Hence  the  necessity  for  laboratory  work. 
The  plan  shown  in  Figure  312  is  for  a large  school  with 
overcrowded  classes  (35  to  40)  and  can  be  adapted  to 
smaller  rooms  where  such  conditions  do  not  exist.  Large 
working  space  is  provided  because  the  students  progress 
from  one  table  to  another,  and  new  experiments  must 
be  set  up  ahead  in  proper  sequence. 

Good  lighting  is  the  first  essential.  The  light  should 
not  come  from  two  opposite  sides,  but  can  well  come 
from  one  side  and  the  end  of  the  room. 

Equipment.  — The  customary  built-in  cabinets  may 
occupy  the  side  away  from  the  windows,  and  a wall 
table  be  built  under  the  windows  and  of  the  same  height 


362 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Mr.  John  J.  Donovan,  ArcMlect. 


Fig.  317. — Physics  Laboratory,  Oakland  Technical  High  School,  Oakland,  Callfornia. 


as  the  other  tables.  A room  with  a wall  table  gives 
greater  table  space  than  the  same-sized  room  without  it. 

A number  of  laboratory  binder  cabinets  (see  Figure 
313)  should  be  placed  near  the  door  (three  are  used  in 
laboratory  of  Figure  312).  These  should  be  built  in  if 
possible. 

Stools  should  have  solid  wood  tops  and  be  26"  high. 
If  the  floor  is  wood  the  stools  should  be  rubber-tipped ; 
if  linoleum  is  used,  they  should  have  metal  “ smooth-ons.” 

A very  satisfactory  type  of  table  is  shown  in  Figure  314. 
It  has  the  advantage  of  simplicity,  its  top  is  absolutely 
clear,  it  has  two  drawers  for  the  reception  of  the  armful 
of  books  which  the  average  student  carries  on  his  travels 
about  the  building,  and  is  high  enough  to  allow  the 
stools  to  go  underneath,  thus  allowing  the  passage- 
ways between  tables  to  be  cleared  in  an  instant. 
These  tables  have  a very  desirable  freedom  of  motion 
which  is  impossible  where  the  gas  pipes  or  electric  con- 
duits are  fastened  to  them. 

Direction  Boards  (Figure  318)  are  a necessity  where 
the  laboratory  directions  are  typewritten,  as  the  typed 


sheets  are  tacked  up  on  the  boards  and  are  thus  out  of 
the  way  of  spilled  liquids,  etc.  The  boards  also  furnish 
clean  places  to  rest  reference  books.  The  dimensions 
for  the  double  boards  are  correct  for  the  laboratory 
tables  mentioned  above.  Single  boards  are  required 
for  the  wall  tables  and  also  where  the  laboratory  tables 
are  very  wide.  In  the  latter  case,  therefore,  no  double 
boards  need  be  ordered. 

The  gas  pipes  and  the  electric  conduits  should  be 
laid  under  the  floor,  the  gas  nozzles  being  placed  just 
below  the  body  of  the  table,  the  electric  terminals  about 
2 feet  from  the  floor  line.  The  tables  are  thus  not  only 
movable,  but  no  iron  occurs  on  the  surface  of  the  table, 
a condition  favorable  to  certain  experiments  in  mag- 
netism and  electricity. 

A useful  type  of  laboratory  switch-board  or  lamp- 
board,  whose  wires  run  to  the  sockets  mentioned  above, 
is  shown  in  Figure  321.  This  is  “fool-proof”  and  allows 
several  sets  of  students  to  work  at  one  time.  When  the 
lamps  are  lit  the  instructor  is  informed  as  to  what  is 
going  on.  Also,  no  argument  should  be  necessary  as 


PHYSICS  AND  CHEMISTRY 


36  3 


D0U51X 


DIRECTION  BOARDS 

Fig.  318. 


BOARDS  OF  ANY  CLOSE. 
GRAINED  SOFT  WOOD. 
ALL  SURFACES  SANDED. 
ALL  SURFACES  PAINTED 
WITH  BLAGR  SHELLAC; 
FACES  FINISHED  WITH 
AN  OIL- RUBBED  DULL 
SURFACE. 


— 


SING  L,  E, 


to  the  immense  superiority  of  dynamo  current  to  that 
from  most  troublesome  batteries. 

By  leaving  a little  space  at  one  end  of  the  laboratory, 
which  should  be  extra  large  on  this  account,  and  hav- 
ing a lecture  table  and  a few  tablet  chairs  there,  the 
laboratory  can  be  used  as  a lecture  room.  This  over- 
comes the  frequent  difficulty  of  having  the  lecture  room 
in  demand  by  the  principal  or  a teacher,  when  it  is  pro- 
grammed for  the  physics  class.  This  provides  tem- 
porary recitation  space  when  the  lecture  room  is  already 
occupied,  and  the  teacher  of  the  laboratory  section 
wishes  to  change  the  laboratory  period  to  a recitation 
period.  Two  or  more  storerooms  should  be  adjacent 
to  the  laboratory.  These  can  be  fitted  up  as  dark  rooms, 
as  described  later. 

Cabinet  and  Drawer  Locks.  — So  much  of  the  ap- 
paratus is  valuable  (opera-glass,  telescope,  camera, 
pocket  barometers,  pocket  compasses)  and  so  many 
small  tools  (steel  rules,  micrometers,  pliers,  wrenches) 
are  easily  stolen,  it  is  desirable  to  be  able  to  lock  most 
of  the  cabinets  and  drawers.  To  save  the  instructor 
endless  delay  and  carrying  an  enormous  bunch  of  keys, 
a set  of  good  locks  with  a single  key  should  be  ordered 
ahead  of  time  from  a reliable  lock-making  firm. 

Wall  Cabinets.  — Two  types  of  wall  cabinets  are 
shown  in  Figure  319.  These  are  of  two  shapes,  to  fit  into 
narrow  or  wide  wall  spaces,  and  should  be  fitted  with 
the  locks  just  mentioned.  They  are  useful  in  all  of 
the  science  rooms. 

Storerooms.  — The  physics  laboratory  table  pre- 
viously referred  to  is  sometimes  made  into  a massive 
affair  with  large  numbers  of  drawers  built  down  to  the 
floor.  This  not  only  leaves  the  room  cluttered  with 
stools,  but  also  gives  extra  work  to  the  janitor  and 
makes  it  difficult  to  find  apparatus  stowed  away  in  the 
drawers.  The  laboratory  itself  should  be  lined  with 
glass-front  cabinets  where  some  of  the  apparatus  can 


be  kept.  For  the  larger  portion  an  excellent  plan  is  to 
have  two  more  rooms  (lined  with  shelves)  which  may 
have  artificial  light  only,  which  provide  a place  for 
classifying  apparatus  so  that  it  may  be  kept  in  order 
and  found  at  short  notice  when  required.  These  rooms, 
if  provided  with  means  for  ventilation,  can  also  be  used 
for  dark  rooms,  as  mentioned  in  the  next  section. 

Dark  Rooms  for  “ Light”  and  for  Photography.  — A 
number  of  important  experiments  in  “ light  ” (photom- 
eter, spectroscope,  focal  length  of  lenses)  require  a 
dark  room  8' XiY . Two  rooms  at  least  are  needed 
so  that  two  sets  of  students  can  work  without  mutual 
interference.  Storerooms  can  be  used  by  the  installing 
of  a wall  table,  covering  the  entire  interior  of  the  rooms 
with  a good  quality  of  non-glare  paint  (cement  mixed 


SCIENCE,  WALL  CABINETS 

SCALE 


Fig.  319. 


364 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


with  ordinary  black  paint  will  do)  and  providing  the 
necessary  forced  ventilation.  This  should  be  planned 
by  the  ventilating  engineer.  A small  airtight  room 
soon  becomes  uninhabitable  when  occupied  by  two 
or  more  students  with  a gas  jet  or  two.  A room  used 
for  photography  should  be  scientifically  ventilated,  and 
the  need  for  complete  exclusion  of  daylight  is  greater 
still.  Even  if  a dark  room  has  been  planned  for  the 
work  in  chemistry,  another  should  be  set  aside  for 
physics.  A very  good  feature,  if  space  is  available,  is 


the  minority  who  go  to  college,  but  also  the  majority 
who  do  not. 

A growing  demand,  which  would  be  overwhelming  if 
our  communities  took  the  direct  interest  in  their  chil- 
dren’s welfare  to  which  its  importance  entitles  it,  makes 
it  desirable  to  establish  courses  which  may  be  labeled  as 
follows : mechanics,  strength  of  materials , steam  and  gas 
engines,  hydraulics,  direct  and  alternating  current  electricity. 

It  is  not  pretended  that  these  courses  will  turn  out 
the  equivalent  of  that  turned  out  by  the  corresponding 
university  course  ; but  the  plumber’s 
helper,  or  the  beginner  in  an  auto- 
mobile repair  shop,  will  rise  more 
quickly  if  he  has  had  a course  in 
elementary  physics,  followed  by  one 
in  the  lines  mentioned.  The  con- 
tractor, the  builder  of  stone  or  brick 
or  concrete  houses,  the  men  in  the 
foundries,  the  machine  shop,  the  fac- 
tory, the  automobile  business,  the 
telephone  and  telegraph  companies, 
the  electrical  and  wireless  industries, 
the  boiler  and  engine  rooms,  all  need 
a foundation  of  this  kind.  These 
courses  correlate  well  with  the  con- 
tinuation and  part-time  schools  being 
organized  in  a few  parts  of  the 
country.  They  are  especially  well 
adapted  to  evening  schools  also. 
Lecture  courses  (with  experimental 
demonstrations)  along  these  lines 
have  been  given  with  marked  success 
in  some  places,  as  part  of  the  uni- 
versity extension  movement.  The 


BOTH  SIDES. 


first  thing  is  to 


get 


the  necessary 


10 


Fig. 


320. 


to  have  a U-shaped  entrance  so  that  entrance  may  be 
made  without  opening  a door.  (See  Figure  320.) 

The  gas  nozzles  for  spectroscopic  and  other  experi- 
ments as  well  as  special  electric  circuits  for  experiments 
with  vacuum  tubes,  etc.,  should  be  provided  in  these 
rooms  in  addition  to  the  circuits  for  lighting. 

III.  Applied  Physics.  Special  Laboratories.  — Just 
as  in  agricultural  communities  the  people  are  demand- 
ing that  their  children  be  instructed  in  agriculture, 
and  in  places  where  mining  is  the  leading  industry  the 
high  school  cannot  afford  to  neglect  assaying  and  min- 
eralogy, so  in  most  cities  the  public  are  usefully  served 
if  the  pupils  are  given  work  which  will  benefit  not  only 


money  to  equip  laboratories  for  the 
courses  spoken  of. 

The  public,  the  school  adminis- 
trators, the  boards  of  education,  the 
superintendents,  the  principals  (many 
of  whom,  unfortunately,  from  the  very  nature  of  their 
training  as  administrators  have  never  done  laboratory 
work  themselves)  must  then  be  educated  to  the  fact 
that  such  work  is  expensive.  Classes  must  be  small 
(18  to  24  students  only),  rooms  fitted  with  heavy  appara- 
tus and  machines  cannot  be  used  for  other  purposes, 
and  the  apparatus  is  very  costly.  For  example,  a small 
(3  horse  power)  gas  engine,  flywheel  generator  belted 
to  it,  with  other  attachments  cost  (in  1915)  $262.00; 
the  cheapest  universal  testing  machine  made  by  one  of 
the  best  known  companies,  10,000  pounds  capacity, 
cost  (same  date)  $300.00 ; a motor-driven  3 horse  power 
centrifugal  pump  cost  $227.00;  and  so  forth. 


PHYSICS  AND  CHEMISTRY 


365 


LABORATORY  SWITCH  BOARD  (UMP  RI515TAJTCI,) 

Fig.  321. 


It  is  to  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  following  laboratories 
are  to  be  in  addition  to  the  physics  laboratory,  and, 
as  mentioned  before,  the  corresponding  courses  are  to 
follow  a fundamental  course  in  physics.  This  is  to  be  done 
by  giving  the  second  year  of  high  school  to  physics  and 
the  following  two  years  to  some  of  the  special  subjects. 

Similar  courses  in  mechanical  drawing,  machine  shop, 
etc.,  are  desirable  ; and  the  customary  courses  in  mathe- 
matics (algebra  and  plane  geometry)  should  be  insisted 
upon.  Much  of  the  work  in  the  applied  physics  courses 
can  be  done  with  the  aid  of  arithmetic  alone,  but  algebra, 
plane  geometry,  and  sometimes  trigonometry  are  also 
necessary. 

Laboratory  for  Mechanics , Strength  of  Materials  and 
Hydraulics.  — A well-lighted  room,  with  a floor  spe- 
cially designed  to  hold  great  weight,  is  necessary  for  the 
ifirst  two  subjects.  (See  Figure  322.)  For  mechanics,  one 
essential  is  some  form  of  A-frame,  wood  or  metal,  nearly 
the  height  of  the  room,  to  be  used  for  the  suspension  of 
pulleys,  differential  and  duplex  chain-hoists,  etc.  The  floor 
beams  above  may  be  designed  for  this  purpose.  Some 
tubes  of  concrete  (150  to  300  pounds),  each  provided  with 
1 strong  hook,  should  also  be  obtained. 

Several  small  universal  testing  machines,  hand  driven, 


are  far  better  than  one  high-power  machine  (same  total 
cost)  because,  obviously,  only  two  or  three  of  the  class 
can  be  kept  busy  if  there  is  only  one  machine,  the  re- 
mainder of  the  students  being  spectators.  The  size 
of  the  room  depends  upon  the  amount  of  equipment  to 
be  installed. 

Experiments  in  Hydraulics.  — For  hydraulics,  provi- 
sion must  be  made  for  the  inevitable  splashing  of  water. 
One  way  is  to  have  the  driving  machinery  (as  motor  and 
pump)  inside  the  room  and  the  measuring  devices  (weirs) 
in  a protected  or  inclosed  space  outside  where  condi- 
tions permit.  Experiments  with  high-head  and  low-head 
centrifugal  pumping,  the  use  of  the  weir,  the  hook  gauge, 
the  reciprocating  pump,  the  Pelton  type  of  water  wheel, 
and  the  hydraulic  ram  are  desirable,  and  the  closely  re- 
lated subject  of  compressed  air  can  be  studied  by  experi- 
mentation with  small  fans,  centrifugal  blowers,  and  a 
compressor  set.  Three  or  four  tanks  are  required  for 
the  hydraulic  experiments : one  on  the  roof  to  supply 
the  impulse  wheel  (a  standpipe  may  be  employed  if  the 
building  is  low),  one  or  two  for  measuring  the  discharge 
of  the  pumps,  and  one  large  tank  set  lower  than  the 
pump-level  for  the  general  discharge  and  suction  pipes. 
The  impulse  wheel  should  also  be  connected  to  the 


'•O 

c 

- 

t-o 


MECHANICS,  STR.ENQTH  Of  MATERIALS  AND  HYDRAULICS.  ALSO  SHOf 


Fig.  323.  — Elementary  Mechanics  Laboratory,  Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  New  York. 


water  supply  of  the  building.  Platform  scales  and  a 
portable  tank  are  also  necessary. 

A few  tablet  chairs  and  a blackboard  at  one  end  of 
the  laboratory  give  the  lecture  room  facilities  required. 
A lecture  table  is  desirable. 

Steam  and  Gas  Engine  Laboratory . - This  room  also 
may  require  extra  support  for  the  floor  on  account  of 
the  weight  of  the  machines  in  it.  (See  Figure  325.) 

A few  experiments,  as  those  on  the  measurement  of 
heat  and  the  properties  of  steam,  can  be  done  with  simple 
apparatus ; but  the  study  of  steam  and  gas  engines 
must  be  made  with  the  engines  themselves.  If  the 
school  has  a steam  or  gas  engine  as  part  of  the  general 
plant,  observations  at  least  can  be  made  on  it.  (Some- 
times the  students  can  help  in  actual  tests,  as  in  taking 
indicator  diagrams;  sometimes  they  can  be  used  in 
regular  shifts.)  If  not,  visits  can  be  made  to  power 
stations  using  large  engines  or  turbines.  Indicator 
cards  may  be  taken  from  an  air-compressor  set  if  it  is 
not  too  small. 

The  detailed  study,  however,  should  be  made  in  the 


laboratory , as  follows  : first,  small  models  of  engines  (sec- 
tional) can  be  purchased  from  the  apparatus  dealers ; 
second,  models  for  the  study  of  crank  and  cross-head 
motion,  eccentrics,  types  of  valves,  valve-motion,  lap 
and  lead,  angular  advance,  etc.,  can  be  constructed  of 
wood  or  metal  by  the  students  (see  Ripper,  “ Heat  En- 
gines,” Perry,  “ The  Steam  Engine,”  etc.) ; third,  old 
parts  of  steam  and  gas  engines  can  be  bought  cheaply 
from  second-hand  dealers,  particularly  junk  men.  Fre- 
quently machines  which  have  passed  through  a fire  can 
be  cleaned  up  and  used  for  study. 

A few  small  engines  which  will  really  operate  are  very 
desirable.  Steam  engines  can  be  run  for  demonstra- 
tion purposes  by  compressed  air.  Many  gasoline 
engines  can  be  adapted  to  the  school  gas-supply  by 
simply  removing  the  carburetor  and  putting  a small 
gas  bag  (of  heavy  rubber)  in  the  supply  line.  The  gaso- 
line, for  engines  using  it,  must  be  handled  in  small 
quantities  and  with  great  care.  The  engines  can  be 
tested  by  attaching  them  to  a Prony  brake,  dynamo, 
pump,  or  some  form  of  dynamometer. 


368 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Fig.  324.  — Elementary  Mechanics  Laboratory,  Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  New  York. 


The  piping  for  compressed  air,  gas,  and  steam,  also  for 
exhaust  and  steam,  should  be  planned  beforehand  by 
the  instructor,  in  consultation  with  the  engineer  of  the 
architect’s  staff. 

The  size  of  this  laboratory,  like  that  of  the  previous 
one,  depends  upon  the  amount  of  machinery  to  be  in- 
stalled. 

Laboratory  for  Direct  and  Alternating  Current  Elec- 
tricity. — The  work  in  direct  currents  must  precede  that 
in  alternating  currents  because  the  former  is  a founda- 
tion for  the  latter.  For  the  same  reason  both  are 
preceded  by  some  work  in  the  beginnings  of  electricity 
taken  in  Elementary  Physics. 

The  Machines.  — Many  of  the  machines  and  pieces 
of  apparatus  for  alternating  currents  are  different  from 
those  for  direct  currents,  so  a separate  room  is  some- 
times desirable;  but  as  classes  in  these  subjects  (third 
and  fourth  years)  are  usually  not  numerous,  one  large 
room  will  suffice  (1300  to  1800  square  feet  suggested). 
(See  Figure  328.)  The  floor  must  be  well  supported  in 
this  room  also.  The  three  important  things  for  the 


room  are  the  machines,  the  measuring  instruments,  and 
the  switchboard  with  its  distributing  wires. 

Representative  machines  (particularly  motors  and 
generators)  must  be  provided.  That  is,  while  most  of 
them  may  be  small  (i  to  2 horse  power)  they  must 
represent  the  important  kinds  of  direct  current,  also 
single  and  polyphase  alternating  current  machines  in 
use  to-day. 

One  large  machine  (say  10  horse  power)  must,  of  course, 
be  in  commission  all  the  time,  so  that,  in  conjunction 
with  the  street  service,  the  main  switchboard  is  supplied 
with  direct,  single-phase  alternating  and  polyphase 
alternating  currents.  Of  the  small  machines,  the  dy- 
namos must  have  means  of  driving  them  and  the  motors 
are  to  be  provided  with  some  easily  controlled  load 
(generator,  fan,  blower,  friction  brake,  rheostats,  etc.h 
Consultation  with  representatives  of  two  or  three  of 
the  largest  electric  manufacturing  companies  is  recom- 
mended before  purchasing  machines.  Good  types  for 
instruction  purposes  may  often  be  obtained  from  dealers 
in  second-hand  machinery. 


PHYSICS  AND  CHEMISTRY 


369 


The  location  of  the  machines  should  be  planned  care- 
fully. The  best  method  of  fastening  them  is  to  bolt 
them  down  to  a solid  concrete  base  one  foot  or  more 
above  the  floor.  Heavy  wood  benches  are  good,  as  they 
allow  bolts  to  be  shifted  easily,  but  ordinary  tables  are 
not  heavy  enough  and  are  noisy,  for  they  act  as  sound- 
ing boards. 

Measuring  Instruments.  — Measuring  instruments  in- 
clude voltmeters,  ammeters,  wattmeters,  and  some  others, 
as  curve-drawing  instruments,  galvanometers,  etc.  They 
should  be  of  the  best  quality  (Weston  or  equivalent) 
and  are  expensive,  but  a fairly  large  supply  is  necessary. 
They  must  be  handled  very  carefully,  and  a method  of 
checking  them  out  to  students  should  be  devised.  In 
some  cases  a separate  storeroom  can  have  a counter 
over  which  the  instruments  can  be  checked  out  and  in 
again  by  one  of  the  reliable  students  or  by  an  assistant. 

Switchboards. — A main  switchboard,  with  the  neces- 
sary meters  and  switches  associated  with  the  corre- 
sponding panels  for  distributing  the  various  kinds  of 
current  to  the  places  where  it  is  to  be  used,  is  the  first 
consideration.  (For  a suggestion,  see  Figure  330.)  It 
should  not  be  in  a separate  room,  but  should  be  in  plain 
view  of  the  instructor  at  all  times.  It  is  an  extremely 
good  plan  to  have  the  current  for  all  the  rooms  of  the 


Science  Group,  as  well  as  that  for  the  auditorium  (for 
experimental  demonstrations),  and  that  for  the  projec- 
tion lanterns,  controlled  from  this  board.  The  board 
should  be  of  standard  power-plant  type  and  its  rear 
should  be  accessible  to  the  students.  Extra  money  spent 
on  good  construction  is  regained  in  durability ; but 
“fancy  fittings”  should  be  avoided  — the  writer  was 
once  allowed  to  view  a high  school  switchboard  made 
of  very  heavy  plate  glass  ! 

In  addition  to  the  experimental  switchboards  in  the 
various  rooms  of  the  Science  Group,  one  or  two  boards 
are  needed  for  the  electrical  laboratory.  (For  example, 
see  Figure  309.)  There  must  be  a large  number  of  cir- 
cuits (say  18)  for  student  use.  These  are  to  be  prefer- 
ably overhead,  so  that  they  can  be  supervised  by  the 
instructor.  Each  one  of  them  should  be  on  its  own 
switch  so  that  one  group  of  students  will  not  interfere 
with  another  group. 

The  voltmeters,  ammeters,  wattmeters,  power-factor 
indicator,  and  curve-drawing  instruments  of  the  main 
board  may  have  a possible  addition  in  the  shape  of  a 
glass-inclosed  watt-hour  meter  connected  to  one  of  the 
supply  lines.  If  a frequency-indicator  is  desired,  it 
should  be  portable,  so  that  it  can  be  used  in  various 
parts  of  the  room. 


370 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Fig.  326.  — Corner  of  Steam  Engine  Laboratory,  Pratt  Institute.  Brooklyn,  New  York. 


Lampbank.  — The  discussion  of  switchboards  would 
not  be  complete  without  mention  of  a most  useful  type  of 
“ portable  switchboard  ” called  for  convenience  a lamp- 
bank.  (See  Figure  331.)  A large  number  of  these  can  be 
built  at  the  school,  the  necessary  expense  being  for  the 
lamp-sockets,  double-pole,  double-throw  switch,  lamps, 
fuse-block,  a small  amount  of  wire  and  lamp-cord.  The 
old  style  carbon  32-candle-power  lamps  are  good  ones 
to  use,  but  special  resistance  lamps  for  watt-hour  meter 
loads  may  also  be  purchased.  The  lamp-banks  should 
be  built  of  various  capacities.  A suggested  list  follows : 
Four  i-lamp,  four  2-lamp,  two  each  of  4-lamp,  8-lamp, 
16-lamp,  making  14  boards.  They  are  superior  to  all 
other  resistance  boards  or  rheostats  because  of  the  ease 
of  supervision;  and  by  providing  an  experiment  with 
the  proper  lamp-bank  the  instructor  may  rest  secure  in 
the  knowledge  that  the  other  apparatus  furnished  will 
not  be  ruined  because  of  excessive  current. 

Apparatus.  — The  key-note  for  the  selection  of  lab- 
oratory experiments  and  the  necessary  apparatus  for 


this  performance  should  be  “ What  is  used  in  practice?  ” 
An  experiment  on  an  electric  disk  stove,  flat  iron,  or 
immersion  heater  is  of  more  use  than  one  on  melting 
german-silver  wire ; volt-meters  are  more  used  in  prac- 
tical work  than  galvanometers ; determining  the  watts 
per  candle  power  of  a certain  kind  of  tungsten  or 
“ Mazda  ” lamp  is  of  value  to  every  User  of  lamps;  a 
study  of  telephone  practice  must  be  made  with  real 
telephone  equipment,  and  so  on.  This  apparatus,  as 
well  as  the  machinery,  instruments,  and  switchboards 
mentioned  above,  is  costly ; but  if  it  is  properly  taken 
care  of  it  will  last  indefinitely  and  be  of  use  to  class  after 
class  of  students. 

Many  manufacturers,  instrument  repair  firms,  and 
others  are  glad  to  donate  parts  of  their  machines  or 
goods,  which  when  mounted  and  labeled  properly. 
make  valuable  display  and  lecture  table  material. 

Storerooms.  — All  three  of  the  laboratories  just 
mentioned  should  be  provided  with  commodious  store- 
rooms. 


PHYSICS  AND  CHEMISTRY 


Fig.  327. — Testing  Internal  Combustion  Engines,  Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  New  York. 


372 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Lecture  Rooms.  — For  courses  in  Applied  Physics  a 
well  equipped  lecture  room  is  desirable ; but  the  theo- 
retical and  recitation  work  can  be  given  in  any  class- 
room having  a blackboard,  and  the  instructor’s  demon- 
stration experiments  may  be  given  in  the  laboratory. 

All  of  the  foregoing  shows  the  need  of  designing  the 
rooms  of  the  department  so  as  to  house  the  equipment 
properly. 

IV.  Chemistry.  The  Lecture  Room.  — The  general 
features  of  a good  science  lecture  room  have  been  dis- 
cussed in  Part  II  (Physics),  and  the  statements  made 
concerning  the  location  of  the  room,  raised  bank  of 
chairs,  seating  capacity,  blackboards,  lantern  screen, 
framed  pictures,  experimental  electric  circuits,  and  spe- 
cial illumination  apply  with  only  slight  modifications 
to  a room  used  for  chemical  lecture  experiments.  The 
additional  necessities  are  a means  for  forced  ventila- 
tion, a fume  closet,  a large  gas-supply  nozzle,  and  pos- 
sibly a deeper  sink. 

The  lecture  tables  shown  in  figures  301  and  302  are  suit- 
able, where  the  wide  drawers  can  be  used  to  hold  charts, 
long  glass  tubing,  etc.  One  very  desirable  addition 
(which  may  be  incorporated  in  the  design  of  the  table) 
is  a sheet  of  wire  plate  glass  about  2 feet  high  by  3 feet 
wide,  mounted  vertically  in  the  middle  of  the  front  edge 
of  the  table,  so  as  to  protect  t’-e  nearest  students  in  case 


of  accidental  spattering  of  acid,  burning  chemical, 
etc.  This  should  be  fitted  with  a hoisting  and  lower- 
ing device,  or  be  on  a stand  so  as  to  be  movable. 

A number  of  refinements  may  be  added.  A hoist- 
ing device  for  a large  glass  pneumatic  trough,  worked 
by  a crank,  is  very  convenient.  So  is  a method  of 
darkening  the  room  by  having  all  of  the  dark  shades 
lowered  simultaneously.  This  is  done  in  some  Ger- 
man lecture  rooms  by  a crank  and  gears  on  a long  shaft ; 
in  some  American  colleges  they  are  lowered  or  raised  by 
a geared  electric  motor  attached  to  wire  cables. 

Storerooms  for  Lecture  Table  Apparatus.  — One  or 
more  rooms  (located  near  the  lecture  room)  should  be 
fitted  up  with  movable  shelves  covering  the  entire  sides 
of  the  rooms.  Two  hundred  square  feet  of  floor  space 
will  probably  be  sufficient. 

The  Chemistry  Laboratory.  — Figure  332  gives  a labo- 
ratory plan  which  allows  for  thirty  students  as  a maxi- 
mum. Here  the  students  do  not  progress  from  one 
table  to  another,  but  each  has  his  own  place.  Another 
thing  which  distinguishes  the  room  from  the  Physics 
laboratory  is  the  fact  that  wider  aisles  are  required  on 
account  of  the  possibility  of  one  student  spilling  acids 
on  another  (if  room  is  crowded)  in  carrying  them  to  his 
table.  The  plan  provides  for  tablet  chairs  and  a lecture 
table,  thus  making  the  room  (where  there  are  not  two  or 


,5  C A T.  E. 

o'  s' 15' 


Fig.  328. 


PHYSICS  AND  CHEMISTRY 


373 


Fig.  329.  — Corner  oe  Electrical  Laboratory,  Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  New  York. 


more  classes  at  any  one  period)  independent  of  the 
lecture  room.  In  crowded  schools,  by  having  two 
teachers,  one  class  may  be  reciting  in  a separate  room 
while  the  other  is  in  the  laboratory ; but  in  very  large 
schools  two  or  more  laboratories  are  necessary. 

The  fume-hood  should  be  large  (at  least  8 feet  long), 
well  lighted  preferably  by  daylight  or  if  not  by  a power- 
ful vapor-proof  electric  light,  and  ventilated  mechani- 
cally. A large  opening  near  the  ceiling  of  the  labora- 
tory (having  a separate  fan)  provides  adequate  exhaust 
ventilation  for  the  room  at  the  times  required.  The 
motors  for  both  these  exhaust  fans  should  have  switches 
(with  keys  in  the  hands  of  instructor)  so  that  they  may 
be  turned  on  when  injurious  or  offensive  gases  are  being 
studied,  and  turned  off  to  save  current  when  not  needed. 

The  previous  discussion  under  Physics  of  lighting, 
stools,  and  storerooms  applies  also  to  Chemistry.  Lin- 
oleum has  been  found  to  be  a good  material  for  floors. 
The  wall  cabinets  marked  “ reagent  cases  ” differ  from 
those  used  in  Physics  because  of  their  shallowness. 
They  allow  for  one  row  of  bottles  only.  The  shelves 


should  be  movable,  and  most  of  the  cabinets  should 
have  glass  doors.  Sliding  doors,  if  well  fitted,  are  more 
convenient  in  a crowded  room  than  those  which  swing 
out  on  hinges.  Grease-traps  (useful  for  catching 
matches,  broken  bits  of  glass,  etc.)  may  be  under  each 
table  or  one  large  one  may  be  used  for  the  entire  room. 
An  alternative  scheme  is  to  use  hoppers  at  the  end  of 
each  table.  Cases  for  labofatory  binders  may  be  sepa- 
rate or  “ built  in  ” as  shown.  The  wall-table  provides  a 
place  for  many  special  experiments,  especially  for  those 
on  electrolysis. 

Switchboard.  — A design  for  a switchboard  is  shown 
in  Figure  335.  This  provides  for  four  sets  of  terminals. 
Any  apparatus  connected  to  “ C ” or  “ D ” is  in  series 
with  the  lamps,  and  wires  attached  to  binding-posts 
p 1 and  p 2 may  be  touched  without  together  causing 
damage.  Si  and  S2  represent  small  snap  switches, 
these  and  the  binding-posts  to  be  mounted  about  one 
foot  above  the  wall  table.  Five  sets  of  these,  in  parallel, 
allow  ten  students  to  work  at  one  time  without  inter- 
fering with  each  other.  “ A ” and  “ B ” are  connected 


374 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


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PHYSICS  AND  CHEMISTRY 


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directly  to  the  line  (say  115  volts)  and  must  be  used  with 
caution.  (Touching  wires  will  blow  fuse.)  If  ioniza- 
tion experiments  are  to  be  done  by  the  students  it  is  a 
good  plan  to  run  wires  from  switch  “A”  to  four  or  five 
sockets  above  the  electrolysis  table,  connecting  them  to 
binding-posts  as  shown  in  the  lower  left-hand  corner 
of  Figure  335.  These  sockets  may  have  the  ordinary 
electric  bulbs,  and  the  student  can  note  the  conductivity 
of  the  solution  by  watching  tire  glow  of  his  lamp.  The 
case  with  hinged  door,  covering  the  board,  prevents 
corrosion  of  metal  of  switches,  etc. 

Laboratory  T ables.  — A very  useful  type  of  labora- 
tory table  is  shown  in  Figure  336.  The  raised  shelf  pro- 
vides a place  for  the  ordinary  reagents  and  helps  in 
keeping  acids,  etc.,  off  the  table  top.  The  tops  are  of 
wood,  which  is  far  better  than  any  material  like  tile  or 
glass  because  it  keeps  down  breakage.  The  design 
calls  for  an  unfinished  top  so  that  one  of  the  good  acid 
and  alkali-proof  finishes  (as  the  well-known  aniline  oil 
preparation)  can  be  applied.  One  distinctive  feature 
is  the  use  of  a deep  drawer  which  allows  the  student  to 
preserve  his  test  tubes,  containing  liquids,  until  the  next 
period.  Another  is  the  use  of  the  clear  glass  partition, 
preventing  one  student  from  interfering  with  the  one 
opposite,  allowing  the  teacher  to  see  what  is  going  on, 


and  providing  a barrier  for  the  occasional  slight  explo- 
sion of  a flask  or  tube.  An  improvement  is  to  have  the 
top  of  this  reagent  shelf  of  plate  glass. 

Each  student  has  therefore  a working  space  of  three 
feet,  with  one  gas  nozzle,  one  clean  arm  or  book  rest, 
and  half  of  one  sink.  Six  different  sections  of  students 
can  use  these  tables.  A good  key  system  should  be 
worked  out  and  key  cabinets  (as  many  as  there  are 
sections)  should  be  placed  on  the  wall  near  the  binder 
cabinets.  (See  Figure  335.) 

Distilled  water  for  use  in  experiments  must  be  pro- 
vided for,  and  an  efficient  still,  gas  heated,  is  usually 
the  best  way  to  get  it.  The  plumbing  for  the  large 
gas  burner  (for  the  still)  as  well  as  that  for  the  circu- 
lating water,  should  be  arranged  for. 

The  Balance  Room.— A balance  room, at  least  8' X 15', 
for  delicate  scales,  should  be  adjacent  to  the  laboratory, 
and  a glass  partition  places  it  under  the  teacher’s  super- 
vision. A quiet  room  is  needed  because  draughts  of 
air  interfere  with  accurate  work,  and  the  room  being 
separate  can  be  kept  free  from  the  fumes  which  would 
corrode  the  balances.  The  subject  of  vibration  was  dis- 
cussed under  I (3),  “Location  of  Rooms  of  Science  Group.” 
A vestibule  entrance  from  the  laboratory  to  the  balance 
room  is  very  desirable  if  the  space  is  available. 


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PHYSICS  AND  CHEMISTRY 


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Mr.  John  J.  Donovan,  Architect. 

Fig.  333.  — Chemistry  Lecture  Room,  Oakland  Technical  High  School,  Oakland,  California. 


Where  the  funds  available  will  only  allow  of  equipping 
one  laboratory,  which  must  be  used  for  both  Chemistry 
and  Physics,  one  or  two  tables  on  the  plan  of  the  one 
shown  in  Figure  336  and  a few  like  that  of  Figure  315  will 
provide  for  experimentation  by  the  students.  If  no 
science  lecture  room  is  planned,  some  tablet  chairs 
and  a lecture  table  like  the  one  indicated  in  Figure  301 
may  be  placed  in  one  end  of  the  laboratory. 

V.  Applied  Chemistry.1 

Planning  of  Courses.  — In  almost  every  high  school 
the  time  for  an  extra  year  (the  fourth)  in  chemistry 
can  be  arranged  for  by  having  the  regular  chemistry  in 
the  third  year.  In  the  schools  where  the  student  makes 
his  choice  of  course  (college  or  non-college)  at  the  end 
of  the  first  year,  an  elementary  course  in  chemistry  can 
be  given  (in  addition  to  physics)  in  the  second  year. 
This  allows  the  courses  described  here  to  be  given  in 
the  third  and  fourth  years. 

Technical  Chemistry.  (For  young  men.)  — The  Labora- 
tory. A well-lighted  room  is  essential.  The  plumbing 
for  gas  and  water,  ventilation,  reagent  cases,  switch- 


boards, etc.,  have  been  mentioned  previously.  For 
this  work  a balance  room  with  six  to  ten  good  balances 
(mounted  on  piers  or  other  solid  foundations)  is  an 
absolute  necessity. 

Any  style  of  good  laboratory  table  may  be  used,  but 
the  “ individual  chemical  desk  ” shown  in  Figure  337 
offers  a number  of  advantages.  This  has  the  aluminum 
fume  hood  of  Mr.  S.  E.  Coleman,  Oakland,  California, 
which  may  be  obtained  in  twos  or  in  fours.  The  table 
top  may  be  of  wood  (treated  as  previously  mentioned) 
but  as  students  are  more  experienced,  may  be  of  harder 
material,  as  vitrolite  glass,  porcelain,  or  one  variety 
(black)  of  asbestos  board.  Storerooms,  distilled  water 
supply,  etc.,  should,  of  course,  be  provided. 

Choice  of  Courses.  — The  subject  of  Technical  Chem- 
istry is  such  a large  one  that  only  an  illustrative  list  of 
the  course  titles  can  be  given  here.  The  choice  should 
be  made  with  due  regard  to  the  needs  of  the  immediate 
community  as  well  as  of  the  opportunities  in  the  state. 

Suggested  Lines  of  Work  Are : Qualitative  and  quan- 
titative analysis,  agricultural  chemistry,  chemistry  of 


1 Just  as  in  the  case  of  Physics,  the  college  preparatory  chemistry  follows  a somewhat  standardized  line  of  work.  For  the  pupils  who  do  not 
intend  to  enter  college  there  is  a broad  field  which  is  greatly  neglected  by  those  who  plan  high  school  courses  of  study.  Those  outlined  here  are 
separated  into  two  groups,  the  first  for  the  young  men,  the  other  for  young  women. 


Mr.  John  J.  Donovan,  Architect . 


PHYSICS  AND  CHEMISTRY 


379 


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384 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


the  engine  room,  electro-chemistry,  the  chemistry  of 
iron  and  steel,  of  glass,  borax,  leather,  paint,  dyes, 
fuels,  illuminating  and  lubricating  oils,  foods  and 
adulterants,  coal  tar  products,  synthetic  insulating 
materials,  wood  preservatives,  and  other  manufactures. 
If  assaying  is  to  be  taken  up,  a separate  room  should  be 
fitted  up,  with  blowers,  gas  supply,  etc.,  as  the  smoke 
and  dust  from  the  furnaces  would  interfere  with  the 
chemical  work. 

Household  and  Domestic  Chemistry , the  Chemistry  of 
Foods.  (Girls.)  — Educators  will  agree  that  a knowl- 
edge of  the  life  sciences  (biology,  physiology,  etc.)  is 
of  the  utmost  importance  to  women ; but  there  should 
also  be  a place  for  some  instruction  in  chemistry  for 
every  woman  who  has  anything  to  do  with  the  affairs 
of  the  household. 

If  the  girl  enters  high  school  only  as  a preparation  for 
college  she  need  take  only  the  usual  one  year  of  high 
school  chemistry ; but  if  she  is  of  the  great  majority 
who  never  expect  to  go  to  college  and  who  drop  out 
before  completing  the  high  school  course,  the  work  here 
mentioned  should  be  of  great  value.  It  is  to  be  started 
in  the  second  year  (after  one  year  of  general  science) 
so  that  those  who  only  attend  for  two  years  will  be 
benefited.  If  only  one  additional  year  can  be  allowed 
in  the  curriculum,  much  good  work  can  be  done ; but 
the  responsible  work  of  food  analysis,  etc.,  can  be 
carried  out  only  by  young  women  in  the  fourth  year, 
who  have  had  two  years  previous  training  in  chemistry. 

Household  Chemistry.  (Second  year  girls.)  — This 
first  course  must  necessarily  be  largely  on  the  elements 
of  chemistry,  but  the  teacher  can  find  numberless  ap- 
plications in  the  households  of  the  parents  of  the  girls, 
and  some  of  the  chemistry  of  cleaning  and  dyeing 
textiles  can  be  covered. 

Domestic  Chemistry.  (Third  year.)  — This  may  well 
include  the  chemistry  of  soaps,  the  beginnings  of  food 
chemistry,  a study  of  milk  supply  of  cities  (with  the 


tests  of  butter  fat  and  purity  of  milk)  and  the  ele- 
mentary portions  of  the  chemistry  of  cooking. 

Chemistry  of  Foods.  (Fourth  year.) — Besides  the 
study  of  the  composition,  heat  values  and  preserva- 
tion of  foods,  some  real  food  analysis  can  be  taken  up ; 
also  the  chemistry  of  digestion,  of  the  nutritive  values 
of  food,  of  food  preservation,  of  yeasts  and  molds,  the 
sanitary  analysis  of  water,  and  the  subject  of  disin- 
fection.1 

Lighting  of  Laboratories  Used  for  Evening  Work. — 
The  light  for  most  laboratory  work  should  be  nearly 
as  strong  as  that  for  mechanical  drawing,  and  the 
lighting  fixtures,  etc.,  should  be  planned  by  an  illumi- 
nating engineer. 

Technical  Education  for  Adults,  for  Crippled  Soldiers.  — 
Grown  people  who  have  been  denied  educational  op- 
portunities in  youth,  or  who  are  forced  to  change 
occupation,  can  benefit  from  these  courses  when  they 
are  put  before  them,  as  by  university  extension  or  other 
evening-school  plans. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  courses  may  also  aid  greatly  in 
the  rehabilitation  of  and  finding  occupation  for  returned 
army  and  navy  men  incapacitated  for  their  former 
work.  (E.g.  armature  winding  is  now  being  done  by 
blinded  men.) 

One  Forcible  Lesson  from  the  War.  — The  incon- 
venience and  the  danger  of  our  hastily  organized 
emergency  war  instruction  in  technical  subjects  as  a 
part  of  our  war  effort,  and  the  hurried  search  for  places 
and  equipment  to  give  such  instruction,  should  impel 
us  to  greater  efforts  in  the  direction  of  better  technical 
schools.  The  excellence  of  the  European  technical 
schools  has  been  known  to  educators  for  a long  time. 
Let  us  hope  that  the  lesson  will  not  be  forgotten,  and 
that  schools  giving  such  courses  will  be  so  strongly 
demanded  by  the  people  that  there  will  be  many  finely 
equipped  ones  instead  of  those  now  conspicuous  by 
their  scarcity. 


1 These  subjects  overlap  the  field  of  dietetics,  commonly  given  in  the  “ domestic  science  ” department  of  the  high  school,  but  the  dividing  line 
can  be  sharply  drawn  by  deciding  that  the  work  requiring  a chemical  laboratory  for  its  performance  is  chemistry,  and  that  which  does  not  may  be 
properly  included  in  the  other  departments.  The  latter  may  be  labeled  the  “household  arts”  department,  or  perhaps  some  title  can  be  found 
which  does  not  include  the  word  science. 


CHAPTER  XIX 


THE  GENERAL  SCIENCE  AND  BIOLOGICAL  LABORATORIES 

By  Edna  Watson  Bailey,  Ph.D.,  Head  of  Science  Department,  University  High  School,  Oakland,  California 

I.  Development  of  General  Science  and  Biological  Laboratory.  II.  Function  of  the  Laboratory.  III.  The  General  Science 
Laboratory  Plan.  IV.  The  Biological  Laboratory,  (r)  Its  Function.  V.  Botany,  Zoology,  Physiology,  Agriculture,  Hygiene  and 
Sanitation.  VI.  Biological  Laboratory  Facilities.  VII.  The  Laboratory  Plan,  (i)  Storerooms.  (2)  The  Menagerie.  (3)  The 
Microscope.  (4)  Bacteriology.  (5)  The  Outdoor  Laboratory. 


Development  of  the  General  Science  and  Biological 
Laboratory.  — Secondary  education  in  science  to-day  is 
breaking  away  from  academic  ideals  and  developing  in 
the  direction  of  community  usefulness  to  an  extent  which 
is  bound  to  influence  materially  the  planning  of  labora- 
tories. The  growing  tendency  to  make  the  school  a com- 
munity center,  functioning  in  the  practical  and  spiritual 
concerns  of  the  community,  and  the  increased  emphasis 
on  vocational  guidance  and  education,  demand  pro- 
vision for  practical  work  in  applied  science.  The 
modern  high  school  laboratory  must  make  possible  the 
release  of  the  student’s  initiative  and  his  creative  instinct 
in  constructive  work  recognized  by  himself  as  worth 
doing.  Good  work  of  this  sort  can  be  and  has  been 
done  in  the  old-fashioned  laboratory,  but  under  great 
disadvantages. 

Function  of  the  Laboratory  — - The  ideal  laboratory 
has  as  its  function  the  setting  free  of  the  student  from 
limitations  of  material  convenience.  First,  he  must  be 
free  from  his  teacher,  independent  as  far  as  possible  of 
her  aid  in  securing  materials  and  doing  work ; second, 
from  his  class,  able  to  work  out  his  own  problems 
without  interfering  with  or  being  hampered  by  his 
neighbor ; and  finally,  he  must  be  freed  from  the  limi- 
tations of  any  one  specialized  science,  free  to  use  the 
material  of  all  sciences  as  far  as  he  needs  it,  and  can 

I command  it. 

On  the  first  point,  Mr.  Hodgdon,1  a leader  in  the 
teaching  of  general  science,  has  this  to  say : “ In  no  part 
of  school  work  is  more  practical  psychology  required 
than  in  the  teaching  of  science.  One  of  the  chief  faults 
of  a teacher  is  to  dominate  a class.  — The  ideal  place  for 
a teacher  is  an  out-of-the-way  place  in  a classroom, 
trying  to  keep  still.” 

The  average  laboratory  is  very  poorly  provided  with 
places  for  teachers  to  keep  still  in.  The  prominent 


“ teacher’s  table  ” or  “ demonstration  desk,”  usually 
the  best  equipped  table  in  the  room,  often  the  only 
one  provided  with  gas  and  water,  shows  all  too  plainly 
who  is  to  be  the  “ star  performer  ” and  who  the  audience. 
Since  the  teacher  is  to  do  the  work,  supplies  and  equip- 
ment are  stored  for  his  convenience,  usually  in  locked 
cases,  in  a locked  room.  There  is  usually  a lecture  room 
between  two  or  more  of  these  “ laboratories.”  Here 
recitations  are  conducted,  and  demonstrations  given  by 
the  teacher.  Such  a plan  presupposes  that  the  teacher 
will  not  only  originate  the  work,  but  also  perform  most 
of  it.  But  the  problem  to-day  is,  how  can  a laboratory 
be  planned  to  accommodate  a class  which  is  not  domi- 
nated, but  guided,  by  a teacher? 

While  the  details  will  vary  with  local  conditions, 
there  are  certain  characteristics  of  plan  and  equipment 
which  will  be  found  desirable.  The  common  laboratory 
tools  and  supplies  should  be  brought  out  of  the  locked 
storeroom  and  placed  in  cases  along  the  walls  where  they 
will  be  most  readily  accessible  to  the  greatest  number. 
Since  the  problems  and  methods  of  work  of  the  class  are 
to  be  such  as  originate  in  the  class,  there  must  be  pro- 
vision for  class  conference  of  the  “ round-table  ” sort, 
and  obviously  the  number  of  students  who  can  profit- 
ably participate  will  be  smaller  than  the  number  that 
can  play  audience  to  a teacher’s  performance.  In  such 
a plan,  there  is  no  place  for  a rigid  division  into  “ labora- 
tory days  ” and  “ recitation  days,”  but  laboratory 
work  and  recitations  are  fused  by  the  conception  of  a 
class  accomplishing  its  purpose  by  all  the  means  at  its 
disposal.  It  is  desirable  to  have  this,  class  conference  in 
the  room  which  is  equipped  for  laboratory  work.  Does 
the  modern  science  department  have  use  then  for  a 
lecture  room?  Yes,  indeed,  for  there  are  many  people 
in  any  community  from  whom  science  classes  can  learn 
much,  and  a good  lecturer  will  have  an  eager  audience. 


Mr.  D.  R.  Hodgdon,  General  Science  Quarterly,  January,  1919. 
38s 


• TOP 


Ficon  PUN  or  THE.  SPIRAL  SC1LKCC,  AMD  PHYSIOGHAPHT  LABOHATOHY 


THE  GENERAL  SCIENCE  AND  BIOLOGICAL  LABORATORIES 


387 


FILONT-  SECTION 

S U PP  LY  C AST  C ■ 


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DETAILS  OF  f.Q.UlPANENT  IN  u PHIAL  SCITNCL  . PHYSIOGRAPHY 
AND  BIOLOGICAL  LABOCATOCilS . 

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Fig.  342. 


388 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


The  preparation  of  special  topics  with  accompanying 
demonstrations  by  members  of  a class  has  become  an 
important  part  of  science  work  as  directed  by  some  of 
our  best  teachers,  and  these  student  lecturers  command 
respectful  hearing  from  their  mates.  Since  an  audience 
may  be  many  times  as  large  as  a class  conference  group, 
a science  assembly  room  is  needed  and  replaces  the  old 
fashioned  “ lecture  room.”  It  has  so  many  possi- 
bilities of  school  and  community  service,  inter-class 
and  inter-school  work,  vocational  guidance  and  co- 
operation of  the  school  and  the  business  world,  that  it 
contributes  greatly  to  the  living  efficiency  of  the  school. 

The  second  demand,  concerning  the  liberation  of  the 
individual  from  the  group,  is  not  satisfied  by  the  usual 
type  of  general  science  laboratory.  The  long  tables, 
with  materials  stored  at  some  remote  and  inaccessible 
point,  are  suited  to  a group  of  pupils  all  working  under 
direction  at  the  same  task.  The  new  laboratory  must 
make  provision  for  individual  activity  as  far  as  possible, 
and  for  hobbies.  This  means  tables  designed  to  pro- 
vide a unit  of  laboratory  equipment  of  gas,  water,  and 
electricity  to  not  more  than  four  students.  Where 
the  single  or  double  table  plan  is  adopted,  it  generally 
means  providing  no  equipment  at  the  table,  because 
of  the  expense  of  individual  plumbing,  etc.,  but  gas, 
water,  and  electricity  must  be  provided  somewhere  in 
the  room.  This  is  not  as  satisfactory  as  planning  on 
the  basis  of  a four-student  group. 

Books,  microscopes,  work -bench,  tools,  all  must  be 
as  accessible  as  possible,  in  order  that  the  class  may 
not  impede  the  individual,  nor  the  individual  disturb 
the  class.  Provision  for  hobbies  involves  facilities  for 
making  and  caring  for  all  sorts  of  collections  and  exhibit- 
cases  for  their  display,  good  equipment  for  photography, 
provision  for  work  with  living  plants  and  animals,  and 
a well-equipped  “ tinker  shop  ” with  tools,  lumber, 
and  a generous  supply  of  raw  materials  for  chemical, 
mechanical,  and  electric  projects. 

Finally,  the  modern  laboratory  for  general  science 
must  be  free  from  the  limitations  surrounding  the  labora- 
tories designed  for  the  special  sciences.  Any  high  school 
general  science  laboratory  which  does  not  provide  the 
facilities  for  making  use  of  chemical  knowledge  in  edu- 
cation is  hopelessly  inadequate.  The  same  is  true  of 
physical  and  biological  equipment.  Microscopes  are 
only  an  unwieldy  one-eyed  sort  of  magic  spectacles,  at 
once  an  aid  and  a powerful  stimulant  to  the  imagination, 
and  so  should  be  available  to  all  curious  youngsters. 
The  tools  of  the  bacteriologist  also  belong  to  all  classes. 
Instruments  for  weighing  and  measuring,  simple  machines 
and  mechanical  devices,  electrical  equipment  — the 
tools  of  physics  are  also  indispensable. 

To  sum  up  the  characteristics  of  our  ideal  general 


science  room : It  will  have  developed  a laboratory 
arrangement  that  facilitates  group  activity  and  pro- 
vides for  individual  initiative ; it  will  be  so  equipped 
as  to  set  students  and  teacher  free  in  the  realm  of  the 
fundamental  sciences,  supplying  the  essential  tools 
of  them  all ; it  will  provide  tools  in  abundance,  of  the 
same  sturdy  excellence  as  those  with  which  the  work 
of  the  world  is  done,  but  will  eliminate  playthings  and 
toys  masquerading  as  “ apparatus  ” ; and  it  will  pro- 
vide abundant  material  and  opportunity  for  creative 
activity. 

The  General  Science  Laboratory  Plan.  — A plan  which 
embodies  the  ideals  set  forth  is  shown  in  Figure  341 . The 
semicircle  of  chairs  at  one  end  of  the  long  room,  facing 
the  blackboard,  gives  opportunity  for  class  conferences, 
or  individual  work  with  reference  material  from  the 
nearby  bookcases  (G),  a sink  to  the  right,  and  a fume 
hood  (E).  Microscope  lockers  (H),  and  storage  cabinets 
(C)  provide  a ready  access  to  demonstration  material. 
An  exhibit  case  (D)  shows  in  a prominent  and  well- 
protected  place  work  done  by  groups  or  individuals, 
material  collected  or  loaned,  models,  etc.  This  case 
should  serve  as  a bulletin  board  or  “ show  case  ” of  the 
fruits  of  the  various  class  activities,  and  should  be  a 
center  of  interest  to  the  whole  school.  Under  the 
blackboard  shallow  drawers  (F)  provide  storage  space 
for  charts  and  other  material  likely  to  be  needed.  The 
laboratory  tables  (K)  provide  two  sinks,  ample  gas 
connections,  and  electrical  outlets,  and  will  accommodate 
eight  students  at  each  table.  Another  arrangement  of 
facilities  for  using  gas  and  water  is  shown  in  Figure  344, 
consisting  of  a lead-lined  trough  running  the  full  length 
of  the  table  and  emptying  into  a deep  sink  at  one  end. 
This  is  preferred  by  some,  while  others  find  many  dis- 
advantages in  it.  It  does  not  provide  as  satisfactory 
facilities  as  does  the  arrangement  shown  in  (K),  but  is 
less  expensive.  The  deep  sinks  shown  in  (K)  avoid 
spattering,  serve  as  pneumatic  troughs,  and  are  useful 
in  so  many  ways  that  the  expense  seems  abundantly 
justified.  Along  the  side  of  the  room,  under  the  bank 
of  windows,  a 24”  wall-table  (0)  provides  a well-lighted 
table  space  for  use  of  maps,  making  of  diagrams,  etc.  At 
the  end  of  the  room  farthest  from  the  conference  group, 
a work-bench  (Q)  and  tool  cabinet  (P)  are  shown.  Across 
the  room,  in  a corner  removed  from  drafts,  and  accessible 
to  the  storeroom,  are  placed  two  electric  incubators  (I). 
Between  the  laboratory  tables  and  the  set  of  chairs  are 
provided  a sand  table  (N)  and  a place  for  keeping  living 
plants  and  animals.  The  sand  table  needs  no  special 
description;  the  “menagerie  and  aquarium”  (Ml  is 
perhaps  not  quite  so  familiar  to  the  reader,  or  so  readily 
understood  from  the  detail.  It  consists  of  a case  with 
a zinc  or  galvanized-iron  top,  sloping  toward  tire  sink 


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■ FLOOR,  PLAN  OF  THE  .BIOLOGICAL  1. A .BOItATQlTf- 


39° 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


(6"  in  4')  and  protected  at  the  sides  by  a four-inch 
curb.  Above  this  runs  a f"  water  pipe,  equipped  with 
several  cocks.  This  is  designed  for  the  accommodation 
of  a number  of  small  aquaria,  vivaria,  ter-aquaria,  and 
potted  plants.  Under  classroom  conditions,  many  small 
aquaria,  easily  supplied  with  running  water,  have  been 
found  more  useful  and  more  successful  than  the  very 
large  single  aquarium.  Beneath  this  table  are  four 
compartments  2,X2/Xi/,  their  walls  made  of  mesh 
screen,  and  their  floors  of  zinc-lined  removable  drawers. 
The  base  of  these  compartments  should  be  about  2' 
above  the  floor.  Everyone  who  has  noticed  the  uni- 
versal human  interest  in  living  creatures,  and  repugnance 
for  dead  ones,  will  appreciate  the  possibilities  of  such  a 
“ live-table,”  as  a storage  place  for  the  living  material 
which  students  will  bring.  It  is  desirable  to  provide  as 
much  free  space  (at  least  5')  around  this  unit  as  possible, 
in  order  to  have  free  access  to  this  material. 

Such  a room  would  provide  a real  workshop  for  the 
projects  of  a class  of  normally  enthusiastic  young  people. 
Though  designed  primarily  for  the  general  science  of  the 
junior  high  school,  it  would  serve  for  physiography, 
botany,  zoology  or  geology  in  the  senior  high  school, 
and  could  readily  be  adapted  to  instruction  in  any 
secondary  science. 

The  Biological  Laboratory.  Function.  — Biology  in 
the  secondary  schools  has  had  a checkered  career.  It 
first  appeared  in  the  time  of  Huxley  and  Parker  as  a 
study  of  “ types  ” of  plant  and  animal  life.  Its  in- 
spiration was  the  Darwinian  thesis,  and  its  mission  the 
presentation  of  that  thesis.  The  chief  function  of  the 
course  was  to  teach  the  theory  of  evolution  by  means 
of  the  facts  of  comparative  anatomy,  embryology,  and 
paleontology,  which  constitute  its  basis.  It  was  planned 
by  great  teachers,  and  it  met  an  enthusiastic  reception 
because  it  filled  a real  need  in  public  education.  The 
conception  of  organic  evolution  was  a revolutionary  one, 
and  civilization  halted  until  it  could  be  assimilated  and 
incorporated  into  the  spirit  of  the  times.  How  effect- 
ually this  was  done,  the  attitude  of  the  present  genera- 
tion bears  witness.  There  are  no  more  arguments  as 
to  the  doctrine  of  “ descent  with  modification,”  though 
there  is  some  discussion  as  to  the  laws  governing  this 
descent.  But  the  conception  of  a living  world  con- 
tinually creating  a new  world,  of  “ revolution  creatrice ,” 
is  implicit  in  our  twentieth-century  thinking.  For 
the  rapid  diffusion  of  this  point  of  view,  we  have  to 
thank  biologists  like  Huxley  and  Parker  and  the  “ type 
courses  ” they  promulgated.  Such  courses,  being  con- 
cerned chiefly  with  comparative  structural  studies, 
needed  little  in  the  way  of  laboratory  provision,  beyond 


a table  of  the  proper  height  for  microscopic  work  and 
dissection,  and  storage  facilities  for  material  and  tools. 
Such  laboratories  were  planned  and  built,  and  one  is 
tempted  to  think  that  builders  of  schools  have  not 
thought  clearly  concerning  biological  laboratories  since 
the  days  of  Huxley. 

The  science  of  biology  has  traveled  far  in  the  inter- 
vening decades,  and  educational  aims  and  methods 
have  advanced  even  more  rapidly.  On  one  hand 
biology  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term  is  concerned 
chiefly  with  the  physical  chemistry  of  living  stuff,  and 
therefore,  requires  the  facilities  of  a chemical  laboratory. 
On  the  other  hand,  biology  as  a school  subject  is  becom- 
ing more  and  more  the  study  of  relations  among  living 
creatures,  especially  between  man  and  his  living  environ- 
ment, with  reference  particularly  to  advantages  and 
disadvantages  resulting  therefrom  for  his  health  and 
purse.  The  phrase  “ civic  biology  ” used  as  a title  by 
two  of  the  most  recent  texts  1 indicates  the  direction 
of  the  work.  Biology  of  the  modern  academic  type 
then  demands  as  complete  a laboratory  equipment  as 
do  physics  and  chemistry,  in  addition  to  the  strictly 
biological  apparatus ; while  civic  biology  concerns 
itself  with  the  great  outdoors  and  community  condi- 
tions primarily,  such  as  infectious  diseases,  water  supply, 
sewage  disposal,  forestry,  game,  etc.,  and  also  with  the 
relationships  between  living  creatures,  as  far  as  a minia- 
ture world  can  be  maintained  within  laboratory  walls. 
Furthermore  modern  education  aims  at  tangible  results: 
things  to  be  done,  created,  improved,  accomplished  by 
the  student.  And  for  that  reason  we  find  the  same 
necessity  for  tools  and  working  facilities  in  a biological 
laboratory  as  we  met  in  planning  the  general  science  labo- 
ratory. The  fact  that  we  are  working  with  living  stuff, 
demanding  exact  conditions  and  unusual  facilities  for  care, 
makes  the  selection  and  provision  of  this  equipment 
more  difficult. 

Botany,  Zoology,  Physiology.  Agriculture.  Hygiene,  and 
Sanitation.  — Aside  from  the  courses  labeled  “ Botany  ” 
there  are  found  in  secondary  curricula  specialized  sciences 
belonging  to  the  biological  group ; in  the  realm  of  pure 
sciences  — - botany,  zoology,  physiology ; and  in  applied 
sciences  — - agriculture,  including  plant  and  animal 
husbandry,  hygiene,  and  sanitation.  As  specialized 
sciences,  botany  and  zoology  are  giving  way  in  many 
schools  to  applied  or  more  generalized  sciences.  'Where 
they  are  retained,  they  tend  to  develop  into  economic 
botany  and  zoology,  in  response  to  the  demands  of  the 
time.  Laboratory  accommodations  which  are  adequate 
for  biology  will  be  satisfactory  for  this  work  also,  and 
will  permit  the  expansion  of  old-fashioned  systematic 


1 Hunter’s  Civic  Biology,  American  Book  Co. 
Hodge  and  Dawson,  Civic  Biology,  Ginn  & Co. 


THE  GENERAL  SCIENCE  AND  BIOLOGICAL  LABORATORIES 


391 


Mr.  Edward,  A.  Stotz,  Architect. 

Fig.  344.  • — General  Science  Laboratory,  Schenley  High  School,  Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania. 


work  into  something  more  nearly  akin  to  every-day 
needs.  So  far  as  “ physiology  ” is  concerned,  the  word 
probably  stands  for  more  kinds  of  courses,  less  standard- 
ized, than  are  found  under  any  other  one  high  school 
subject.  If  given  in  the  first  two  years  of  the  high  school, 
it  approaches  in  content  a general  biology  course,  with 
emphasis  on  the  human  aspects.  Where  given  in  the 
last  two  years,  it  may  be  almost  anything  from  text- 
book work  in  anatomy  and  physiology,  to  a well- 
organized  course  in  general  physiology,  and  hygiene, 
in  the  stricter  sense  of  the  words.  For  the  former 
course,  no  laboratory  is  needed ; for  the  latter,  a well- 
equipped  biological  laboratory  is  adequate. 

As  regards  the  applied  sciences,  elementary  agri- 
culture can  be  accommodated  in  a laboratory  of  the 
general  science  type ; in  schools  where  this  work  is 
more  completely  developed,  especially  designed  labora- 
tories will  be  needed.  Hygiene,  taught  as  a laboratory 
subject,  demands  the  same  provisions  as  does  biology. 


Biological  Laboratory  Facilities.  — To  the  thought- 
ful student  of  secondary  education,  it  is  very  apparent 
that  the  sciences,  pure  and  applied,  are  in  a state  of 
transition.  We  shall  never  again  have  a formal  academic 
division  into  specialized  fields,  any  more  than  we  shall 
go  back  to  organization  of  our  courses  on  the  basis  of 
text-book  work.  There  will  be  constantly  increasing 
efforts  to  afford  opportunity  for  creative  work  by 
students,  and  thereby  a chance  for  individual  and  com- 
munity betterment  as  a concrete  result  of  this  work. 
It  is  not  an  easy  matter  to  plan  a laboratory  to  fit 
exactly  the  needs  of  a class  in  biology  ten  years  hence. 
But  since  school  buildings  are  not  built  for  a day, 
but  for  a generation,  it  would  seem  to  be  the  part  of 
wisdom  to  build  a generalized  biological  laboratory  in 
which  all  the  essential  tools  of  the  special  sciences  are 
available,  where  classes  and  teachers  will  enjoy  the 
greatest  freedom  in  selecting  problems  and  solving 
them. 


‘LLLVATJOK  or  HOT  HOUSA  & TOOL  HCOAL* 


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THE  GENERAL  SCIENCE  AND  BIOLOGICAL  LABORATORIES 


393 


Such  a laboratory  should  offer  : 

(1)  Gas,  water,  electricity  conveniently  available 
for  units  of  two  to  four  students  each. 

(2)  Facilities  for  use  and  convenient  storage  of  micro- 
scopes and  accessories. 

(3)  Provision  for  keeping  plants  and  animals  under 
observation  in  the  laboratory. 

(4)  Provision  for  plant  and  animal  experimentation 
and  cultivation  on  a scale  impossible  within  the  labora- 
tory. 

(5)  Provision  for  free  class  and  individual  activity. 

The  Laboratory  Plan.  — While  the  details  of  plan 

and  equipment  are  bound  to  vary  with  local  conditions 
and  teachers,  it  is  hoped  that  the  accompanying  lay-out 
of  such  a laboratory,  suited  to  any  of  the  biological 
group  of  sciences,  may  be  of  assistance.  (See  Figure  343.) 
A room  about  twice  as  long  as  wide,  with  its  long  axis 
east  and  west,  in  order  to  obtain  north  orientation, 
offers  the  most  attractive  possibilities  for  development. 
The  general  plan  requires  a laboratory  and  classroom 
in  one,  and  does  not  demand  a separate  lecture  room 
except  where  large  groups  of  students,  including  several 
classes,  are  to  be  accommodated.  One  “ science 
assembly  room  ” as  described  in  the  discussion  of  the 
general  science  laboratory  should  be  available  for  the 
use  of  the  science  department. 

There  are  unusually  good  opportunities  for  correla- 
tion in  the  work  in  biology7  with  the  needs  and  activities 
of  the  community.  This  may  often  be  greatly  aided 
by  talks  by  men  and  women  who  are  working  in  some 
of  the  many  fields  of  applied  biology,  and  by  reports  of 
community  projects  carried  on  by  individuals  or  groups 

I from  the  school  itself.  For  biology  especially  it  is  true 
that  the  community  is  the  laboratory,  not  merely  to  add 
interest  and  vividness  to  the  school  work  as  in  the 
inorganic  sciences,  but  to  be  itself  the  chief  material 
of  the  school  work  in  this  field.  In  any  true  under- 
standing of  the  social  function  of  biology,  what  goes  on 
in  the  schoolroom  is  only  for  the  sake  of  what  can  be 
accomplished  in  the  life  of  the  neighborhood.  There- 
fore, it  will  be  assumed  that  some  room  will  be  avail- 
able for  the  larger  assemblies  which  are  so  necessary 
to  this  work,  and  the  plan  under  discussion  will  provide 
only  for  the  small  class  group,  preferably  not  more  than 
sixteen  to  twenty  pupils. 

An  informal  grouping  of  tablet-armchairs  at  one 
end  of  the  room  (Figure  343)  offers  opportunity  for  class 
discussion  or  for  individual  work,  and  is  helpful  in  stimu- 
lating the  class  and  placing  it  on  a socialized  basis.  It 
also  deposes  the  teacher  from  his  undemocratic  eminence 
behind  a “ lecture  table.”  An  adjoining  storeroom 
makes  for  convenience  in  the  preparation  of  demon- 
strations by  students.  An  exhibit  case  (D)  with  glass 


shelves,  and  a set  of  drawers  below,  provides  facilities 
for  displaying  class  productions,  individual  collections, 
loan  exhibits,  etc.  A bookcase  (G)  brings  reference 
material  within  immediate  reach  of  the  class.  Drawers 
(F)  underneath  the  blackboard  supply  facilities  for 
storage  of  charts,  maps,  picture  collections,  and  similar 
material. 

Storerooms.  — The  storeroom,  opening  to  the  right 
of  this  blackboard  space,  is  provided  with  gas,  and  water, 
and  storage  cabinets  of  the  type  “ C ” used  in  the 
general  science  laboratory.  While  the  storeroom  is 
rather  small  (12' X15O,  so  much  of  the  material  ordinarily 
kept  in  a storeroom  is  provided  for  in  the  main  laboratory 
that  this  amount  of  space  should  be  adequate  for  all 
material  that  is  really  needed  for  class  work.  Store- 
rooms so  readily  become  junk  yards,  that  this  limita- 
tion in  size  sufficiently  strict  is  desirable  to  prevent 
accumulation  of  any  material  not  in  good  repair  and 
frequent  use. 

In  addition  to  the  storerooms  belonging  to  each  lab- 
oratory, the  science  department  should  have  a “ science 
warehouse  ” or  storage  room  where  reserve  supplies 
and  material  infrequently  used  could  be  kept.  Such  a 
storage  room  could  be  in  the  basement  or  attic,  though 
it  is  more  convenient  if  on  the  same  floor  with  the 
laboratories.  Experience  has  demonstrated  the  advan- 
tages of  such  a place.  When  the  greater  part  of  the 
experimental  work  of  a class  is  turned  over  to  the  class 
itself,  free  access  of  students  to  the  laboratory  store- 
room follows.  It  has  to  be  established  that  basic  labora- 
tory supplies  are  primarily  to  be  used,  not  kept ; and 
should  be  so  stored  as  to  be  both  safe  and  accessible,  if 
possible,  but  certainly  accessible.  But  while  a modern 
science  class  has  less  and  less  need  for  elaborate  and 
expensive  apparatus,  too  good  for  anyone  but  the  teacher 
to  handle,  there  still  remains  an  apparently  irreducible 
minimum  of  instruments  of  precision,  models  and  special 
pieces  occasionally  necessary,  which  cannot  be  left  to 
the  unsupervisecl  use  of  adolescents,  who  are  constitu- 
tionally careless  however  good  their  intentions.  Also, 
there  should  be  safely  stored  a surplus  stock  of  basic 
supplies,  upon  which  the  department  draws  as  needed. 

The  Menagerie. — 'Any  real  biology  class  enjoys 
working  with  living  material,  and  with  the  slightest 
encouragement  will  bring  it  in  quantity.  Such  material 
should  be  available  for  class  study  first,  and  then  housed 
on  the  school  grounds  for  further  enjoyment  and  work. 
This  calls  for  two  kinds  of  provision : first,  a “ me- 
nagerie ” within  the  classroom,  and  second,  an  “ out-door 
laboratory.”  The  “ menagerie  or  live-table  ” should 
be  so  placed  as  to  permit  of  free  observation.  It  should 
receive  only  north  light  and  not  too  much  of  that ; 
enough  for  growing  ferns  is  a rough  criterion.  It  should 


Mr.  H'wt.  13.  luncr.  Architect. 


THE  GENERAL  SCIENCE  AND  BIOLOGICAL  LABORATORIES 


395 


Mr.  Wm.  B.  Itlner,  Architect. 

Fig.  347.  — Physiology  Laboratory,  Grover  Cleveland  High  School,  St.  Louis,  Missouri. 


not  be  placed  near  radiators.  No  animal  can  be  expected 
to  live  under  cramped  and  noisy  limitations  very  long, 
but  they  can  be  kept  long  enough  to  gratify  the  curiosity 
concerning  them  and  to  raise  a number  of  questions 
to  be  more  fully  answered  by  later  painstaking  study 
under  the  conditions  of  the  outdoor  laboratory.  The 
live-table  is  of  the  same  general  construction  as  that 
described  in  connection  with  the  general  science  labora- 
tory, but  should  be  somewhat  larger. 

The  Microscope.  — The  storage  and  distribution  of 
microscopes  is  a problem  upon  whose  correct  solution 
a good  deal  depends.  The  requirements  of  a good 
storage  place  are  (1)  freedom  from  dust  and  dampness, 
(2)  provision  for  keeping  each  microscope  separate 
from  its  neighbors,  to  avoid  injury  to  fine  adjustments 
and  lenses,  and  (3)  such  an  arrangement  as  will  obviate 
as  far  as  possible  the  danger  of  knocking  the  microscope 
against  anything  as  it  is  returned  to  its  place.  A 
microscope  is  heavy,  and  a blow  or  a fall  usually  necessi- 
tates an  expensive  trip  to  the  factory  for  repairs  and 
readjustments.  The  detail  of  the  case  “ H ” shows  a 
iesign  which  meets  these  requirements.  Separate  com- 
partments with  glass  doors,  within  a large  cabinet,  guard 
igainst  dust  and  moisture,  and  prevent  one  microscope 
iamming  another.  The  case  has  been  kept  low  enough 
;o  that  the  top  shelves  are  within  easy  reach  of  young 
People.  One  tier  of  compartments  has  been  made  wide 


enough  to  accommodate  the  binocular  type  of  micro- 
scopes, a few  of  which  should  be  found  in  every  well- 
equipped  laboratory.  It  is  not  wise  to  extend  the  com- 
partments to  the  floor,  as  it  has  been  found  that  handling 
the  microscopes  at  this  low  level  is  conducive  to  bumping 
and  jarring  of  instruments.  There  is  special  danger  of 
jamming  the  draw  tube  down  into  the  stage  as  the  micro- 
scope is  withdrawn  from  the  compartment  near  the 
floor.  Therefore  it  has  been  found  desirable  to  utilize 
the  space  below  a convenient  level  — about  3'  from  floor 
— - for  a series  of  small  drawers  in  which  microscope 
accessories,  collections  of  slides,  tools,  and  materials 
may  conveniently  be  stored. 

The  function  of  the  microscope  in  biological  teaching 
has  become  less  formal  and  more  incidental,  less  an  end 
in  itself  and  more  a means  to  better  vision.  To  fulfill 
this  purpose,  it  is  essential  that  the  instruments  be 
readily  available  to  individuals,  even  if  the  class  as  a 
whole  has  not  been  directed  to  use  them.  A system 
that  has  been  used  with  a good  deal  of  success,  indicated 
on  the  plan  of  the  biological  laboratory  (Figure  343), 
consists  in  placing  small  two-microscope  cases  between 
the  windows  near  the  tables  “A”  and  “ B.”  These 
cases  are  of  the  type  “ H ” described  above,  and  contain 
also  a small  drawer  for  accessories.  It  is  found  that  a 
few  of  these  readily  accessible  instruments  greatly  stimu- 
late the  use  of  the  microscope,  and  help  to  develop  in  the 


396 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


exceptionally  good  student  with  a definite  scientific 
bent,  a real  mastery  of  the  instrument.  The  tables  “A” 
need  no  further  description  than  can  be  obtained  from 
the  detailed  drawings  (Figure  342),  table  “A.”  No 
drawers  or  lockers  have  been  shown  under  the  students’ 
tables,  as  these  will  vary  with  local  conditions  and 
methods  of  conducting  the  laboratory.  At  the  rear  of 
the  room  are  placed  two  fume-hoods  (E)  with  sinks  and 
gas  connections.  Between  these  is  a cabinet  for  storage 
of  the  projection  apparatus  and  its  accessories. 

Bacteriology.  — In  all  modern  work  in  high  school 
biology  the  emphasis  on  civic  interests  has  brought 
forward  very  prominently  the  subject  of  bacteriology. 
For  any  intelligent  comprehension  of  bacteria  and  their 
ways  of  living,  actual  individual  experimentation  is 
indispensable,  and  facilities  for  this  must  be  provided 
in  the  laboratory.  Sterilizing  may  be  carried  on  in 
Arnold  steam  sterilizers  and  pressure  cookers,  but  to 
insure  the  growth  of  the  organisms  an  incubator  (I  in 
Figure  341)  must  be  available.  This  should  be  of  the 
electric  type,  and  should  be  placed  in  a sheltered  recess, 
easily  accessible  to  the  class. 

The  Outdoor  Laboratory.  — The  “ outdoor  labora- 
tory ” (Figure  345)  is  an  indispensable  adjunct  to  the 
equipment  necessary  for  a satisfactory  study  of  biology 
in  secondary  schools.  Field  trips,  excursions,  home 
projects,  while  highly  desirable  and  very  useful,  cannot 
take  the  place  of  proper  outdoor  provision  on  the  school 
grounds  for  practical  biological  work.  In  cold  climates 
a greenhouse  is  a necessity,  and  even  in  California  it  is  a 
decided  advantage.  This  “ outdoor  laboratory  ” has 
been  designed  to  meet  the  universal  human  interest  in 
living,  growing  things,  and  to  provide  simple  facilities 
for  the  wealth  of  experimental  work  which  classes  if 
given  this  opportunity  will  suggest  and  perform.  It 
is  of  far  greater  usefulness  and  importance  than  any 
indoor  laboratory,  and  where  both  cannot  be  afforded, 
provision  should  certainly  be  made  for  the  outdoor  one 
first.  There  might  be  almost  indefinite  extension  of  the 
plan,  but  there  should  be  no  reduction  below  the  mini- 
mum here  shown. 

The  conservatory,  the  tool-houses,  and  the  work- 
benches need  no  further  description  than  the  plans  afford. 
The  experimental  plots  should  have  some  growing  trees 
and  shrubs,  which  will  become  more  and  more  an  asset 
with  time.  Hardy  berry  vines,  such  as  blackberry, 
loganberry,  etc.,  and  shrubs,  such  as  currant,  gooseberry, 
and  ornamental  shrubs  suited  to  the  locality,  should  be 
planted  around  the  border  of  the  plots.  These  will 
furnish  excellent  material  for  practice  in  plant  propaga- 


tion and  opportunity  for  fighting  of  pests.  Toward  the 
far  end  of  the  laboratory,  shrubbery  should  be  massed 
to  make  a protected  corner  for  the  pool,  the  rabbit 
hutches,  and  the  aviary.  The  pool  should  be  large 
enough  to  support  a considerable  variety  of  aquatic 
life,  and  if  nothing  else  in  the  whole  plot  can  be  secured, 
the  pool  by  all  means  should  be  built  and  maintained. 
It  is  a world  in  little  for  the  biologist,  never  the  same  two 
months  or  even  weeks  in  succession,  an  inexhaustible 
source  of  fascinating  material. 

The  aviary  should  be  octagonal  in  form,  four  of  its 
sides  and  the  roof  being  built  solid  to  protect  the  birds 
from  penetrating  winds  and  weather,  and  the  other  four 
sides  of  sunny  exposure  should  be  covered  with  half- 
inch mesh  galvanized  poultry  wire.  The  floor  must  be 
made  rat-proof.  A shrub  or  small  tree  growing  within 
its  walls  is  a very  desirable  addition.  Drinking  foun- 
tains, feeding  troughs,  and  nesting  boxes,  all  furnish 
opportunity  for  student  construction.  Rabbit  hutches, 
which  may  be  used  for  other  small  rodents,  also,  may  well 
be  placed  in  this  sheltered  part  of  the  plot;  in  cold 
climates  they  will  need  to  be  provided  with  warm 
quarters. 

Around  the  pool  and  near  the  aviary,  concrete  benches 
will  provide  a place  for  embryo  naturalists  to  loaf.  The 
entire  “ outdoor  laboratory  ” should  be  surrounded 
by  a dog-proof  and  boy-proof  fence,  with  a gate  that 
can  be  securely  locked.  It  would  be  desirable,  where 
feasible,  to  have  the  conservatory  adjoin  the  biological 
laboratory,  opening  out  from  it. 

In  schools  wdiere  agriculture  is  taught  extensively, 
a school  farm  should  be  available,  and  cooperative  use 
of  it  by  the  departments  of  agriculture  and  biology  will 
be  of  mutual  benefit.  Where  only  the  minimum  essen- 
tials of  agriculture  are  dealt  with,  the  “ outdoor  labora- 
tory ” could  be  used  by  the  two  sets  of  classes  and  to 
the  advantage  of  both.  Such  a plot  as  this  has  great 
value  in  making  concrete  the  suggestions  of  the  class- 
room work,  and  affords  an  opportunity  for  neighborhood 
demonstration  of  school  work. 

It  will  be  found  that  no  investment  a community7 
can  make  will  yield  better  returns  than  the  provision 
of  ample  and  modern  educational  facilities.  It  costs 
more  to  teach  by  means  of  laboratories  and  shops  than 
from  books,  but  it  is  worth  more.  Such  teaching  under 
the  best  conditions  pays  dividends  of  health,  initiative, 
and  resourcefulness,  of  hands  trained  to  execute  the 
fertile  conceptions  of  the  trained  minds ; it  leads  the 
school  out  into  the  community,  and  draws  the  com- 
munity into  the  school. 


CHAPTER  XX 


COMMERCIAL  DEPARTMENT 

By  Reginald  R.  Stuart,  Principal  Oakland  Technical  Continuation  High  School,  Oakland,  California 

Functions.  Educational  Experimental  Laboratories.  Relation  to  the  School  in  General.  Location  in  Plant.  Organization  of 
Department.  Heads  of  Department,  Duties,  etc.  First  Floor  Plan.  Department  Offices.  Filing  System.  Psychological  Tests. 
Placement  Bureau.  Keys.  Auxiliary  Telephone  Switchboard.  School  Bank,  Functions.  School  Bank,  Organization  and  Equip- 
ment. School  Store.  Supplies.  Advertising  and  Salesmanship.  Continuation  Courses.  General  and  Specialty  Salesmanship. 
Model  Shop  Window.  Junior  Chamber  of  Commerce.  Office  Training.  Job  Records.  Student  Secretaries.  Principals’  Secre- 
taries. Bookkeeping.  Farm  Accounting.  Household  Accounts.  Office  Practice.  Bookkeeping  Desks.  Maximum  Use  of 
the  Plant.  Continuation  School.  Evening  School.  Typing.  Typing  Desk.  St.  Louis  Typing  Room.  Typewriters,  Care 
and  Repairs.  Calculating  Appliances.  Second  Floor  Plan.  Teachers’  Offices.  Stenotypy,  Radio,  etc.  Typewriters,  Selec- 
tion. Commercial  Geography.  Laboratory  Material.  Filing  Equipment.  Commercial  Exhibits.  Recitation  Rooms.  Modifi- 
cations of  Plan.  Standardized  Plan,  New  York  City. 


Functions.  — The  primary  functions  of  the  commer- 
cial department  of  the  high  school  are  to  offer  specific 
training  for  stenographers,  bookkeepers,  store  workers, 
and  clerical  assistants ; to  afford  a fundamental  training 
in  such  drill  subjects  as  penmanship,  rapid  calculation, 
and  business  forms  that  will  meet  the  needs  of  the 
student  in  his  capacity  as  an  average  citizen ; and  to 
be  most  essential  to  the  man  or  woman  who  is  to  play 
any  important  part  in  the  reconstruction  and  post- 
bellum  periods. 

Aside  from  these  primary  functions  which  the  commer- 
cial department  fulfills,  no  institution  can  neglect  or 
ignore  the  many  secondary  possibilities  which  may 
accrue  from  a progressive  business  department.  Among 
others  may  be  mentioned  the  following : stenographic 
assistance  for  both  administrative  officers  and  instructors, 
valuable  help  in  dealing  with  the  large  number  of  student 
activities  involving  bookkeeping  principles,  and  many 
other  functions  which  will  be  considered  later  in  this 
chapter. 

Educational  Experimental  Laboratories.  — - The  com- 
mercial departments  of  the  past  have  been  experimental 
laboratories,  to  a considerable  extent,  in  which  educa- 
tional ideals  have  been  practically  tried  out.  A number 
of  accepted  and  acceptable  educational  theories  have 
been  developed  and  proved  in  the  commercial  depart- 
ments of  the  country.  This  reason  should  influence 
the  administrative  officers  both  in  the  selection  of  the 
right  type  of  director  for  this  department  and  the 
arrangement  of  classrooms  and  equipment. 

The  war  has  forever  changed  the  position  of  the  schools 
in  this  country.  Whether  we  will  it  or  not,  the  schools 


must  now  play  a more  positive  and  important  part  in 
the  immediate  life  of  the  community  in  which  they  are 
located.  Probably  no  other  department  offers  as  great 
an  opportunity  by  being  so  closely  linked  up  with  the 
community  life  as  does  the  commercial.  This  again 
should  influence  both  the  personnel  and  the  architecture 
of  the  department. 

The  plan  outlined  is  for  a commercial  department 
in  a high  school  having  a registration  of  approximately 
2500  students.  A well-developed  department  in  a 
school  of  this  size  will  require  not  fewer  than  1 5 instruc- 
tors. Appropriate  modifications  of  the  plan  are  given 
for  a school  with  an  enrollment  of  1200  with  8 commer- 
cial instructors  and  for  a school  of  approximately  300 
with  a single  business  teacher.  These  types  will  repre- 
sent in  a fairly  accurate  manner  equitable  and  propor- 
tionate distribution  of  students  in  the  commercial  work. 

Relation  to  the  School  in  General.  — In  the  past,  it 
was  customary  to  place  the  commercial  department 
at  the  very  outskirts  of  the  school  plant.  In  many 
schools,  commercial  departments  are  still  housed  in 
temporary  buildings,  in  basements,  or  in  almost  any 
place  not  desired  by  some  other  department  of  the 
school.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  the  various  class- 
rooms for  business  subjects  scattered  in  almost  as  many 
parts  of  the  plant  as  there  are  classes.  This  unfortunate 
condition  is  due,  no  doubt,  to  the  rather  recent  develop- 
ment of  commercial  work  in  the  high  schools  and  to  the 
further  fact  that  administrative  officers  have  not  always 
been  quick  to  appreciate  the  benefits  which  might  accrue 
to  the  entire  institution  by  having  this  department  more 
fortunately  placed. 


397 


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COMMERCIAL  DEPARTMENT 


399 


Location  in  Plant.  — If  possible,  the  commercial 
department  should  be  located  very  near  the  center 
of  the  plant  and  in  close  connection  with  the  adminis- 
trative offices.  This  arrangement  will  make  it  possible 
for  the  commercial  department  to  supplement  the 
regular  clerical  help  in  the  administrative  offices  and 
permit  of  the  development  of  a workable  plan  to  handle 
the  stenographic  and  clerical  work  for  department  heads 
and  teachers  of  the  entire  school.  In  addition  to  these 
advantages,  it  will  be  found  that  many  features  of  the 
modern  high  school  which  are  of  a quasi-administrative 
nature,  such  as  the  school  bank,  the  bookstore,  student 
body  accounts,  junior  chamber  of  commerce,  and  the 
like,  will  function  more  efficiently  as  an  integral  part  of 
this  department,  and  should  be  of  necessity  centrally 
located. 

Organization  of  Department.  — An  efficient  organiza- 
tion for  a department  of  15  teachers  calls  for  a depart- 
ment head,  two  assistant  heads,  and  12  regular  instruc- 
tors. The  head  of  the  department  should  have  at  least 
one-half  of  his  time  available  for  supervision  work  in  the 
department  and  for  promotion  and  investigation  work 
in  the  community.  The  assistants  should  carry  full 
time  schedules.  They  should  be  assigned,  however, 
to  organize  and  supervise  the  office  training  work  and  the 
various  activities  for  which  this  department  is  held 
responsible. 

Heads  of  Departments.  Duties,  etc.  — The  depart- 
ment head  should  be  held  responsible  for  the  general 
organization  of  the  department  and  for  specific  super- 
vision of  all  subjects  of  a general  commercial  nature, 
such  as  industrial  geography,  commercial  law,  foreign 
and  domestic  trade,  and  the  like.  It  is  quite  advisable, 
also,  for  the  department  head  to  be  in  direct  charge  of 
the  placement  bureau  of  the  school.  One  assistant 
should  be  responsible  for  the  supervision  of  all  work 
which  enters  into  the  training  of  secretarial  assistants, 
while  the  other  will  be  in  charge  of  all  work  leading  to 
bookkeeping  and  accounting  positions.  After  the  office 
training  work  and  the  school  activities  are  well  organized, 
each  assistant  will  find  considerable  time  available  which 
may  be  used  in  the  supervision  of  his  respective  division. 

Of  course,  in  certain  high  schools,  it  may  be  found 
advisable  to  alter  the  assignment  of  duties  of  the  depart- 
ment head  and  his  assistants.  The  department  head 
may  be  much  better  fitted  to  direct  and  supervise 
stenographic  training,  or  the  work  embraced  in  the 
bookkeeping  division,  than  the  more  general  work  out- 
lined in  the  preceding  paragraph.  This  will  often  happen 
in  schools  in  which  the  commercial  department  has  been 
established  for  some  time  and  was  organized  primarily 
as  a competing  feature  with  the  local  business  college. 
It  is  well  to  emphasize  the  importance,  nevertheless, 


that  the  department  head  should  be  a man  of  vision, 
alive  to  the  needs  of  his  community,  and  in  perfect 
harmony  with  the  rather  urgent  forces  which  are,  at 
present,  altering  our  school  system. 

To  secure  maximum  results,  no  department  head 
should  fail  to  recognize  the  desirability  of  organizing 
the  department  in  such  a manner  that  the  development 
of  initiative  on  the  part  of  the  teachers  will  be  encouraged. 
In  other  words,  the  wise  director  will  endeavor  to  fore- 
stall such  criticism  as  is  sometimes  made  of  him  by  his 
teachers : 

“ Only  ideas  which  originate  from  headquarters  are 
valuable.” 

“ It  is  simply  my  duty  to  follow  directions  and  say 
nothing.” 

So  many  activities  may  be  correlated  with  this  depart- 
ment that  the  tactful  director  will  have  little  difficulty 
in  assigning  special  problems  to  each  instructor  in  his 
corps.  In  some  instances  this  feature  is  likely  somewhat 
to  affect  the  architectural  arrangement,  in  others  require 
additional  equipment,  and  in  still  other  cases  call  for 
alterations  in  the  daily  program.  Its  advantage,  how- 
ever, in  keeping  up  the  esprit  de  corps  is  well  worth  the 
additional  effort. 

Figures  348  and  349  are  floor  plans  showing  a desirable 
arrangement  in  the  commercial  department  for  a large 
high  school  of  2000  or  more  students. 

First  Floor  Plan.  — Following  out  the  ideas  already  out- 
lined, the  first  floor  plan  (see  Figure  348)  should  include 
the  offices  of  the  department  head  and  his  assistants, 
closely  connected  with  the  office  training  and  student 
activities  headquarters,  the  advertising  and  salesmanship 
classroom,  two  typing  rooms,  two  bookkeeping  rooms, 
and  a machine  calculating  room.  The  plan  calls  for  a 
rather  extensive  delegation  of  student  body  activities 
to  this  department,  but  by  no  means  a complete  assign- 
ment. The  relative  personnel  of  the  commercial  depart- 
ment as  compared  with  other  departments  of  the  school 
should  be  the  governing  factor  in  making  the  alignment 
of  activities  by  the  principal.  It  is  believed,  however, 
that  the  plan  submitted  is  workable  for  the  average 
high  school. 

Department  Offices.  Filing  System.  Psychological 
Tests.  — - The  office  of  the  head  of  the  department  is 
located  near  the  main  entrance  of  the  building,  and  a 
side  door  connects  it  with  the  advertising  and  salesman- 
ship room.  It  is  assumed  that  since  advertising  and 
salesmanship  are  subjects  of  more  recent  adoption  than 
the  other  technical  work,  the  department  head  will 
find  it  desirable  to  supervise  these  classes  personally. 
This  office  will  be  the  headquarters  for  all  records 
collected  from  time  to  time  by  the  department  head  and 
his  assistants  and  should  be  provided  with  ample  filing 


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COMMERCIAL  DEPARTMENT 


401 


facilities.  Probably  no  other  department  in  the  school 
affords  a better  field  for  the  inauguration  of  psychological 
testing  than  does  the  commercial.  The  director  of 
experimental  psychology  will,  therefore,  welcome  an 
opportunity  to  cooperate  with  the  commercial  teachers 
in  initiating  this  important  work  in  the  school.  It  is 
needless  to  say,  however,  that  such  records,  while  avail- 
able for  the  various  teachers,  should  never  be  open  for 
the  inspection  of  students.  Incidentally,  it  would  seem 
that  the  ideal  place  to  keep  such  records  for  convenience 
and  availability,  should  be  in  the  offices  of  the  various 
heads  of  departments  rather  than  in  the  main  adminis- 
trative offices  of  the  school. 

Placement  Bureau.  — As  Director  of  the  Placement 
Bureau,  the  department  head  should  have  outside 
listed  telephone  connections,  as  well  as  connections  with 
the  local  telephone  exchange  of  the  school.  Other 
equipment  which  should  be  found  in  this  office  in- 
cludes two  flat-top  desks,  typewriter  and  stand,  a dic- 
tating machine,  an  adding  machine,  and  a half-dozen 
chairs. 

Keys.  — Aside  from  the  outside  telephone,  the  equip- 
ment of  the  offices  for  the  assistant  heads  will  be  approxi- 
mately the  same  as  for  the  department  head.  In  the 
office  of  the  assistant  head  for  accounting,  the  filing  room 
gives  place  to  a key  room  in  which  keys  for  every  locker 
and  room  throughout  the  building  are  kept.  It  will 
usually  be  found  advantageous  to  have  keys  for  labora- 
tories or  students’  desks  handled  by  the  heads  of  the 
respective  departments.  Whether  keys  are  kept  in  the 
main  administrative  offices  or  in  the  commercial 
department,  will  depend  upon  two  factors : first,  the 
amount  of  clerical  help  maintained  in  the  administra- 
tive department,  and  second,  the  policy  of  the  school 
authorities  regarding  the  use  of  student  help  for  such 
activities.  High  school  principals  recognize  that  not 
one  school  in  a hundred  has  provided  for  any  plan  to 
handle  keys  and  locker  deposits  in  a safe  and  satisfactory 
way.  With  this  plan,  however,  the  responsibility  is 
certain.  No  one  comes  in  contact  with  the  keys  except 
the  assistant  head,  and  the  advanced  student  who  is 
ielegated  to  handle  this  particular  problem. 

Auxiliary  Telephone  Switchboard.  In  the  office 
the  assistant  head  for  secretarial  training,  this 
;pace  is  used  to  house  an  auxiliary  telephone  switch- 
board which  may  take  over  the  entire  telephone  system 
)f  the  building  by  special  arrangement  with  the  main 
)ffice.  Business  men  offer  more  criticisms  of  high 
school  students  because  of  lack  of  training  in  the  proper 
lse  of  the  telephone  than  in  almost  any  other  single 
hing.  This  arrangernent  does  not  throw  the  entire 
esponsibility  of  maintaining  the  exchange  continuously 
in  the  department,  but  makes  it  possible  to  use  this 


convenience  and  equipment  as  long  as  real  educational 
training  may  be  developed. 

School  Bank.  Functions.  — The  functions  of  the 
school  bank  are  three-fold.  It  should  be  the  organiza- 
tion whose  duty  it  is  to  carry  on  a definite  campaign  of 
thrift  and  saving  among  the  students.  It  should  become 
the  financial  center  of  the  school  and  as  such  should 
handle  ticket  sales  for  all  entertainments,  student  body 
fees,  etc.  It  should  offer  an  invaluable  office  training 
for  a limited  number  of  accounting  students  who  are 
preparing  for  positions  in  banking  institutions. 

School  Bank.  Organization  and  Equipment.  — 
Statutes  in  many  of  the  states  limit  the  activities  of 
school  banks  to  savings  accounts.  In  states  where 
this  restriction  is  not  placed  on  its  activities,  a fourth 
function  should  be  the  commercial  or  checking  depart- 
ment, which  will  be  generally  patronized  by  both  teachers 
and  students.  The  school  bank  should  always  be 
authorized  by  the  proper  state  officials,  as  well  as  by 
the  local  school  authorities.  It  is  almost  always 
affiliated  with  one  of  the  larger  banking  institutions 
of  the  city,  and  the  close  relations  which  are  thus  formed 
will  work  to  a better  mutual  understanding  of  the  prob- 
lems of  both  school  and  bank. 

Two  entrances  to  the  lobby  of  the  bank  are  provided. 
This  plan  will  make  the  handling  of  a large  number  of 
students,  as  e.g.,  the  payment  of  student  body  dues,  a 
relatively  simple  problem  by  routing  them  in  one  door 
and  out  the  other.  Ample  writing  space  should  be  pro- 
vided in  the  lobby.  An  iron  grill  or  glass  partition 
isolates  the  section  reserved  for  the  bank  officials.  The 
plan  provides  for  an  entrance  to  this  space  through 
the  office  of  the  assistant  head  who  is  in  direct  charge 
of  this  activity. 

Equipment  should  include  counter  space  with  cash 
drawers  and  cabinets  for  supplies  underneath,  a Burroughs 
adding  machine,  typewriter,  a flat-top  desk,  check  pro- 
tector, and  a filing  unit  for  signature,  ledger,  and  state- 
ment cards. 

School  Store.  Supplies.  — As  a matter  of  conven- 
ience and  economy,  most  schools  will  find  it  desirable 
to  handle  the  books  and  supplies  required  by  students. 
Uniform  prices  and  standardized  supplies  can  be  assured 
in  this  way  with  little  difficulty.  By  a careful  arrange- 
ment of  the  program  it  will  not  be  found  necessary  to 
keep  the  store  open  for  more  than  two  periods  daily 
after  the  first  week  of  the  term.  The  school  store  should 
handle  all  stationery  supplies  furnished  by  the  board 
of  education  for  departments  and  teachers  of  the 
school  as  well.  Such  supplies  should  be  delivered  on 
requisitions  only.  It  will  prove  a relatively  simple 
problem  for  the  principal  or  department  head  to  deter- 
mine exactly  what  has  been  the  disposition  of  supplies  at 


402 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


the  end  of  the  school  year.  The  school  store  will,  therefore, 
not  only  make  standardization  of  prices  and  materials 
feasible  for  the  students,  but  furnish,  as  well,  the  data 
which  may  be  used  in  formulating  rules  to  govern  a 
reasonable  use  of  supplies  by  the  teachers. 

The  equipment  should  include  a counter  with  cabinets 
underneath,  together  with  shelving  on  three  sides  of  the 
room.  A desk  and  filing  case  should  be  located  in  the 
center  of  the  room.  A cash  register  should  be  used  to 
record  all  sales. 

It  may  be  thought  that  the  room  is  too  small  to  handle 
supplies  for  a school  of  2500  students.  However,  if  the 
room  is  used  merely  as  the  distributing  point  for  supplies 
and  a storeroom  for  additional  material  kept  in  the 
basement,  it  will  be  found  entirely  satisfactory. 

Advertising  and  Salesmanship.  Continuation  Courses. 
— The  desirability  of  offering  strong  courses  in  adver- 
tising and  salesmanship  can  be  readily  appreciated  when 
it  is  realized  that  many  more  students  will  follow 
some  line  of  selling  than  will  go  into  stenographic  or 
bookkeeping  positions.  Heretofore,  little  attention  has 
been  given  these  important  subjects  in  the  high  school. 
It  is  probably  true  that  the  commercial  department 
will  always  be  concerned  more  with  secretarial  training 
than  with  selling.  This  is  true  because  many  sales- 
people enter  this  work  from  the  grade  schools  rather 
than  from  the  high  school.  Nevertheless,  the  tendency 
of  modern  education  is  to  keep  the  boy  and  girl  at  their 
studies  as  long  as  possible.  Consequently,  school 
systems  are  extending  their  training  to  include  work 
which  has  been  given,  heretofore,  chiefly  in  the  trade 
itself.  If  the  school  building  is  located  near  the  business 
district  — particularly  the  retail  section  — - a plan  of  co- 
operation usually  can  be  worked  out  with  department 
store  managers  for  the  loan  of  material  for  the  study 
of  textiles  and  window  dressing ; for  the  training  of  em- 
ployees in  continuation  classes  on  the  employers’  time ; 
and  for  a systematic  placement  and  follow-up  system 
of  all  students  who  enter  this  work. 

Oakland  Technical  Continuation  High  School 
Job  No.  264.  Date,  Jan.  10,  igig 

Miss  (A) 

Please  furnish  stenographic  assistance  as  follows : 


Amount 

Items 

Rate 

Value 

Multigraph  copies  as  per  sample 

25 

Line  composition 

40 

$1.00 

500 

Sheets  medium  bond 

2.00 

Printing 

3.00 

Cost  of  material,  $2.00.  Labor,  $4.00.  Total  . 

6.00. 

Teacher  Mr.  (B),  Department  English. 


Fig.  350.  — Order  Blank  for  Stenographic  Book. 


General  and  Specialty  Salesmanship.  — Aside  from 
this  course  in  retail  selling,  which  may  be  labeled  “ de- 
partment store  selling,”  “ merchandising,”  or  some 
other  appropriate  term,  a class  in  business  psychology, 
which  may  be  called,  “ general  and  specialty  salesman- 
ship,” should  be  offered  as  a free  elective.  This  work 
will  prove  most  beneficial  as  a part  of  any  student’s 
general  training.  A suggestion  should  be  offered,  per- 
haps, that  a rather  full  outline  of  this  course  ought 
to  be  presented  to  the  school  authorities  for  indorse- 
ment, in  order  that  it  may  not  be  built  on  selling  tricks 
and  questionable  business  practices. 

Model  Shop  Window.  - The  room  is  located  next 
to  the  head  of  the  department  in  order  that  this  work 
may  receive  his  personal  supervision.  A platform 
should  be  placed  at  the  front  of  the  room  for  staging 
demonstration  sales.  A panel  of  burlap  should  extend 
around  the  room,  or  some  other  provision  be  made  for 
the  suitable  display  of  typical  advertising  material.  A 
model  shop  window  should  be  constructed  in  the  wall 
next  to  the  corridor.  The  class  in  window  dressing 
will  find  little  difficulty  in  securing  the  cooperation  of 
merchants  in  the  vicinity  in  arranging  typical  displays, 
while  in  the  case  of  “ drives  ” for  the  Red  Cross,  or  other 
charitable  or  patriotic  projects,  most  appropriate  use 
can  be  made  of  the  window  in  staging  a novel  and 
effective  appeal  to  the  entire  student  body.  The 
location  of  this  room  near  the  center  of  the  plant  will 
greatly  enhance  its  advertising  value.  Aside  from  the 
occasional  use  which  can  be  made  of  the  window  to 
aid  in  promoting  school  activities,  its  location  on  the 
main  corridor  is  fortunate,  because  the  approval  or 
lack  of-  approval  of  displays  by  the  students  who  pass 
the  window  offers  a most  desirable  incentive  to  the  class 
in  window  dressing. 

Junior  Chamber  of  Commerce.  — - This  room  may  be 
used  quite  appropriately  by  the  junior  chamber  of  com- 
merce as  its  official  headquarters.  In  fact,  this  organiza- 
tion should  be  solicited  to  provide  material  for  displays 
covering  the  products  of  the  section. 

Office  Training.  — Office  training  is  here  intended  to 
include  the  opportunities  afforded  the  student  to  do 
actual  stenographic  or  secretarial  work.  This  is  a most 
important  part  of  his  education  and  provision  should  be 
made  accordingly.  Aside  from  the  advantages  which 
the  student  himself  derives,  office  training  affords  an 
excellent  opportunity  to  aid  materially  almost  even’ 
department  and  teacher  of  the  entire  school.  In  fact, 
it  is  obvious  that  every  teacher  in  the  modern  high 
school  has  considerable  stenographic  work  which  must 
be  done.  He  must  either  do  it  himself  or  have  steno- 
graphic assistance  at  his  disposal.  Economy  and  effi- 
ciency should  show  the  fallacy  of  requiring  teachers  to 


COMMERCIAL  DEPARTMENT 


403 


Fig.  351.  — Bookkeeping  Desks. 


do  any  considerable  amount  of  clerical  work  themselves. 
The  director  for  secretarial  training  should  develop 
a course  which  while  being  of  practical  assistance  to  the 
school  in  general,  is  truly  progressive  and  educational 
for  the  students  themselves. 

Job  Records.  Student  Secretaries.  — All  work 
handled  by  office  training  students  must  be  approved 
by  the  instructors  and  a definite  record  kept,  which  shows 
the  nature,  amount,  and  commercial  value  of  each  job, 
the  name  of  the  party  for  whom  the  work  was  done, 
and  the  estimated  cost  of  materials  used.  Figure  350 
shows  a satisfactory  job  card.  By  direction  of  the 
instructor,  student  secretaries  may  be  appointed  to 
assist  teachers  or  school  officials  when  the  work  warrants 
it.  The  work  of  student  secretaries  must  be  carefully 
supervised  in  order  that  it  may  be  of  real  educational 
value.  The  instructor  may  find  it  advisable  to  outline 
briefly  the  work  which  should  be  expected  of  these 
students. 

A plan  which  has  worked  satisfactorily  in  a number 
of  schools  is  to  install  dictating  machines  in  various  parts 


of  the  school  plant  for  use  of  teachers  and  officials.  The 
“ filled  ” records  are  sent  to  the  office  training  room  for 
transcription.  This  plan  permits  of  stenographic  assist- 
ance at  all  hours  of  the  day  or  night. 

Principals’  Secretaries.  — Advanced  stenographic 
students  from  the  various  high  schools  of  Oakland,  Cali- 
fornia, are  appointed  by  the  superintendent  of  schools 
to  positions  as  principals’  secretaries  in  the  larger  grade 
schools  of  the  city.  These  students  receive  both  school 
credit  and  a nominal  compensation  for  their  services. 

The  room  should  be  equipped  with  a power  mimeo- 
graph, multigraph,  addressograph,  dictaphones,  and 
ample  filing  cases.  The  location  of  the  telephone 
exchange  in  the  adjoining  room  makes  this  switchboard 
a part  of  the  office  training  equipment. 

Bookkeeping.  Farm  Accounting.  Household 
Accounts.  — Bookkeeping  should  always  form  an  im- 
portant part  of  the  commercial  training  in  any  high  school . 
The  location  of  the  school  should  determine  to  a large 
extent  the  particular  applications  of  bookkeeping  prin- 
ciples which  will  be  made  in  the  more  advanced  work.  In 


404 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Mr.  John  J.  Donovan , Architect. 

Fig.  352.  — Bookkeeping  Department,  Oakland  Technical  High  School,  Oakland,  California. 


other  words,  farm  bookkeeping  should  form  a con- 
siderable part  of  the  course  in  rural  high  schools.  In  the 
same  way,  departments  enrolling  a large  number  of 
girls  should  offer  applications  of  the  principles  of  book- 
keeping in  household  accounts.  Nothing  develops 
interest  and  enthusiasm  as  rapidly  as  a realization  that 
the  school  work  is  directly  applicable  to  the  problems 
of  life.  It  should  be  perfectly  obvious  that  such  direct 
applications  to  everyday  problems  will  not  only  interest 
the  students,  but  will  create  a favorable  attitude  of 
cooperation  on  the  part  of  the  parents  as  well. 

Bookkeeping.  Office  Practice.  — No  provision  has  been 
made  for  special  office  practice  as  developed  by  a number 
of  authors  of  bookkeeping  texts.  It  is  believed  that  the 
management  of  the  student  activities  outlined  will 
prove  an  even  more  valuable  training  than  the  made- 
to-order  work  to  which  reference  is  made.  If,  however, 
no  arrangement  is  made  to  assign  student  activities 
to  the  commercial  department,  then  it  should  prove 
most  valuable  to  have  provision  made  for  this  type  of 
office  practice. 


Bookkeeping  Desks.  — The  equipment  should  include 
the  regular  teacher’s  desk,  forty-five  students’  desks, 
ample  blackboard  space,  etc.  The  bookkeeping  desk 
suggested  (see  Figure  351)  offers  sufficient  space  for 
books  and  forms,  provides  for  two  inkwells,  and  affords 
drawer  accommodations  for  the  temporary  disposal 
of  superfluous  books  and  supplies  not  needed  in  this 
particular  recitation.  The  question  may  be  raised, 
should  provision  be  made  for  the  accommodation  of 
bookkeeping  outfits  of  the  students  in  the  desk  itself.  In 
determining  the  relative  value  of  purchasing  a desk 
with  ample  drawer  space  to  accommodate  all  the  students 
who  may  use  the  desk  during  the  day  (see  Figure  352b 
the  following  factors  should  enter  into  the  decision  : 

1.  The  maximum  use  to  which  the  plant  will  be 
placed. 

2.  The  relative  floor  space  of  the  two  desks. 

3.  The  relative  cost  of  the  desks. 

4.  The  relative  convenience  to  the  student  in  being 
able  to  store  his  supplies  in  the  desk  or  being  obliged  to 
carry  supplies  with  him  to  and  from  Iris  locker. 


COMMERCIAL  DEPARTMENT 


405 


Maximum  Use  of  the  Plant.  Continuation  School. 
Evening  School.  — At  the  present  time,  many  schools 
are  maintaining  classes  for  from  10  to  12  hours  daily, 
while  not  a few  operate  for  longer  periods.  Oakland, 
California,  Technical  High  School  opens  for  recitation 
in  the  regular  day  school  at  7 : 10  a.m.  Classes  con- 
tinue until  4 p.m.  However,  at  2:30  the  continuation 
school  opens  a large  number  of  adult  classes  in  rooms 
not  required  by  the  day  school  for  the  remainder  of  the 
afternoon.  These  classes  regularly  continue  until  4 : 40. 
At  5 o’clock,  supper  classes  begin  which  extend  to  the 
opening  of  the  evening  school  at  7 : 15.  While  a majority 
of  the  evening  school  classes  close  at  9:30,  a number 
continue  until  xo : 30.  In  other  words,  this  school 
operates  classes  for  more  than  15  of  the  24  hours.  For 
12  hours  daily  it  operates  to  its  capacity.  In  such  a 
school,  provision  must  be  made  to  handle  at  least  14 
forty-minute  periods  per  day.  Estimating  2 periods 
daily  for  each  bookkeeping  student,  accommodation 
must  be  made  for  at  least  7 students  per  desk. 

Figure  352  shows  a desk  of  seven  drawers,  one  drawer  of 
which,  if  not  required  as  a locker,  may  be  used  to  store 
temporarily  the  extra  books  of  the  student  while  reciting. 
This  desk  requires  50  per  cent  more  floor  space  than  the 
hrst  desk  shown.  With  the  first  desk,  it  will  be  easily 
possible  to  seat  45  students  in  the  bookkeeping  room. 
With  the  second  desk,  the  room  will  be  crowded  for 
more  than  30  students. 

It  is  believed  that  the  live  teacher  in  this  subject  can 
readily  organize  his  work  to  handle  the  forty-five  students 
assigned  to  each  room. 

The  first  cost  of  the  larger  desk  is  nearly  50  per  cent 
higher  than  the  one  recommended,  and  the  operating 
cost  per  pupil  is  increased  accordingly. 

Finally,  it  is  believed  that  ample  space  is  provided 
in  the  regular  students’  lockers  to  accommodate  all 
bookkeeping  outfits  and  supplies,  and  that  the  carrying 
of  such  material  to  and  from  lockers  will  not  prove  unduly 
burdensome. 

Extreme  care  should  be  exercised  in  locating  the 
bookkeeping  rooms  in  a most  favorable  position  with 
reference  to  the  light.  The  great  amount  of  writing 
and  ruling  required  in  this  subject  demands  ample  and 
well  regulated  lighting  facilities.  The  window  glass 
area  should  be  equivalent  to  not  less  than  20  per  cent 
of  the  floor  area  of  the  room. 

Typing.  — The  writer  judges  no  thesis  is  necessary 
to  convince  school  men  of  the  importance  of  typing  for 
commercial  students,  and  even  of  the  great  desirability 
of  throwing  the  subject  open  as  a free  elective  to  students 
of  the  entire  school.  The  world’s  business  to-day  speaks 
in  terms  of  typewritten  characters.  Every  man  and 
woman  in  business  or  profession  uses  the  typewriter. 


The  only  question  involved  is  whether  the  expenditure 
of  an  hour  a day  for  a year  is  too  great  an  outlay  for 
the  time  and  energy  saved  in  after  life.  Without  ques- 
tion every  high  school  boy  and  girl  should  operate  the 
typewriter  better  than  “ indifferently  well.” 

If  one  side  of  the  plant  fronts  on  a noisy  street,  it 
would  be  well  to  locate  the  typing  rooms  there,  since 
outside  disturbances  will  cause  less  inconvenience  in 
this  work  than  for,  say,  classes  in  shorthand. 

Typing  Desks.  — - Two  different  desks  are  again  shown. 
(Figures  353  and  354.)  Exactly  the  same  problem  is  in- 
volved as  in  the  bookkeeping  desk.  There  is  no  ques- 


Fk.  353.  — Typewriter  Desk. 


tion  that  the  smaller  desk  is  more  economical.  If 
the  smaller  desk  is  selected,  additional  desk  keys  are  not 
required,  and  the  amount  of  details  is  correspondingly 
lessened.  Typewriter  desks  should  have  three  drawers 
which  may  be  used  for  covers,  cleaning  tools,  and  cloths. 
Typewriter  companies  advise  against  the  bolting  of 
machines  to  the  desks.  The  ideal  arrangement  permits 
of  the  removal  of  the  machine  for  adjustment  or  for 
cleaning  the  desk. 

St.  Louis  Typing  Room.  — Figure  355  is  a view  in  the 
typing  room  of  the  Grover  Cleveland  High  School,  St. 
Louis,  Mo.  A special  type  of  drop-head  desk  is  used. 
It  is  doubtful  if  the  additional  expense  of  this  desk  is 
really  justified. 


406 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Mr.  John  J.  Donovan,  Architect. 


Fig.  354.  — Typing  Room,  Oakland  Technical  High  School,  Oakland,  California. 


Typewriters,  Care  and  Repair.  — A word  should  be 
said  about  the  extreme  wear  and  tear  to  which  a type- 
writer in  the  modern  large  school  is  subjected.  With 
from  four  to  ten  different  individuals  using  it  daily, 
practically  all  of  whom  are  novices,  the  strain  on  the 
machine,  even  under  careful  supervision,  is  many  times 
what  it  would  be  in  the  average  office.  It  is  advisable 
to  have  a repair  man  visit  the  department  regularly  to 
handle  difficulties  which  are  beyond  the  average  student. 
It  sometimes  happens  that  a boy  in  the  industrial  depart- 
ment may  be  assigned  to  handle  the  repair  work  as  a 
definite  part  of  his  shop  course.  Unless  closely  super- 
vised it  is  doubtful  if  this  plan  is  advisable. 

Calculating  Appliances.  — Quite  recently  the  call 
for  calculating  and  bookkeeping  machine  operators 
has  become  so  great  that  it  seems  probable  that  all 
large  schools  in  the  future  will  offer  instruction  on  these 
machines.  In  the  plan  shown,  a medium  sized  room, 
next  to  the  bookkeeping  classes,  is  left  for  this  work. 
Classes  in  advanced  bookkeeping  will  find  machines 
conveniently  located  for  their  use.  It  will  be  advisable 
to  have  only  a limited  number  of  students  become  fa- 


miliar with  the  operation  of  the  bookkeeping  machines. 
A survey  should  be  made  of  business  houses  in  the  com- 
munity to  determine  the  probable  demand  for  trained 
operators.  Regular  class  work  should  be  given  on  the 
comptometers  and  other  calculating  machines. 

Equipment  in  the  calculating  appliance  room  should 
include  comptometers,  non-listing  Burroughs,  an  Elliott- 
Fisher  Bookkeeping  Machine,  a Burroughs  Statement 
Machine,  Marchant  Calculators,  and  other  types  now 
in  common  commercial  usage.  Where  no  special  pedes- 
tal is  furnished  with  the  machine,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Elliott-Fisher  and  the  Burroughs  Statement  machine,  the 
desk  used  for  typing  is  recommended. 

Second  Floor  Plan.  — - The  second  floor  plan  (see 
Figure  349),  of  the  Commercial  Department  includes: 
offices  for  men  and  women  teachers,  two  small-sized 
rooms  which  may  be  used  for  radio,  Morse  telegraphy, 
stenotypy,  or  for  other  small  or  experimental  classes, 
five  recitation  rooms,  two  typing  rooms  and  a commercial 
geography  room.  Built-in  commercial  exhibit  cases 
are  arranged  throughout  the  corridors  as  in  the  first 
floor  plan.  Folding  glass  doors  are  located  between  the 


COMMERCIAL  DEPARTMENT 


407 


Mr.  Wm.  B.  inner.  Architect. 

Fig.  355.  — Typing  Room,  Grover  Cleveland  High  School,  St.  Louis,  Missouri. 


two  small  rooms  and  the  two  typing  rooms.  This 
arrangement  makes  it  possible  to  utilize  the  small  rooms 
for  standard  sized  classes  if  necessary.  It  also  makes  it 
possible  for  one  teacher  to  supervise  both  typing  rooms 
during  practice  typing  period. 

Teachers’  Offices.  — - The  assignment  of  these  offices 
will  depend  upon  the  relative  number  of  men  and  women 
instructors  in  the  department.  Under  ideal  conditions, 
the  number  should  be  about  equal.  A survey  of  a 
large  number  of  departments,  however,  shows  that 
there  are  approximately  60  women  instructors  to  every 
40  men  instructors  of  commercial  subjects.  If  the  plant 
is  used  to  its  maximum  capacity,  it  becomes  absolutely 
impossible  for  the  teacher  to  meet  pupils  in  her  class- 
room at  the  close  of  the  recitation.  Some  other  place 
must  be  provided  for  this  purpose.  An  office  with  a 
sufficient  number  of  desks  to  accommodate  the  teachers 
will  prove  reasonably  satisfactory.  The  trend  in  the 
educational  world  seems  to  lead  toward  a longer  school 
day  in  the  school  plant  itself.  The  actual  teaching  time 
may  not  be  extended,  but  a number  of  office  periods  will 
be  provided  to  afford  opportunity  for  the  counseling  of  stu- 
dents by  class  advisers.  These  periods  will  be  utilized  also 


in  completing  the  necessary  laboratory  and  preparatory 
work  incident  to  the  development  of  a successful  recita- 
tion. Necessary  locker  facilities  are  provided  in  each 
office. 

Stenotypy,  Radio,  etc.  — If  one  of  the  functions  of  the 
commercial  department  is  to  provide  an  educational 
experiment  ground,  then  provision  must  be  made  for 
satisfactory  “ laboratories  ” in  which  ideas  may  be 
thoroughly  tested.  If  after  sufficient  trial,  a project 
seems  not  adapted  to  meet  the  needs  of  a particular 
community,  it  can  be  readily  discontinued  and  some 
other  “ possibility  ” tried  out.  The  plan  whereby  these 
rooms  may  be  converted  into  regular  classrooms  with 
little  or  no  difficulty  aside  from  the  rearrangement  of 
equipment,  does  not  involve  either  a great  expense  or  an 
economic  risk. 

The  arrangement  in  the  typing  rooms  on  the  second 
floor  is  exactly  the  same  as  that  of  the  first  floor. 

Typewriters’  Selection.  — A word  might  be  added 
regarding  the  selection  of  makes  of  typewriters  and 
arrangement  in  the  rooms.  If  possible  a survey  should 
be  made  of  typical  business  institutions  of  the  com- 
munity. The  proportion  of  typewriters  purchased 


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should  be  about  the  same  as  the  survey  shows  in  use 
in  the  community.  The  arrangement  of  machines 
in  all  typing  rooms  should  be  identical  in  order  that 
classrooms  may  be  interchangeable. 

Commercial  Geography.  — The  geography  of  industry 
should  be  included  in  any  well-balanced  commercial 
course.  Eventually  this  subject  should  develop  for 
the  student  a set  of  principles  which  will  assist  him  in 
judging  the  relative  future  possibilities  of  both  indus- 
tries and  communities.  By  this  suggestion  the  writer 
does  not  have  in  mind  the  impossible  proposition  of 
turning  out  industrial  experts  or  municipal  planning 
specialists.  He  simply  recognizes  the  fact  that  one  of 
the  most  potent  causes  of  failure  is  a poor  selection 
for  the  location  of  a business.  Failure  may  happen 
either  because  the  business  is  not  adapted  to  the  com- 
munity in  which  it  is  located,  or  the  community  may  be 

I overstocked  with  that  particular  line. 

Laboratory  Material.  — If  the  course  is  a year  in 
length,  one  half  of  the  time  should  be  spent  in  a study 
of  local  industries,  while  the  other  half  should  be  given 
to  a consideration  of  the  world’s  commerce.  Since  text 
books  can  furnish  but  a small  amount  of  the  data  re- 
quired for  such  a course,  it  will  be  absolutely  important 
to  secure  a large  amount  of  original  material  from  the 
industries  of  the  section,  from  the  publicity  organiza- 
tions, and  from  state,  federal,  or  municipal  authorities. 
It  is  recognized  that  some  of  the  material  furnished  will 


be  more  or  less  colored  by  local  prejudices.  This  point 
is  rather  in  its  favor,  however,  since  the  student  in  mak- 
ing his  deductions  must  exercise  judgment  in  the  selec- 
tion of  data  which  he  will  use.  Most  of  the  material 
is  put  out  in  an  interesting  and  attractive  form.  The 
students  themselves  should  be  encouraged  to  collect 
the  material.  This  again  will  have  a tendency  to  link 
the  schools  up  more  closely  with  the  business  and 
industrial  life  of  the  community. 

A course  in  Foreign  and  Domestic  Trade  may  be  given 
to  seniors  or  continuation  school  students  in  this  same 
room. 

Filing  Equipment.  — If  original  material  is  to  be 
collected,  it  must  be  classified  and  filed  in  such  a manner 
as  to  make  it  available  for  constant  use  in  the  classroom. 
Cabinets  and  filing  cases  should  be  provided  for  this 
purpose.  Next  to  visiting  a plant  and  actually  seeing 
the  various  processes  in  the  manufacture  of  raw  material 
into  the  finished  product,  is  to  follow  the  same  processes 
by  means  of  appropriately  selected  lantern  slides.  Pro- 
vision should  be  made,  therefore,  for  a balopticon,  which 
handles  both  opaque  projections  and  lantern  slides.  A 
curtain  should  be  installed  at  the  front  of  the  room  and 
the  window  casings  constructed  in  such  manner  that 
the  room  may  be  easily  darkened.  Ordinary  desks 
which  will  permit  of  map  drawing  should  be  installed. 

Commercial  Exhibits.  — Exhibits  which  show  pro- 
cesses in  the  manufacture  of  industrial  products  should 


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SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


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15 


be  collected  for  study  by  the  students  in  commercial 
geography.  It  will  be  found  that  no  more  fascinating 
assignment  can  be  made  to  average  high  school  students 
than  to  secure  appropriate  collections  of  such  materials. 
Hundreds  of  excellent  exhibits,  such  as  silk,  cotton, 
rubber,  oil,  and  the  like,  may  be  readily  secured  from 
industrial  concerns.  The  location  of  the  commercial 
exhibit  cases  in  the  corridors  makes  all  of  these  exhibits 
available  for  the  entire  school. 

Recitation  Rooms.  — The  plan  calls  for  five  recita- 
tion rooms.  Each  room  should  be  furnished  with  35 
desks.  In  making  the  selection  of  desks  it  should  be 
kept  in  mind  that  considerable  writing  will  be  required 
of  the  students  using  these  rooms.  Among  other 
classes  which  will  be  assigned  are  the  following  : penman- 
ship, arithmetic,  rapid  calculation,  business  English, 
shorthand,  commercial  correspondence,  and  other  sub- 
jects requiring  no  special  equipment.  It  is  assumed 
that  the  subjects  named  are  so  well  recognized  as  form- 
ing a part  of  a symmetrical  commercial  course,  that 
individual  treatment  is  unnecessary. 

Modifications  of  Plan.  — Figure  356  shows  a modifica- 
tion of  the  plan  suitable  for  a medium-sized  high  school 
with  from  7 to  9 commercial  teachers.  The  office  of  the 
department  head  is  so  placed  that  he  can  supervise  the 
school  activities.  Approximately,  one-half  as  much 
space  is  allowed  for  typing  and  bookkeeping  as  in  the 
larger  plan.  Three  recitation  rooms  should  accommo- 


date work  offered  in  advertising,  salesmanship,  com- 
mercial law,  industrial  geography,  and  other  subjects 
requiring  no  special  equipment.  The  distinctive  features 
of  the  larger  plan  are  retained  in  this  modified  one. 
If  the  location  of  the  school  seems  to  warrant  the  ad- 
ditional expense,  one  of  the  recitation  rooms  may  be 
especially  arranged  to  handle  advertising,  salesmanship, 
a ad  industrial  geography.  This  may  readily  be  done  by 
combining  the  features  of  these  two  rooms  as  shown  in 
the  larger  plan. 

Figure  357  is  a modification  for  a one  teacher  depart- 
ment. The  essential  features  here  are  to  retain  as  many 
of  the  good  points  of  the  more  complex  arrangement  as 
possible,  and  yet  have  all  the  department  so  planned 
that  it  may  be  easily  supervised  by  one  instructor.  The 
two  small  offices  permit  of  practical  application  of  both 
the  stenographic  and  bookkeeping  office  training.  If  it 
is  planned  to  operate  very  small  classes  throughout 
the  entire  day,  the  typing  room  may  be  made  smaller. 
All  partitions  both  between  the  rooms  and  inclosing  the 
offices  should  be  made  of  glass. 

Standardized  Plans,  New  York  City.  — Figure  358 
shows  a plan  for  a small  department  in  an  elementary 
and  intermediate  school  as  worked  out  by  Mr.  C.  B.  J. 
Snyder,  Architect  for  the  New  York  City  Board  of 
Education.  Folding  glass  doors  between  the  rooms 
permit  of  the  supervision  of  both  classes  by  one  instructor. 
The  wardrobe  takes  the  place  of  student’s  lockers. 


CHAPTER  XXI 


THE  DRAWING  DEPARTMENT 

By  Ralph  C.  Sisson,  B.S.,  M.A.,  Instructor  in  Drawing,  Oakland  Technical  High  School,  Oakland,  California 

The  Drawing  Department. 

Elementary  and  Intermediate  Schools.  — Freehand  Drawing.  Mechanical  Drawing.  The  Danger  of  Beginning  Too  Early. 

The  High  School.  — The  Trend  of  High  School  Education.  General  Considerations.  Light.  Night  Lighting.  Wallcovering. 

The  Freehand  Department.  — The  Courses.  The  Equipment. 

The  Mechanical  Drawing  Department. — The  Courses.  The  Geometrical  Drawing  Room.  The  Trade  Drawing  Room.  The 
Technical  Drawing  Room. 

Some  Rooms  in  the  High  School. — Library,  Lecture  Room,  and  Study.  Offices.  Store  and  Blue  Print  Rooms.  Dark  Room. 

Summary. 


The  Drawing  Department.  — Drawing  is  the  one 
universal  means  of  expression.  An  object  may  be 
variously  labeled  in  the  written  or  spoken  language  of 
different  peoples,  but  the  same  object,  properly  drawn, 
finds  recognition  in  any  land.  This  is  true,  not  only 
of  pictorial  drawing,  but  also  of  the  working  drawings 
which  must  precede  the  making  of  any  article  or  the 
building  of  any  structure. 

In  this  country,  with  its  intense  development  of  con- 
structive activities,  the  need  for  general  instruction  in 
the  principles  of  drawing  is  becoming  apparent.  In 
the  realm  of  fine  art  America  is  just  beginning  to  find  a 
place,  and  the  rapidity  of  her  development  in  that 
direction  depends  upon  the  educated  appreciation  of 
the  people.  Advertising  has  risen  to  a place  of  supreme 
importance  in  the  business  world.  One  of  the  most 
important  elements  in  the  advertising  organization  is 
commercial  art,  a field  of  endeavor  that  offers  rich 
reward  to  those  who  enter  it.  It  calls  for  a study  of 
drawing,  composition,  and  color  in  addition  to  methods 
of  reproduction  and  psychology.  To  the  practical- 
minded  man,  it  represents  a kind  of  art  that  pays.  In 
the  rush  of  manufacturing,  into  which  this  country  is 
about  to  enter  as  a leading  nation,  mechanical  engineers 
and  draftsmen  will  be  in  great  demand.  It  is  these  men 
who  will  design  the  machinery  and  products  involved. 
The  mechanic  must  have  a knowledge  of  working  draw- 
ings to  enable  him  to  lay  out  and  perform  his  work 
properly.  What  is  true  of  manufacturing  is  also  true 
of  building.  Every  artisan  as  well  as  every  architect 
and  engineer  must  be  able  to  understand  and  work  from 
drawings.  Even  the  clients  should  have  an  understand- 
ing of  drawing  to  enable  them  to  know  that  they  are 
getting  what  they  want. 


Thus  it  is  seen  that  almost  no  one  escapes  the  need  of 
a study  of  the  principles  of  drawing.  For  this  reason, 
it  is  most  unfortunate  that  mechanical  drawing  should 
be  the  aristocrat  in  the  curriculum  of  our  public  schools. 
The  cost  of  good  instruments  is  so  great  as  to  be  beyond 
the  means  of  many  students,  while  the  cheaper  grades 
are  apt  to  prove  more  of  a handicap  than  a help.  In 
spite  of  the  difficulties,  school  ownership  of  instruments 
seems  to  be  the  only  solution  of  the  expense  problem.  If 
the  schools  are  able  and  willing  to  supply  shop  tools 
and  musical  instruments,  why  not  mechanical  drawing 
equipment  as  well? 

Two  schemes  have  been  tried  with  success.  One 
requires  a deposit  covering  the  cost  of  the  instruments. 
The  student  uses  the  set  during  the  term,  and  upon 
returning  it,  receives  his  deposit  minus  deductions  for 
breakage,  etc.  In  the  second  scheme,  the  student  signs 
for  a set  each  day,  returning  it  at  the  end  of  his  period. 
A smaller  deposit  is  required,  as  the  instruments  on  no 
occasion  leave  the  room.  This  scheme  requires  only 
one  third  to  one  quarter  as  many  sets  as  the  first,  for 
each  set  maybe  used  by  a number  of  students.  Again, 
the  instruments  will  be  kept  in  better  condition  and  last 
longer  because  of  the  inspection  at  the  end  of  each  period. 
The  disadvantages  of  the  scheme  are  that  a tool  room 
for  storage  of  instruments  is  necessary,  and  the  instructor 
or  a student  attendant  must  be  in  charge  at  the  beginning 
and  end  of  each  period  to  give  out  and  check  in  sets  of 
instruments.  The  student  inspects  the  instruments  he 
receives  to  see  that  they  are  in  good  condition,  and  the 
attendant  inspects  those  returned.  Of  course,  the  time 
thus  taken  is  lost  from  the  drawing  period,  and  six  min- 
utes a day  means  a loss  of  ten  hours  in  two  hundred  days 
for  each  student.  Students  who  can  afford  it  should 


412 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


be  encouraged  to  get  their  own  instruments,  but  some 
provision  should  be  made  for  those  who  are  not  so 
fortunate. 

Elementary  and  Intermediate  Schools.  Freehand 
Drawing.  — The  freehand  drawing  offered  in  the  ele- 
mentary schools  is  of  a very  informal  nature.  In  fact, 
the  subject  has  been  looked  upon  with  favor  because  it 
offered  an  opportunity  for  relaxation  from  the  strain  of 
more  formal  academic  subjects.  The  subject  matter 
is  chosen  with  the  purpose  of  interesting  the  student. 
Principles  of  perspective  developed  in  the  drawing  of 
cubes,  cylinders,  and  prisms  would  not  hold  the  interest 
of  young  minds ; so  furniture,  model  houses,  etc.,  involv- 
ing the  same  principles,  have  been  substituted.  A high 
degree  of  accuracy  cannot  be  expected  from  the  younger 
students,  and  consequently  the  less  exacting  natural 
forms,  such  as  flowers,  find  favor.  All  children  are  fond 
of  color  and  take  delight  in  its  use.  This  element  of 
interest  is  recognized  and  used  very  extensively. 

Since  the  teaching  of  elementary  school  drawing  is  not 
very  formal,  special  drawing  rooms,  while  desirable,  are 
not  absolutely  necessary.  In  fact,  in  the  crowding  that 
comes  with  the  growth  of  every  school,  it  is  the  tendency 
to  convert  all  special  rooms  not  working  full  time  into 
classrooms.  It  is  probably  better  to  arrange  a classroom 
so  that  it  can  be  used  for  drawing,  rather  than  to  lay  out 
a drawing  room  which,  when  the  conversion  comes,  may 
be  neither  a good  drawing  room  nor  a satisfactory  class- 
room. Such  a classroom  would  answer  all  requirements 
for  elementary  drawing,  including  even  the  lighting, 
since  very  little  study  of  light  and  shade  is  carried  on. 

Mechanical  Drawing.  — Mechanical  drawing  in  the 
elementary  school  has,  very  properly,  been  limited  to 
pencil  drawings,  mostly  of  the  simple  pieces  of  furniture, 
etc.,  which  are  made  in  the  manual  training  shops.  This 
drawing  is  usually  done  under  the  supervision  of  the 
manual  training  instructor.  The  equipment  necessary 
in  addition  to  that  of  the  manual  training  room  consists 
simply  of  a small  drawing  board,  T square,  and  triangles. 
The  manual  training  tables  serve  nicely  as  drawing  desks, 
and  additional  lockers  are  unnecessary. 

The  Danger  of  Beginning  Too  Early.  — There  is  a very 
natural  tendency  to  reach  back  and  offer  drawing  at 
the  earliest  possible  time.  This  tendency  is  the  result 
of  the  attempt  to  cover  a maximum  amount  of  ground 
in  the  period  given  for  the  education  of  the  average 
student.  The  idea  is  certainly  a praiseworthy  one,  but 
the  educator’s  zeal  in  that  direction  should  always  be 
tempered  by  a realization  of  the  danger  of  introducing 
a subject  before  the  child  has  reached  a maturity  suffi- 
cient to  deal  with  it.  While  the  danger  is  present  in 
both  the  freehand  and  mechanical  drawing,  it  is  more 
evident  in  the  latter.  The  mechanical  drawing  is 


extremely  popular  with  the  students,  and  it  is  essential 
to  any  serious  work  in  the  shops.  The  result  is  that  a 
subject  formerly  offered  in  the  universities  and  in  the 
fourth  year  of  the  high  schools  is  now  offered  in  the  second 
year  of  the  high  schools,  and  some  ambitious  manual 
training  teachers  would  introduce  the  same  subject  in  the 
seventh  and  eighth  grades  of  the  grammar  school.  It  is 
obvious  that  a grammar  school  student  cannot  master 
the  principles  of  geometry  necessary  in  geometrical  draw- 
ing. Again,  the  adolescent  child  is  growing  rapidly,  and 
his  muscular  action  is  almost  certain  to  be  erratic  ; work 
with  instruments  requiring  precision  and  the  use  of  ink 
would  prove  to  be  discouraging  and  useless.  The  time 
would  be  wasted,  and  standards  which  would  be  difficult 
to  raise  materially  later,  would  be  established.  The  stu- 
dent is  not  ready  for  geometrical  drawing  with  ink  until  his 
second  year  in  high  school.  Until  that  time,  his  drawing 
should  be  with  pencil  and  should  consist  of  the  simple 
working  designs  used  in  his  shop  work. 

The  High  School.  The  Trend  of  High  School  Educa- 
tion. — The  tendency  in  recent  years  has  been  strongly 
in  the  direction  of  vocational  education.  The  purely 
academic  school  of  yesterday  is  felt  to  cover  only  a 
portion  of  the  field  of  secondary  education ; in  conse- 
quence technical,  vocational,  and  trade  schools  and 
departments  are  being  organized  and  developed  to  cover 
the  remainder.  The  combination  of  the  vocational  or 
technical  school  with  the  academic  in  one  institution 
should  prove  one  of  the  greatest  forces  conceivable 
working  toward  a true  democracy.  There  are  a great 
many  difficulties  to  be  met  with,  and  it  is  probably  to 
the  smaller  communities  where  the  single  institution  is 
absolutely  necessary  that  we  must  look  for  the  successful 
solution  of  this  problem. 

Among  the  departments  most  directly  affected  by  this 
new  development  is  the  drawing  department.  But  a 
few  short  years  ago,  the  drawing  department  of  the 
largest  high  school  consisted  of  only  one  or  two  free- 
hand and  mechanical  drawing  rooms.  Generally  the 
freehand  teachers  taught  sewing,  and  the  mechanical 
drawing  teacher  filled  out  his  program  with  manual 
training,  mathematics  or  science.  To-day,  in  the  free- 
hand department,  courses  are  offered  in  commercial  art. 
show-card  writing,  art  metal  work,  pottery  making, 
bookbinding,  interior  decoration,  costume  design,  etc. 
The  student  completing  any  of  these  courses  has  no 
difficulty  in  finding  permanent  or  part  time  employment 
with  good  pay  in  the  local  business  houses.  All  the 
posters  advertising  school  activities,  such  as  plays  and 
liberty  loan  drives,  are  made  in  the  department,  as  are 
illustrations  and  decorations  of  the  school  papers  and 
magazines  which  may  be  printed  in  the  school  shops. 

In  the  mechanical  drawing  department,  the  student 


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may  now  add  to  his  course  in  geometrical  drawing  very 
complete  and  well-organized  courses  in  mechanical, 
architectural,  or  ship  drafting,  mapping,  etc.,  as  he  may 
elect.  These  courses  are,  generally  speaking,  based 
upon  the  apprentice  system  as  established  in  the  various 
trades  and  professions.  Local  conditions  and  demands 
for  labor  will  determine  largely  what  branches  of  ad- 
vanced mechanical  drawing  will  be  offered.  The  ad- 
vantages to  the  student  consist  of  a properly  organized 
and  complete  course,  increased  personal  supervision,  and 
the  opportunity  for  related  technical  studies. 

This  development  of  the  drawing  department  along 
vocational  lines  fills  a long-felt  need.  Not  only  does  it 
reduce  the  period  of  apprenticeship  for  the  student  whose 
schooling  must  stop  with  the  high  school,  but  it  provides 
a proper  foundation  for  the  study  of  design  should  the 
student  continue  his  studies  in  the  university  or  else- 
where. University  graduates  have  been  notoriously 
lacking  in  knowledge  of  working  drawings  and  simple 
detail,  and  it  is  just  here  that  the  technical  school  lays 
special  emphasis.  That  this  type  of  instruction  meets 
with  the  approval  of  the  outside  business  world  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  large  companies  and  corporations  have 
offered  to  take  on  any  student  who  completes  such  a 
course  with  the  recommendations  of  his  instructor. 

The  first  two  years  in  the  university,  up  to  the  present 
time,  have  been  looked  upon  as  a transitional  period 
during  which  the  student  was  expected  to  acquire  a new 
set  of  standards,  assimilate  the  traditions,  and  become 
accustomed  to  the  atmosphere  of  the  institution,  — find 
himself.  The  studies  in  these  two  years  are  largely  a 
matter  of  reviewing  and  finishing  subjects  taken  in  the 
high  school,  — in  the  engineering  college  such  subjects 
are  mathematics,  science,  drawing,  history,  and  lan- 
guages. What  engineer  or  architect  does  not  remember 
the  disappointment  that  was  his  upon  finding  his  first 
year  of  college  mathematics  and  science  was  simply  a 
thorough  review  of  his  high  school  work?  With  closer 
correlation  and  sympathy  established  between  the  high 
school  and  the  university,  there  seems  to  be  no  reason 
why  at  least  one  year  of  this  reviewing  period  could  not 
be  eliminated,  and  the  student  thus  enabled  to  begin 
his  professional  studies  immediately.  This  change  does 
not  mean  the  elimination  of  cultural  subjects,  but  rather 
increased  opportunity  for  them.  The  subject  of  voca- 
tional guidance  is  being  developed,  to  the  end  that  the 
student  should  be  enabled  to  find  himself  before  arriving 
at  the  university,  and  start  there  with  clear  and  definite 
ideas  as  to  his  future  career. 

General  Considerations.  — Before  discussing  separately 
the  various  units  of  the  drawing  department  it  would  be 
well  to  make  note  of  some  general  considerations  apply- 
ing to  all. 


For  both  freehand  and  mechanical  drawing  the  student 
requires  a considerably  greater  amount  of  floor  space 
than  in  the  classroom.  In  elementary  courses  the  ratio 
of  space  required  for  drawing  to  that  for  classrooms  will 
be  about  four  to  three  in  freehand  and  five  to  three  in 
mechanical  drawing.  These  ratios  will  increase  for 
advanced  classes.  The  arrangements  shown  in  the  il- 
lustrations (Figure  359)  of  elementary  freehand  drawing 
rooms  and  (Figure  360)  of  geometrical  drawing  rooms 
show  the  maximum  numbers  of  students  for  such  classes. 
The  instruction  in  drawing  classes  is  of  necessity  largely 
individual,  supplemented  at  more  or  less  definitely  fixed 
intervals  by  talks,  tests,  and  discussions,  progressively 
developing  the  basic  principles  of  the  subject.  Such  a 
scheme  naturally  reduces  the  number  of  students  an 
instructor  can  effectively  handle.  Recognition  of  the 
value  of  individual  instruction,  possible  only  in  smaller 
classes,  is  found  in  the  Smith-Hughes  Act,  which  limits 
to  twenty  the  number  of  students  of  any  class  complying 
with  its  regulations.  In  freehand  drawing  the  number 
of  students  should  be  limited  to  thirty  in  elementary 
classes  and  to  twenty-four  in  advanced  classes.  In 
mechanical  drawing  the  number  of  students  should  be 
limited  to  twenty-four  in  elementary  classes  and  to 
twenty  in  advanced  classes. 

Light.  — - The  problem  of  light  in  the  drawing  room 
and,  in  fact,  in  the  whole  school  is  one  on  which  it  is 
difficult  to  get  any  consensus  of  opinion.  A northerly 
light  is  undoubtedly  the  best,  but  means  a sacrifice  of 
the  warmth  and  cheer  of  sunlight.  The  orientation  will 
depend  upon  local  climatic  conditions,  and  where 
instructors  in  charge  have  definite  opinions  they  should 
be  consulted.  In  cold  damp  climates,  the  warmth  and 
cheer  of  sunlight  will  generally  be  felt  to  outweigh  its 
disadvantages  from  the  point  of  view  of  lighting.  In 
very  warm  climates,  where  the  sun  is  to  be  avoided,  the 
reverse  will  be  true.  Let  us  say  then  that  the  light 
should  be  unilateral  — to  prevent  the  confusion  of 
shadow  resulting  from  cross  lighting  — and  very  plenti- 
ful, as  drawing,  especially  mechanical  drawing,  is  much 
more  trying  on  the  eyes  than  the  work  of  the  classroom. 
Particular  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  lighting 
conditions  are  as  nearly  ideal  as  possible. 

For  mechanical  drawing,  the  light  should  come  from 
the  front  and  left  of  the  student  in  order  that  he  may  not 
be  bothered  by  shadows  cast  by  T square  and  triangle. 
It  will  generally  be  found  most  satisfactory  to  have  the 
student  face  the  light.  This  statement  may  occasion 
some  surprise,  as  one’s  natural  thought  is  to  have  the 
windows  to  the  left  of  the  student.  Experience  has 
proved  that  the  light  is  not  often  too  strong  even  for  the 
row  next  to  the  windows.  Frosting  the  lower  portion 
of  the  windows  removes  objection  to  the  strongest  light. 


416 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


The  tops  of  the  desks  being  inclined,  the  student  will 
not  be  bothered  by  the  reflection  of  light  in  his  eyes. 
To  face  the  light,  absolutely  removes  the  possibility  of 
having  one’s  T squares  cast  a shadow  upon  the  drawing. 
It  will  be  seen  in  the  illustrations  (Figure  360)  that  for  the 
standard  width  of  classroom  this  scheme  gives  the  best 
arrangement.  The  light  at  the  desks  which  are  cross- 
hatched  is  undesirable. 

Night  Lighting.  — More  spectacular  in  its  growth 
even  than  that  of  vocational  education  is  the  idea  of 
the  continuation  school.  This  kind  of  school  makes 
possible  a use  of  our  costly  educational  plant  more  than 
doubling  the  operation  of  earlier  times,  and  at  only  a 
slightly  increased  cost.  One  of  the  problems  that  the 
continuation  school  adds  is  that  of  lighting  for  night 
work. 

In  the  night  lighting  of  the  mechanical  drawing  room, 
the  whole  room  should  be  lighted  by  a system  of  indirect 
or  semi-indirect  lights  of  low  intensity,  with  points  of 
higher  intensic  brilliancy  to  the  front  and  left  of  each 
student.  This  double  system  is  necessary,  as  the  simple 
indirect  system  of  lighting  results  in  a confusion  of 
shadow,  severely  handicapping  the  draftsman,  whereas 
the  old  scheme  of  drop  lights  gives  a sharp  contrast  of 
dark  and  light  — a glare  that  strains  the  eyes  badly. 

Wall  Covering.  — Each  drawing  room  should  contain 
a blackboard  not  less  than  twenty  feet  in  length.  The 
wall  opposite  the  windows  will  usually  be  found  to  be 
most  convenient.  Any  wall  surface  below  the  line  of 
the  head  of  the  doors  should  be  covered  with  a cork 
carpet,  burlap-covered  linoleum,  or  other  suitable  ma- 
terial, permitting  a free  use  of  thumb-tacks  to  hand 
drawings,  etc.  This  covering  makes  possible  the  use 
of  all  the  available  wall  space  for  the  exhibition  of 
drawings,  prints,  etc.  There  is  no  greater  stimulus 
to  the  interest  and  activity  of  the  students  than  the 
exhibition  of  their  own  drawings  and  those  of  their 
fellows. 

The  concealed  wire  picture  molds  and  the  inlaid 
cork  strip  are  not  only  inadequate  but  unsatisfactory  in 
other  ways.  The  concealed  wire  is  mechanically  such 
a nuisance  to  operate  that  it  is  seldom  used  if  installed. 
The  cork  inlay  idea  has  the  unfortunate  objection  that 
the  prints  or  drawings  must  cut  across  the  molding. 
The  appearance  is  very  unpleasing. 

The  walls  should  be  of  comparatively  low  tones  — 
pleasing  grays,  tans,  or  browns  that  harmonize  with  the 
woodwork.  The  low  tones  will  reduce  the  very  distress- 
ing reflections.  This  consideration,  especially  in  the 
freehand  department,  cannot  be  too  strongly  emphasized. 
Other  general  considerations  of  trim  and  floor  covering 
are  the  same  as  those  of  the  classroom  and  are  dealt  with 
in  that  chapter. 


The  Freehand  Department.  The  Courses.  — The 
tendency  to  multiply  courses  in  applied  or  industrial 
art  has  already  been  mentioned.  A brief  outline  of 
some  of  the  courses  offered  should  be  of  value : 

I.  Elementary  Freehand  Drawing  covers  the  principles 
of  perspective  and  a study  of  tone  values  in  pencil 
and  charcoal.  This  course  is  prerequisite  to  all 
other  courses  in  drawing  and  design  and  fulfills 
the  university  requirement.  This  course  covers 
a period  of  one  year,  generally  taken  during  the 
first  year. 

II.  Advanced  Freehand  Drawing.  In  this  course  other 
mediums  may  be  employed,  such  as  watercolor  or 
pen  and  ink.  The  student  adds  to  his  study  of 
line,  form,  and  tone  that  of  color  and  composition. 
These  courses  develop  into  a great  variety  of  allied 
or  related  subjects,  such  as : 

1.  Commercial  Art.  Special  emphasis  is  placed 
on  lettering,  color,  and  composition.  The 
various  methods  of  reproducing  posters,  etc., 
and  commercial  methods  are  included  in  the 
course. 

2.  Art  Metal  and  other  art  craft  subjects,  such  as 
pottery  making,  weaving,  bookbinding,  etc. 
The  study  of  design  and  technique. 

3.  Interior  Decoration.  A course  that  is  often 
made  a requisite  in  the  domestic  arts  and  science 
department.  A study  of  harmony  in  color  and 
arrangement  of  furnishings  of  the  home,  etc. 

4.  Costume  Design.  This  course  involves  the 
study  of  anatomy,  history,  and  design. 

The  Equipment.  — There  are  two  general  schemes 
which  find  favor  in  the  equipping  of  the  freehand  drawing 
room ; each  has  its  advantages  and  disadvantages.  See 
rooms  A and  B of  Figure  359.  For  the  sake  of  convenience 
let  us  call  the  first,  A,  the  informal  scheme.  In  this 
scheme  each  student  has  an  individual  rack  on  which 
to  rest  his  pad  or  board.  These  racks  hold  pencils, 
erasers,  etc.,  and  may  or  may  not  contain  a shelf  for  the 
student’s  books.  A foot  rest  serves  to  steady  the  rack. 
In  this  scheme  separate  model  stands  should  be  provided, 
and  they  should  preferably  be  made  adjustable  as  to 
height. 

The  second,  or  formal  scheme,  B,  utilizes  for  models 
and  studies  large  flat  tables  with  a low  partition  running 
down  the  center  and  serving  as  a background.  The 
student  in  this  arrangement  rests  his  board  or  pad  on 
the  edge  of  the  table.  These  tables  are  made  to  accom- 
modate from  eight  to  ten  students. 

The  formal  scheme  gives  a fixed  and  permanent 
arrangement  which  greatly  reduces  the  noise  and  con- 
fusion of  a multitude  of  small  pieces  of  furniture  ar- 
ranged in  an  informal  manner.  The  first  scheme  makes 


THE  DRAWING  DEPARTMENT 


4i7 


Mr.  J onn  J . uonuvan,  rcnutct . 


Fig.  361.  — Freehand  Drawing  Room,  Oakland  Technical  High  School,  Oakland,  California. 


possible  a greater  variety  of  arrangement  of  studies  and 
lighting.  With  an  adjustable  model  stand,  not  only 
can  the  model  be  viewed  from  all  sides,  but  the  elevations 
may  be  varied.  Added  to  the  noise  and  confusion  of 
the  smaller  units,  is  the  difficulty  of  arranging  suitable 
backgrounds.  The  informal  scheme  is  the  more  ex- 
pensive of  the  two. 

In  the  classroom  the  development  has  been  from  the 
old  benches,  accommodating  a number  of  students,  to 
the  present-day  individual  seats  and  desks ; so  in  the 
drawing  room  there  has  been  a constant  change  from  the 
larger  to  the  smaller  units.  Undoubtedly  the  informal 
scheme  demands  more  rigid  discipline,  and  it  seems  that 
the  best  freehand  teachers  are  not  always  the  best 
disciplinarians.  When  the  informal  scheme  has  not 
proved  satisfactory,  there  has  been  in  almost  every 
instance  a lack  of  discipline  or  complete  equipment. 
If  the  informal  scheme  is  given  a thorough  trial,  it  will 
justify  itself. 

For  both  the  informal  and  formal  schemes,  low-backed 
chairs  of  oak  or  other  suitable  wood  will  be  found  most 


satisfactory.  Lighter  types  of  studio  or  folding  chairs, 
while  very  desirable  for  out-of-door  work,  are  too  fragile 
for  use  in  public  schools. 

Individual  lockers  should  be  provided  in  all  drawing 
rooms.  In  the  freehand  rooms  they  will  probably  be 
taken  care  of  most  satisfactorily  in  wall  cabinets.  There 
are  two  types  in  general  use.  The  one  in  which  each 
student  has  an  individual  key  offers  the  objection  that 
the  keys  are  continually  being  lost  and  their  replacement, 
as  well  as  the  handling  of  deposits,  is  an  additional  burden 
to  the  teacher.  The  other  type,  E,  Figure  359,  has  groups 
of  about  ten  lockers  in  a compartment  to  which  the 
instructor  only  has  a key.  Three  of  these  compartments 
will  serve  a class.  This  is  undoubtedly  the  best  scheme 
for  the  freehand  drawing  rooms. 

For  advanced  classes  in  watercolor,  etc.,  the  equip- 
ment noted  above  should  be  supplemented  with  a small, 
low  table  for  each  pair  of  students.  This  will  provide 
a place  on  which  to  keep  their  colors,  water,  etc. 

Screens  on  which  to  hang  models  and  drawings  are 
desirable  for  advanced  classes,  although  they  are  apt  to 


- ADVANCED  TECHNICAL  DRAWING  FXXDM 

Page  418  Fig.  362. 


THE  DRAWING  DEPARTMENT 


419 


interfere  with  the  lighting  of  the  interior  of  the  room. 
Those  shown  in  Figure  361  are  too  high.  The  height  of 
the  blackboard  is  about  right.  These  screens  would  be 
improved  if  there  was  a shelf  on  each  side  instead  of  the 
one  shown.  The  additional  shelf  would  make  the 
screen  equally  desirable  and  usable  on  both  sides. 

For  commercial  art  and  design  classes,  mechanical 
drawing  desks  are  the  most  satisfactory.  For  costume 
design  large  flat  tables  are  desirable,  as  they  afford 
freedom  in  laying  out  patterns,  stencils,  etc.,  which  the 
smaller  units  do  not.  The  artcraft  courses  offered  will 
depend  entirely  upon  local  conditions  and  demand,  and 
the  special  equipment  required  should  be  determined 
by  consulting  with  the  instructor  in  charge. 

The  Mechanical  Drawing  Department.  Courses. 

In  this  mechanical  drawing  department  the  courses 
usually  offered  are : 

I.  Geometrical  Drawing.  This  course  covers  the  use  of 
the  instruments,  the  elements  of  geometry  as  applied 
to  drawing,  projections,  and  some  perspective.  It 
satisfies  the  university  requirement  and  is  pre- 
requisite to  any  course  in  advanced  technical 
drawing.  The  course  covers  a period  of  one  year, 
taken  during  the  second  year,  if  it  is  to  be  followed 
by  advanced  drawing.  The  periods  are  from  one 
hour  to  one  hour  and  a half  a day. 

II.  Trade  Drawing.  This  course  will  generally  be 
arranged  to  fulfill  the  requirements  of  the  Smith- 
Hughes  Act.  The  students  in  this  group  are  to 
become  mechanics,  electricians,  carpenters,  etc. 
As  they  take  but  one  period  of  drawing  per  day, 
the  course  is  designed  primarily  to  enable  them  to 
read  and  work  from  blue  prints  and  to  lay  out  their 
work  properly.  The  course  includes  plates  of 
essential  geometrical  problems,  projections,  and 
sketching.  This  course  requires  an  extensive 
library  of  working  drawings,  as  one  does  not  learn 
to  read  blue  prints  without  the  blue  prints.  The 
number  of  students  is  limited  to  twenty. 

III.  Advanced  Technical  Drawing.  Upon  completion 
of  the  course  in  geometrical  drawing,  the  students 
may  elect  any  one  of  a number  of  courses  in 
advanced  technical  drawing,  such  as  : 

1.  Machine  Drawing. 

2.  Architectural  Drawing. 

3.  Ship  Drafting. 

4.  Mapping,  etc. 

Elementary  freehand  drawing  and  geometrical 
drawing  are  prerequisite  to  all  such  courses. 

The  student  in  these  courses  first  draws  and  traces 
full  size  or  large  scale  details,  thus  getting  acquainted 
with  the  elements  he  is  to  use  later  in  the  small  scale 
assembly  working  drawings.  These  will  be  followed  by 


the  complete  working  drawings  of  a gas  engine,  a house, 
etc.,  depending  upon  the  course  the  student  elects. 
The  elements  of  design  are  introduced  progressively,  and 
the  work  in  the  drafting  room  is  supplemented  by  related 
work  in  the  shops,  science,  and  mathematics  departments. 
Thus  the  student  gains  a knowledge  of  materials,  an 
essential  to  any  serious  work  in  design.  By  the  use  of 
laboratory  methods,  such  courses  as  graphic  statics  and 
strength  of  materials  may  be  effectively  given  in  the 
high  school. 

The  Geometrical  Drawing  Rooms  (Figure  360).  — The 
number  of  students  in  geometrical  drawing  classes  should 
not  exceed  twenty-four.  The  equipment  will  consist  of 
the  four-locker  type  “ A ” desks,  such  as  shown  in 
Figure  360;  a small  drawing  board  i6//X2i//  for  each 
student ; a print  rack  and  drawing  file  ; a desk  and  chair 
for  the  instructor. 

There  should  be  no  stools  in  any  geometrical  drawing 
class  where  the  periods  do  not  exceed  an  hour  and  a half 
in  length.  The  stools  make  a great  deal  of  noise  and 
increase  the  necessary  janitor  service.  It  has  been 
found  that  the  students  do  a great  deal  more  and  better 
work  if  they  stand.  Since  there  may  be  a number  of 
students  who  are  unable  to  stand,  a few  stools  should 
be  provided.  These  stools  will  be  kept  in  the  storeroom 
when  not  needed. 

The  desk  of  standard  height  will  prove  too  high  for 
some  students,  and  so  a few  low  platforms  will  be  found 
necessary.  Adjustable  tops  to  the  desks  are  probably 
inadvisable.  The  average  boy  will  be  inclined  to  go 
the  limit  with  any  adjustment,  and,  as  a consequence, 
the  inclination  of  the  top  of  the  desk  will  be  too  great, 
causing  pencils,  ink,  etc.,  to  fall  to  the  floor.  Again, 
parts  will  frequently  be  broken  or  lost  — - school  equip- 
ment should  be  not  only  fool-proof  but  boy-proof. 
Another  objectionable  feature  of  adjustable  tops  is  the 
open  space  which  serves  as  a catch-all  for  papers,  dust, 
and  dirt. 

The  lockers  should  not  be  less  than  three  inches  wide 
in  the  clear  and  large  enough  to  accommodate  a twenty- 
four  inch  “ T ” square.  There  should  be  a shelf  four 
to  six  inches  from  the  top  for  the  ink  instruments,  etc. 
The  lockers  should  be  provided  with  good  locks,  as 
instruments  are  expensive,  and  the  danger  of  their  loss 
should  be  minimized.  The  four  lockers  will  accommo- 
date the  three  day-school  classes  and  one  continuation 
class  for  which  the  room  should  serve. 

A blue-print  rack  to  hold  the  small  scale  prints  should 
be  provided.  This  may  be  combined  with  the  drawing 
files.  Drawings  should  not  be  kept  in  the  students’ 
lockers,  as  they  are  certain  to  be  damaged. 

The  Trade  Drawing  Room.  — Here  the  number  of 
student  desks  will  be  limited  to  twenty.  The  desks 


420 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


should  be  of  the  type  “ B,”  containing  six  lockers,  as 
the  classes  are  small  and  often  in  session  for  periods 
of  only  forty  minutes,  so  there  will  be  more  of  them  to 
provide  for.  Besides  the  filing  cabinet  for  drawings, 
there  should  be  a model  cabinet  for  the  shop  models, 
and  a filing  cabinet  for  the  library  of  working  drawings. 
The  instructor  should  have  a drawing  desk  in  addition 
to  the  regular  teacher’s  desk  and  chair. 

The  Technical  Drawing  Room  (Figure  362).  — An  ad- 
vanced technical  drawing  class  should  not  exceed  twenty 


in  number.  The  equipment  will  consist  of  type  “ B ” 
six-locker  desks  (see  Figure  360),  as  these  rooms  will  be 
in  demand  for  continuation  school  classes.  A number 
of  large  detail  tables  should  be  provided,  and  some  large 
drawing  boards  in  addition  to  those  which  go  into  the 
lockers.  These  could  be  kept  in  the  table  serving  the 
detail  tables  (Figure  362).  The  filing  cabinets  for 
drawings  should  be  more  elastic  than  for  geometrical 
drawing  classes,  when  the  drawings  are  of  a single  stand- 
ard size. 

The  machine  drafting  room  should  contain  display 
cases  for  machine  parts,  etc.,  which  the  students  study 
and  draw  (Figure  362). 

In  the  architectural  drawing  room,  plaster  models  of 
the  orders  will  make  possible  a better  understanding  of 


the  classic  form  and  afford  an  ideal  comparison  of  the 
orders.  The  five  feet  or  so  above  the  blackboard  might 
well  be  used  for  this  purpose. 

In  the  technical  drawing  classes  some  such  scheme  for 
a detail  rack  as  suggested  in  Figure  362  will  prove  very 
useful.  Typical  details  at  full  size  or  a large  scale  for 
reference  and  instruction  are  absolutely  essential.  A 
roller  arrangement  is  a very  convenient  one.  The  in- 
structor should  have  a drawing  desk  for  his  own  use,  as 
he  will  have  constant  need  of  one. 

Some  Rooms  in  the  High  School  — 
The  Library , Lecture  Room,  and  Study 
(Figure  363).  — One  of  the  real  problems 
to  be  met  with  in  any  large  high  school 
is  that  of  proper  studying  accommoda- 
tion. For  best  results,  study  rooms  should 
not  be  larger  than  classrooms. 

Departmental  libraries  bring  the  special 
books,  magazines,  and  catalogues  to  the 
department  where  they  are  used  and  re- 
duce the  congestion  in  the  main  library. 
This  latter  consideration  is  very  impor- 
tant, as  large  groups  in  high  school  are 
not  conducive  to  good  discipline  or  satis- 
factory study. 

In  the  drawing  library,  the  instructors 
of  the  department  would  be  in  charge, 
and  the  students  majoring  in  the  shop 
and  drawing  departments  would  be  the 
ones  to  study  there.  This  room  could 
meet  the  need  of  a lecture  room  for  the 
department,  and  if  necessary,  could  serve 
as  a classroom.  For  lantern  slides  an 
aluminum  painted  curtain  and  a base  re- 
ceptacle should  be  provided. 

Offices.  — Small  offices  should  be  pro- 
vided, each  to  accommodate  two  or  three 
teachers.  These  offices  afford  privacy  for 
rest,  work,  and  conferences  with  fellow  teachers  or 
students.  Large  rest  rooms  for  teachers  are  unsatis- 
factory. The  privacy  is  lost,  and  one  cannot  rest  when 
many  are  free  to  use  the  room.  Again,  when  the  school 
grows,  any  rest  room  of  size  is  certain  to  be  turned  into 
a classroom.  This  is  a mistake,  as  it  not  only  leaves 
the  teachers  no  place  to  go,  but  makes  an  unsatisfactory 
classroom. 

The  head  of  the  department  will  keep  in  his  office 
files  of  all  drawings  made  on  order  of  the  Board,  the 
principal,  or  other  authorized  parties.  These  will  in- 
clude drawings  made  for  work  to  be  done  in  shops. 

Store  and  Blue-print  Rooms. — .Ample  storage  space 
should  be  provided  for  the  departmental  supplies  of 
tracing-paper,  cloth,  detail  paper,  inks,  colors,  etc.  In 


- L1SRAKY  - LECTURE.  ROOM  - 4 3TUDY  - 

O 5’  IO* 

Fig.  363. 


THE  DRAWING  DEPARTMENT 


421 


Mr.  Wm.  B.  Ittner,  Architect. 

Fig.  364.  — Mechanical  Drawing  Room,  Grover  Cleveland  High  School,  St.  Louis,  Missouri. 


Figure  362  an  arrangement  combining  the  office  for  two 
teachers  with  the  storeroom  and  blue-printing  room  is 
shown.  This  is  a desirable  arrangement  as  it  affords 
more  definite  supervision  over  the  supplies  and  blue-print 
apparatus.  Such  a scheme  will  insure  the  making  of 
blue  prints  in  a neat,  workmanlike  manner,  and  without 
undue  waste  of  materials. 

The  tendency  in  schools  has  been  to  make  shift  with 
a simple  blue-print  frame  carried  by  hand  to  the  nearest 
accessible  sunlight  — when  there  was  sunlight.  Such 
an  arrangement  is,  of  course,  inadequate  where  technical 
and  trade  courses  are  offered,  demanding  large  numbers 
of  blue  prints.  When  the  blue-print  room  has  a sunny 
exposure,  the  cheapest  satisfactory  arrangement  is  one 
consisting  of  tracks  on  which  the  blue-print  frame  is 
run  out  through  a window  to  the  sunlight.  There  should 
be  adjustments  to  bring  the  glass  to  a position  perpendic- 
ular to  the  rays  of  the  sun.  This  scheme  has  the  objec- 
tion of  being  unsightly,  and  the  tracks  on  the  window  sill 
offer  difficulties  in  making  it  weather  tight.  Another 
scheme  somewhat  more  expensive  is  to  have  the  blue- 
print frame  mounted  on  a carriage.  Where  the  sunlight 


is  readily  accessible  this  arrangement  will  prove  very 
satisfactory.  If  it  is  necessary  to  build  a special  plat- 
form or  balcony  for  the  exposure,  the  expense  will 
count  against  it. 

The  electric  blue-printing  machine  is  the  most  desir- 
able in  every  way.  A vertical  cylindrical  blue-print 
frame  can  be  installed  at  an  expense  not  greatly  exceed- 
ing that  of  the  preceding  scheme  with  a platform  or 
balcony,  and  all  dependence  upon  the  sun  is  removed. 
This  is  important,  as  the  demand  for  blue  prints  is  not 
regulated  by  the  sun.  Blue-printing  for  and  by  evening 
school  students  becomes  possible  with  the  electric 
machine.  In  addition  to  these  considerations  the  ex- 
perience of  using  an  electrical  machine  will  prove  of 
real  benefit  to  the  student  who  goes  to  work  for  a com- 
pany or  corporation  which  does  its  own  blue-printing. 

The  blue-print  bath  should  be  generous  in  size,  say 
3'  o"X 5'  o" . For  drying,  wires  may  be  strung  across 
the  room  at  a convenient  height. 

Dark  Room.  — In  any  school  of  size  a dark  room  will 
prove  very  useful.  The  room  will  be  used  largely  by 
the  instructors  in  the  drawing  and  science  departments, 


422 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Mr.  Wm.  B.  Ittner,  Architect. 

Fig.  365.  — Freehand  Drawing  Room,  Grover  Cleveland  High  School,  St.  Louis,  Missouri. 


but  will  also  serve  for  advanced  students  in  commercial 
art  and  printing,  photographic  work  of  all  kinds  — the 
making  of  plates,  and  slides  of  lecture  and  laboratory 
purposes  can  be  done  here. 

The  arrangement  shown  gives  ample  working  space 
and  accommodation  for  two  persons  to  work  at  once. 
Too  much  space  is  equally  as  objectionable  as  too  little. 
One  should,  as  far  as  is  possible,  be  able  to  reach  from 
one  position  everything  that  may  be  needed. 

An  ordinary  narrow  porcelain  kitchen  sink  is  the  most 
sat;sfactory.  A wooden  mat,  resting  on  the  drain- 
boards  and  extending  over  the  sink,  serves  to  keep  the 
trays  on  a level.  In  the  main,  plentiful  open  shelving, 
six  to  eight  inches  deep,  is  more  desirable  than  cabinets 
with  doors.  A small  cabinet  with  locks  for  material 
and  equipment  of  value  should  be  provided.  A table 
not  less  than  six  feet  in  length  should  be  provided  for 
enlarging,  etc.  The  approach  or  entrance  to  the  dark 
room  (there  should  be  but  one)  should  be  so  arranged 
that  a person  may  enter  without  admitting  light.  The 
small  cross  partition  should  extend  only  far  enough  to 
cut  off  any  direct  rays  of  light.  The  approach  should 
be  painted  black  to  prevent  reflections,  but  the  interior 


of  the  dark  room,  where  the  light  is  controlled,  should 
be  light  in  tone. 

Summary.  — There  is  a very  definite  demand  being 
made  upon  the  drawing  departments  of  our  public  schools 
for  instruction  in  vocational  drawing  of  every  descrip- 
tion. This  is  true  of  both  freehand  and  mechanical 
drawing.  This  demand  must  be  met  with  properly 
equipped  drawing  rooms  and  capable  instructors.  The 
old  idea  that  a person  with  a bachelor’s  degree  and  a 
teacher’s  certificate  is  fitted  to  teach  anybody  anything 
must  be  modified  if  we  are  to  gain  and  hold  the  respect 
of  the  outside  business  world.  Technical  drawing 
instructors  must  have,  in  addition  to  their  special 
technical  training,  actual  practical  experience  if  they 
are  to  render  the  sendee  that  is  expected  of  them.  The 
almost  universal  weakness  of  our  shop  departments  has 
been  that  the  men  who  had  the  necessary  experience  as 
machinists,  carpenters,  etc.,  did  not  have  the  necessary 
technical  and  educational  qualifications.  The  tendency 
and  danger  in  technical  drawing  subjects  is  of  the  op- 
posite nature  but  equally  objectionable. 

In  public  schools  special  rooms  for  drawing  are  prob- 
ably inadvisable  until  the  intermediate  grade  is  reached. 


THE  DRAWING  DEPARTMENT 


423 


Special  teachers  are  more  necessary  than  special  rooms. 
For  obvious  reasons  the  width  and  height  of  rooms  will 
generally  be  the  same  as  those  established  for  the  class- 
room. For  the  elementary  freehand  and  mechanical 
drawing  work  in  the  high  school  the  standard  size  of 
classrooms  will  prove  satisfactory.  The  advanced  classes 
will  require  more  room. 

It  will  often  be  necessary,  or  at  least  be  good  policy, 
to  have  the  same  room  serve  for  geometrical  drawing 
and  advanced  technical  drawing.  The  room  should, 
of  course,  be  arranged  and  furnished  as  an  advanced 
technical  drawing  room.  If  the  maximum  number  of 
students  possible  in  geometrical  drawing  is  to  be  ac- 
commodated, the  room  must  be  larger  than  that  shown 
in  Figure  362. 

The  lighting  of  drawing  rooms  should  be  given  special 
attention.  Local  climatic  conditions  are  to  be  con- 
sidered, and  the  opinion  of  the  instructors  in  charge 
should  be  consulted.  The  lighting  should  be  unilateral 
(from  one  side)  to  avoid  confusion  of  shadows.  Figure 
364  shows  a good  drawing  room  which  would  have  been 


improved  by  the  omission  of  the  smaller  windows.  For 
freehand  drawing,  the  scheme  of  inclined  windows 
shown  in  Figure  365  is  very  good,  and  is  recommended 
where  cost  and  structural  conditions  permit. 

A small  departmental  library,  which  may  serve  as  a 
lecture  room  and  study,  will  prove  to  be  of  great  value. 
The  technical  books,  magazines,  and  catalogues  will 
then  be  located  where  they  will  do  the  most  good.  There 
will  be  a vast  saving  of  time  and  prevention  of  unneces- 
sary crowding  in  the  main  library. 

Small  offices,  combined  with  storerooms,  blue-print 
rooms,  etc.,  to  take  up  the  depth  of  a classroom,  are 
most  desirable. 

The  drawing  department,  when  possible,  should  be 
located  in  or  near  the  center  of  the  group  of  related 
subjects.  These  are  the  shops,  the  science,  and  home 
economics  departments.  The  shops  will  naturally  be 
farthest  removed  from  the  purely  academic  department, 
and  the  drawing  department  will  generally  be  found  to 
fit  best  between  the  shops  and  the  other  two  depart- 
ments. 


CHAPTER  XXII 


THE  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS  DEPARTMENT 

By  Walter  A.  Tenney,  Principal  of  the  Vocational  High  School,  Oakland,  California 

General  Remarks.  High  School  Shops.  Location.  Lighting.  Correlation.  Demonstration  Room.  Wash  and  Locker  Rooms. 
Offices.  Number  of  Students  to  Classes.  Power.  Pattern  Shop.  Grinding  Room.  Machine  Shop.  Foundry.  Forge  Shop. 
Automobile  Shop.  Electrical  Shop.  Plumbing  Shop.  Sheet  Metal  Shop.  Cabinet  Shop.  Carpenter  Shop.  Exhibit  Room. 
Central  Storeroom.  Intermediate  or  Junior  High  School  Shops.  Conclusion. 


General  Remarks.  — Educational  thought  has,  for  a 
number  of  years,  had  a pronounced  and  well-nigh  uni- 
versal trend  towards  a wider  recognition  of  the  need  for 
industrial  and  vocational  education.  The  idea,  that  the 
modern  school  system  should  serve  the  needs  of  “ all 
the  children  of  all  the  people,”  has  been  generally  ac- 
cepted, not  only  among  educators,  but  among  thinking 
men  and  women  in  all  walks  of  life.  There  is  an  insist- 
ent and  growing  demand  that  the  work  of  the  school 
connect  more  closely  with  the  future  work  of  the  students, 
— that  in  addition  to  the  cultural  studies  there  should 
be  training  preparatory  to  the  work  which  the  students 
will  do  for  a livelihood. 

Since  a majority  of  students,  upon  leaving  school, 
engage  in  some  form  of  commercial  or  industrial  work, 
it  follows  that  a democratic  school  system  must  provide 
courses  and  equipment  which  will  prepare  such  students 
for  the  lives  of  activity  they  will  enter  with  the  same 
care  and  thoroughness  with  which  other  students  are 
prepared  for  a professional  career.  Therefore,  any  study 
of  modern  school  architecture  must  give  prominence  to 
the  planning  and  arrangement  of  the  rooms  devoted  to 
industrial  and  vocational  training,  — in  other  words,  to 
the  Industrial  Arts  department. 

The  intelligent  designing  of  a school  building  must 
have  as  the  fundamental  basis  of  all  planning,  a considera- 
tion of  the  activities  to  be  carried  on  within  the  building. 
In  planning  any  particular  room  or  group  of  rooms  the 
architect  and  school  man  must  consider  first  the  nature 
of  the  work  to  be  done,  the  number  of  pupils  to  be 
accommodated,  and  the  necessary  equipment.  These 
three  factors  will  determine  the  size,  character,  and 
arrangement  of  the  rooms  to  be  built ; the  funds  avail- 
able, of  course,  being  a determining  factor  in  the  quality 
of  building. 

In  a work  of  this  kind  it  is  impossible  to  give  plans 
that  are  directly  and  completely  adaptable  to  the  needs 


of  all  communities,  and  all  types  and  grades  of  schools. 
This  chapter  will  attempt  to  give  typical  examples  of 
what  are  thought  to  be  good  arrangements  for  shop  or 
manual  training  rooms,  and  to  discuss  briefly  the  funda- 
mental elements  which  form  the  basis  in  planning 
similar  units  in  any  school,  in  the  hope  that  architects 
and  school  officials  may  find  here  some  assistance  in  the 
solution  of  their  problems. 

The  High  School  Shops.  — The  high  school  of  the 
future,  in  all  large  communities,  will  undoubtedly  be 
what  is  known  as  the  cosmopolitan  or  inclusive  high 
school.  Because  such  a school  would  offer  the  greatest 
possible  number  of  courses,  and  would  furnish  the 
greatest  amount  and  variety  of  equipment,  to  be  found 
in  any  high  school,  it  will  be  used  here  to  illustrate 
typical  high  school  installations. 

The  first  question  to  answer  is,  what  kinds  of  industrial 
training  shall  be  given?  What  shops  shall  be  built  and 
equipped  ? Local  needs  and  conditions  may  lead  to 
the  emphasis  of  one  or  another  particular  industry,  but 
in  general,  there  are  certain  forms  of  industrial  training 
that  are  common  to  all  localities,  certain  trades  which 
are  basic,  which  form  the  foundation  for  many  hundreds 
of  specialized  occupations.  Such  is  the  machinist  trade. 
Its  principles  and  processes  are  found  in  thousands  of 
occupations,  from  the  making  of  a watch  to  the  building 
of  a locomotive.  These  basic  trades,  then,  should  make 
up  the  main  part  of  the  industrial  arts  department.  The 
machinist,  blacksmith,  foundry,  and  pattern-making 
trades  form  what  might  be  called  the  iron  trades  group. 
These  should  be  installed  in  the  large  inclusive  high 
school. 

However,  the  installation  of  the  high  school  foundry 
is  a debatable  question.  A really  practical  foundry  with 
up-to-date  equipment  including  cupola,  traveling  crane, 
etc.,  will  cost  to  equip  $8000  or  $12,000  in  addition  to  the 
cost  of  the  building.  But  few  boys  whose  desire  for 


424 


THE  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS  DEPARTMENT 


425 


Fig.  366.  — Oakland  Technical  High 

I education  holds  them  through  the  high  school  period 
will  take  up  foundry  work  as  an  occupation.  If  the 
supplying  of  castings  to  the  machine  shop  is  argued  as 
a reason  for  putting  in  a school  foundry,  it  should  be 
remembered  that  the  castings  so  obtained  are  quite 
likely  to  be  inferior,  and  to  cost  as  much  or  more  than  if 
obtained  from  a commercial  foundry.  It  is  sometimes 
thought  desirable  to  give  a certain  amount  of  foundry 
work  to  the  pattern  maker  and  machinist  students,  that 
they  may  gain  some  knowledge,  through  practical 
experience,  of  this  trade  which  is  so  'closely  related  to 
their  own.  It  is  very  doubtful,  however,  if  either  the 
educational  or  practical  value  of  such  a course  would 
justify  the  expense.  Nevertheless,  foundries  are  estab- 
lished in  many  of  the  large  high  schools,  therefore  a 
typical  installation  will  be  considered  in  this  discussion. 

Automobile  mechanics  is  a special  branch  of  the 
machinist  trade,  yet  so  great  and  so  widespread  is  the 
demand  for  this  work  that  the  large  school  should  have 
a separate  shop  for  it. 

This  is  the  age  of  electricity.  Its  applications  are 
increasingly  numerous.  A thorough  practical  and  theo- 
retical knowledge  of  electricity  will  lead  to  employment 
m many  different  fields,  making  this  one  of  the  basic- 
trades.  An  electrical  shop,  then,  will  be  included  in  our 
olan. 

Plumbing  and  steam  fitting,  sheet  metal  work,  car- 
Dentry,  and  cabinetmaking  comprise  the  building  trades 


Mr.  John  J.  Donovan,  Architect. 

School  Shops,  Oakland,  California. 

group.  These  occupations  are  demanded  in  every  com- 
munity. Cabinetmaking  might  be  taught  in  connection 
with  carpentry,  using  the  same  shop  and  equipment,  but 
in  the  large  school  these  departments  should  have 
separate  accommodations. 

Printing  is  an  occupation  found  in  every  community. 
It  has  a decided  vocational  value,  and  with  its  related 
courses  in  English,  history,  and  journalism  has  an 
educational  or  cultural  value  probably  unsurpassed  by 
any  course  in  the  high  school. 

The  trades  above  named  are  common  to  all  urban 
communities,  and  many  of  them  are  so  basic  that  the 
graduate  student,  if  he  possesses  the  quality  of  adapta- 
bility, will  be  able  to  apply  his  knowledge  to  any  one  of  a 
great  variety  of  occupations.  The  inclusive  high  school 
in  the  larger  cities  should  provide  for  most  or  all  of  these 
in  its  plan  for  instruction. 

Location.  — The  next  question  to  consider  is  the  loca- 
tion of  the  industrial  arts  department.  The  ideal  ar- 
rangement is  to  have  the  shops  in  a separate  building  or 
group  of  buildings,  and  where  sufficient  land  is  available 
all  on  the  ground  floor.  The  initial  cost  is  somewhat 
greater  for  this  type  of  construction,  but  it  has  decided 
advantages.  Figure  366  gives  an  exterior  view,  and 
Figure  367  gives  the  floor  plan  of  the  industrial 
arts  department  of  the  Technical  High  School  of  Oak- 
land, California,  an  example  of  the  type  of  building 
above  referred  to,  in  the  designing  of  which  the  writer 


THE  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS  DEPARTMENT 


collaborated  with  the  architect.  While  this  example  is 
not  presented  as  a perfect  solution  of  all  the  problems  of 
school  shop  planning,  it  has  many  points  of  excellence 
and  superiority  over  those  of  other  school  buildings 
throughout  the  country,  which  commend  it  to  the  study 
of  architects  and  boards  of  education. 

Where  the  above  arrangement  cannot  be  secured, 
owing  to  lack  of  building  space  or  funds,  the  next  best 
arrangement  is  a separate  building  of  more  than  one 
story.  And  last  and  least  desirable  of  all,  is  where,  as  in 
a thickly  populated  city  with  limited  building  area,  the 
whole  school,  shops  and  all,  must  be  housed  in  one  large 
building  of  many  stories. 

When  building  under  either  of  the  two  last-named  con- 
ditions, the  shops  having  heavy  equipment  and  handling 
heavy  materials,  such  as  machine  shop,  forge  shop,  and 
foundry,  should  be  located  on  the  ground  floor,  and  in  the 
event  of  the  shops  being  located  in  the  same  building  with 
the  rest  of  the  school,  care  should  be  taken  to  isolate  them 
as  much  as  possible,  and  to  separate  them  by  specially 
constructed  walls  and  floors  from  classrooms  which 
would  suffer  from  the  noise  or  vibration  of  machinery. 

Lighting.  — One  very  important  feature  in  planning 
the  shop  building,  and  one  which  is  often  neglected  to 
the  discomfort  and  possible  injury  of  the  students,  is  the 
lighting.  Not  only  is  the  quantity  of  light,  but  also  the 
angle  at  which  it  falls  upon  the  work,  of  the  greatest 

I importance.  Skylights  have  often  been  resorted  to  in 
shop  buildings,  and  have  found  numerous  advocates. 
In  the  opinion  of  the  author,  there  is  only  one  condition 
under  which  skylights  are  permissible,  and  that  is  when 
the  building  is  so  situated  that  it  is  impossible  to  obtain 
sufficient  lateral  lighting.  The  proper  lighting  for 
school  shops  is  the  modern  factory  lighting,  in  which  the 
walls  consist  mainly  of  a series  of  supporting  columns 
with  the  intervening  spaces  filled  with  glass  set  in  steel 
sash.  Figure  366  illustrates  an  excellent  example  of 
proper  and  adequate  shop  lighting.  On  the  east,  south, 
and  west  sides,  it  is  advantageous  to  have  the  windows 
glazed  with  ribbed  or  diffusing  glass.  On  the  north 
side,  plane  glass  is  preferable. 

Correlation.  — In  a large  group,  such  as  is  here  con- 
templated, the  position  of  individual  shops  with  relation 
to  each  other  should  be  considered.  For  example,  the 
metal-working  shops  should  be  grouped  together.  The 
foundry  and  machine  shop  especially  should  be  adjoining 
each  other,  and  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  pattern  shop 
not  too  far  removed.  As  a general  rule,  it  might  be 
stated  that  the  shops  in  which  the  work  is  of  a similar 
nature,  is  interrelated  or  dependent  upon  each  other, 
should  be  grouped  together  as  far  as  possible. 

Demonstration  Room.  — In  many  schools  a so-called 
iemonstration  theater  is  provided  in  one  end  or  corner 


427 

of  each  shop.  In  a “ class  A,”  or  even  less  expensive 
type  of  building,  where  every  square  foot  of  floor  space 
means  an  outlay  of  many  dollars,  this  is,  in  most  in- 
stances, an  expense  for  which  there  is  inadequate  return. 
It  is  found  that  these  demonstration  theaters  are  in  use 
but  a very  small  proportion  of  the  time.  Therefore,  if 
one  lecture  and  demonstration  theater  can  be  located  so 
as  to  be  reasonably  accessible  to  all  the  shops,  it  will 
serve  all  purposes,  and  effect  a great  saving  both  in 
floor  space  and  equipment.  Reference  to  Figures  367 
and  400  will  show  how  such  a plan  was  worked 
out.  This  room  is  provided  with  blackboard,  demon- 
stration tables  and  benches,  also  with  an  electric  cabinet 
furnishing  current  both  direct  and  alternating  and  of 
various  phases  and  voltages,  for  electrical  demonstra- 
tions or  for  furnishing  power  to  operate  machines  for 
demonstration  purposes.  The  room  is  also  arranged 
for  stereopticon  or  moving  picture  work  and  may  be 
darkened  for  this  purpose  in  the  daytime. 

Wash  and  Locker  Rooms.  — Wash  and  locker  rooms 
should  be  provided,  within  easy  access  of  the  shops.  The 
washroom  should  be  supplied  with  both  hot  and  cold 
water.  A very  satisfactory  method  is  to  install  an 
automatic  gas  water  heater  with  thermostat.  This  will 
insure  a constant  supply  of  water  of  the  proper  tempera- 
ture. A portion  of  the  washroom  should  be  separated 
by  partitions  for  toilets  and  urinals,  the  number  depend- 
ing on  the  number  of  pupils  to  be  accommodated.  The 
lockers  may  be  installed  in  the  same  room  as  the  wash- 
stands.  This  is  a very  satisfactory  arrangement,  as  it 
saves  time  and  confusion  of  pupils  running  about  from 
room  to  room  between  classes.  Figure  367  shows  a 
wash  and  locker  room  for  each  two  shops. 

Offices.  — Each  shop  should  also  have  a small  office 
for  the  instructor,  and  a tool  and  supply  room.  In 
some  of  the  shops  a supply  or  storeroom  separate  from 
the  tool  room  is  needed,  in  which  to  keep  finished  or 
unfinished  work  and  supplies  which  it  is  sometimes 
advisable  to  draw  in  considerable  quantities  from  the 
central  storeroom.  If  a central  storeroom  for  the 
entire  school  plant  is  not  maintained,  the  supply  rooms 
for  individual  shops  will  need  to  be  larger  in  some 
instances.  These  accessories  are  all  shown  on  the  floor 
plans  which  illustrate  this  chapter. 

Number  of  Students  to  Classes.  — The  next  question 
to  consider  is  the  number  of  students  in  a class.  This 
will  depend  on  whether  the  school  is  to  conduct  strictly 
vocational  classes,  or  general  manual  training  classes, 
or  both. 

The  passage  of  the  Smith-Hughes  Act  has  given  a 
great  impetus  to  vocational  education,  and  doubtless 
under  this  influence  most  large  high  schools  will  offer 
vocational  courses.  These  courses  are  now  being  intro- 


TOOL  ROOM 


00 


oc 


n ,o  a \ a n o o 


SSI SS- 


Page  429  Fig.  369.  — Pattern  Shop,  Oakland  Technical  High  School,  Oakland,  California. 


43° 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


duced  in  many  of  the  college  preparatory  or  classical 
high  schools,  which  had  previously  given  no  attention  to 
such  work.  One  result  of  this  law  has  been  to  limit  the 
number  of  students  in  a class.  It  is  generally  agreed  by 
experts  that  fifteen  is  the  maximum  number  that  can  be 
taught  with  success  in  trade  classes,  and  this  is  the  limit 
fixed  by  law  in  some  states,  though  in  others  a maximum 
of  twenty  is  allowed,  with  the  idea  that  the  actual 
average  attendance  will  be  about  fifteen.  If  strictly 
vocational  classes  are  to  be  maintained,  then  the  number 
of  students  to  be  provided  for  in  a class  will  be  fifteen 
to  twenty. 

In  so-called  technical  high  schools,  where  shop  work 
is  given  not  with  a view  to  teaching  any  particular 


trade,  but  to  giving  a general  knowledge  of  a number  of 
trades  to  boys  who  will  perhaps  later  go  to  college  and 
become  engineers,  or  administrative  officers,  or  at  least 
will  hold  positions  in  industry  other  than  that  of  me- 
chanics, twenty-four  is  considered  about  the  ideal  num- 
ber in  a class.  A larger  number  is  sometimes  admitted, 
but  the  results  are  less  satisfactory. 

The  shops  illustrated  in  Figures  366  and  367  are 
equipped  to  accommodate  a maximum  of  twenty-four 
students  in  a class.  The  equipment  for  these  shops 
was  selected  and  installed  by  the  writer  with  a view 
to  giving  a high  grade  general  manual  training  course 
to  technical  high  school  students.  If  planning  for 
a strictly  vocational  or  trade  course,  equipment  for 
fifteen  to  twenty  students  would  have  been  provided 


and  the  largest  shops  might  have  been  slightly  reduced 
in  size.  The  shops  here  shown  are  forty-five  feet  in 
width  and  vary  from  sixty  to  one  hundred  feet  in  length. 
Figure  367  shows  a further  development  by  the  author 
of  the  same  general  arrangement  as  shown  in  Figure  40. 
This  is  a larger  and  more  cony  lete  shop  plant,  and 
has  advantages  in  arrangement  both  of  buildings  and 
equipment. 

By  a small  addition  to  the  equipment  of  the  shops  here 
shown  and  the  employment  of  an  additional  teacher,  two 
classes  can  be  accommodated  in  one  shop.  Where 
there  is  a large  number  of  classes,  this  plan  effects  a 
considerable  saving  both  of  room  and  equipment.  Either 
two  full-time  day  classes  or  one  full-time  and  one  part- 
time  continuation  class  may  be  taught 
at  the  same  time  in  one  shop.  And 
since  there  is  nearly  always  a number 
of  machines  in  a shop,  particularly  the 
larger  and  more  expensive  ones,  which 
can  be  used  only  part  of  the  time  by 
one  class,  this  arrangement  allows  double 
the  number  of  students  to  use  them 
without  the  purchase  of  additional 
equipment. 

Power.  — The  individual  motor  drive 
for  the  greater  part  of  the  shop  equip- 
ment will  be  found  most  satisfactory. 
Though  the  initial  cost  of  installation  is 
more,  the  cost  of  upkeep  and  operation 
is  less,  due  to  the  fact  that  if  only  a 
part  of  the  machines  in  a given  shop  are 
running,  there  is  only  sufficient  power 
used  to  run  those  few  machines,  instead 
of  running  a large  motor  and  long  lines 
of  shafting.  Another  advantage  is  that, 
with  the  individual  motor  drive,  a ma- 
chine may  be  moved  at  any  time  and 
set  in  any  part  of  the  shop,  or  turned  at 
any  angle,  by  simply  running  wires  to  the  motor,  which 
cannot  be  done  if  line  shafting  is  depended  on  to  transmit 
power.  If  the  machines  are  belt  driven,  then  the  roof 
trusses  or  ceiling  joists  must  be  made  stiff  enough  to 
support  the  transmission  machinery  which  will  have  to 
be  provided.  This  will  include  hangers  shafting,  pul- 
leys, belting,  etc. 

The  Pattern  Shop  (Figure  368).  — This  shop  must  have 
floor  space  for  both  bench  and  machine  equipment, 
and  for  assembling  large  work.  A lumber  storeroom 
must  be  provided  convenient  to  this  shop,  also  a store- 
room for  finished  patterns,  and  a filing  and  grinding 
room,  which  is  described  later. 

The  bench  equipment  should  consist  of  one  work 
bench  for  each  member  of  a class,  each  bench  equipped 


Fig.  370.  — Pattern  Shop  Bench. 


THE  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS  DEPARTMENT 


43i 


with  side  and  tail  vises,  the  side  vise  to  be  quick 
acting.  A very  satisfactory  bench  designed  by  the 
writer  and  made  in  the  school  shops  for  use  in  the 
high  schools  of  Oakland,  California,  is  shown  in  Figure 
370.  The  bench  contains  an  individual  drawer  for 
each  student.  Each  drawer  is  equipped  with  the  fol- 
lowing tools : 


One  bench  knife 
One  2'  rule. 

One  chisel. 

One  chisel. 

One  f"  chisel. 

One  1"  chisel. 

One  auger  bitt. 

One  f"  auger  bitt. 

One  auger  bitt. 

One  f"  auger  bitt. 

One  1"  auger  bitt. 

One  block-plane  cutting-iron. 
One  smooth-plane  cutting-iron. 


One  jack-plane  cutting-iron. 
One  pair  8"  outside  calipers. 
One  parting  tool. 

One  3"  turning  chisel. 

One  turning  chisel. 

One  f"  turning  chisel. 

One  1"  turning  chisel. 

One  turning  gouge. 

One  \"  turning  gouge. 

One  f"  turning  gouge. 

One  1"  turning  gouge. 

One  oilstone  slip. 


The  cabinet,  on  the  end  of  the  bench,  contains  the 
tools  used  by  the  students  in  common.  They  are  as 
follows : 


One  1 f"  block  plane. 

One  2"  smooth  plane. 

One  2%"  jack  plane. 

One  6"  sliding  T bevel. 

One  6"  try  square. 

One  6"  dividers. 

One  marking  gauge. 

One  claw  hammer. 

One  oil  stone  2"  X7"  in  box. 
One  oil  can. 

One  mallet. 


One  nail  set. 

One  spoke  shave. 

One  bitt  brace. 

One  countersink. 

One  wood  drill  No.  4. 
One  wood  drill  No.  5. 
One  wood  drill  No.  6. 
One  wood  drill  No.  7. 
One  screwdriver. 

One  backsaw. 


When  individual  sets  of  tools  are  provided,  the  drawers 
must  have  locks.  A bench  with  four  drawers  as  shown 
will  accommodate  four  classes.  A system  of  locks  for 
these  benches  should  be  ordered  from  the  factory,  no 
two  alike,  but  under  one  master  key,  and  made  up  in 
sets  of  five  locks  each.  The  first  four  locks,  of  each  set, 
will  be  put  on  the  drawers,  the  fifth  on  the  end  cabinet. 
The  first  four  keys  are  fitted  so  that  each  will  open  its 
own  drawer,  also  the  end  cabinet,  but  will  not  open  any 
other  lock  in  the  system. 

A supply  of  extra  lathe  tools,  pattern  makers’  shrinkage 
rules,  pinch  dogs,  large-sized  inside  and  outside  calipers, 
sets  of  flat,  medium,  and  regular  sweep  inside  and  out- 
side ground  gouges,  one  core  box  plane,  one  adjustable 
curved  face  plane,  one  large  jointer  plane,  extra  hand- 
rip  and  crosscut  saws,  steel  squares,  etc.,  should  be  kept 
in  the  tool  room. 

A 12"  X.60"  speed  lathe  with  inside  and  outside  face 
plates  should  be  furnished  for  each  student.  The  lathes 
should  be  placed  as  shown  in  Figure  368,  giving  each 


student  a bench  and  lathe  with  outfit  of  tools  as  his 
complete  working  unit.  The  bench  and  lathe  together 
require  floor  space  4X6  feet,  and  should  be  placed  from 
four  to  five  feet  apart. 

The  machinery  equipment  for  this  shop  should  be : 


Machine 

Floor  Space 

Horse 

Power 

1 16"  or  18"  universal  circular  saw,  with 
motor 

4'  5"X  5'  6" 

5 

1 36"  band  saw,  with  motor 

3'  0"  X 6'  2" 

5 

1 24"  cabinet  planer,  with  motor  . . . 

6'  3"  X 6'  6" 

IO 

1 12"  jointer  or  buzz  planer,  with  motor  . 

2'  9"X  8'  2" 

3 

1 2o"Xio'  pattern  lathe,  with  motor  . . 

2'  6"  Xio'  6" 

4 

24  12"  X60"  lathes,  with  motor  . . . . 

2'  0"  X s'  3" 

1 each 

1 5"  X40"  grindstone,  with  motor  . . . 

2'  0"  X 4'  0" 

I 

1 large  wood  trimmer 

2'  2"  X 4'  0" 

Hand 

2 small  wood  trimmers,  which  will  set  on 
the  work  benches  and  may  be  carried 
from  bench  to  bench  as  needed  . 

The  pattern  shop  should  also  have  one  or  more 
glue  heaters,  and  a large  table  centrally  located  for 
laying  out  and  assembling  large  patterns,  and  an- 
other for  varnishing,  also  a large  supply  of  both  wood 
and  iron  clamps  of  various  sizes.  A truck,  for  carry- 
ing materials  from  place  to  place  about  the  shop, 
from  machine  to  machine,  or  from  shop  to  shop,  is 
very  desirable. 

The  saws  and  planers  should  be  provided  with  hoods 
and  piping  for  taking  out  the  shavings  and  sawdust. 
This  also  necessitates  a shaving  exhauster  and  motor 
to  drive  it,  also  a shaving  separator  and  bin.  If  the 
shops  are  of  wooden  construction  the  shaving  bin  should 
be  a small  brick  or  concrete  structure  and  separated 
from  the  other  buildings.  The  installation  of  the 
shaving  exhaust  system  is  shown  in  Figures  368  and  394, 
where  the  exhauster  and  motor  are  under  the  floor  (it 
might  also  be  placed  overhead),  the  shaving  separator 
above  the  roof  of  the  lumber  or  pattern  storerooms, 
which  are  lower  than  the  main  building,  and  the  shaving 
bin  is  under  the  floor  of  these  respective  rooms,  with 
the  outlet  pipe  from  the  separator  leading  vertically 
down  through  the  center  of  the  room.  The  shaving 
exhaust  system  eliminates  breathing  of  dust  by  students, 
and  is  thus  a health  protection  as  well  as  a means  of 
keeping  the  shop  cleaner  and  more  attractive  in  appear- 
ance. 

Safety  guards  should  be  provided  for  saws  and  planers, 
and  also  belt  guards  wherever  needed. 

The  Grinding  Room.  — In  addition  to  the  accessories 
and  equipment  named  above,  provisions  must  be  made 
for  sharpening  the  planer  and  jointer  knives,  and  the 
circular  and  band  saws.  The  ideal  arrangement  is  to 
have  a separate  room  about  15X20  feet  in  which  should 
be  installed  the  following  equipment : 


Tioa  i mi  o o 


Page  433  Fig.  372.  ■ — Machine  Shop,  Oakland  Technical  High  School,  Oakland,  California. 


434 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Mr.  Floyd  A.  Naramore,  Architect. 

Fig.  373. —Benson  Polytechnic  High  School  Machine  Shop,  Portland,  Oregon. 


Machines 

Floor  Space 

Horse 

Power 

1 30"  Automatic  plane-knife  grinder  . . 

4'  0"  X7'  0" 

2 

1 Automatic  circular-saw  sharpener  . . 

2'  6"  X2'  6" 

3 

4 

1 Automatic  band-saw  sharpener  . . . 

1'  6"  X2'  8" 

1 

4 

1 Automatic  band-saw  setting-machine 

1'  o"Xi'  0" 

1 

4 * 

1 Trip  hammer  circular-saw  set  .... 

T o"X2'  0" 

Hand 

1 Circular-saw  swage 

i'  o"X2'  O" 

Hand 

The  first  two  machines  may  be  had  with  individual 
motors  on  the  machines.  There  are  several  types  of 
band-saw  sharpeners.  The  one  that  holds  the  saw  in  a 
horizontal  position  will  require  a bench  about  2'  10"  X 
8'  o"  to  hold  the  machine  and  the  two  wheels  which 
carry  the  saw.  Another  type  carries  the  saw  in  a vertical 
position,  hung  on  a wheel  high  up  over  the  machine. 
This  latter  type  requires  only  about  1'  6"Xi'  6"  floor 
space. 

The  band-saw  setting  machine  requires  only  about 
one  square  foot  of  space,  the  circular-saw  set  and  swage 
about  two  square  feet  each.  One  long  bench  or  two 
smaller  benches  can  be  arranged  to  carry  the  band-saw 


filer,  hand-saw  setter,  circular-saw  set,  and  swage.  The 
first  two  should  be  power  operated.  A small  shaft  can 
be  installed  under  the  bench,  with  pulleys  and  belts 
from  which  to  drive  both  machines.  Together  they 
will  require  only  one-half  horse  power.  The  two  latter 
machines  are  hand  operated. 

This  room  should  also  have  a case  or  cabinet  with 
drawers  or  shelves  for  containing  the  grinding  wheels, 
files,  wrenches,  and  other  supplies  for  operating  the 
machines,  and  racks  for  holding  the  band  and  circular 
saws. 

One  filing  and  grinding  room  equipped  as  described 
will  suffice  for  all  the  woodworking  shops  in  the  school 
plant. 

The  Machine  Shop  (Figure  371).  — This  illustration 
shows  a very  satisfactory  arrangement  of  equipment  in 
the  machine  shop,  benches  against  the  wall,  machines 
placed  near  the  windows  to  get  good  light,  and  ample 
space  in  the  center  of  the  shop  for  erecting  and  assembling 
work.  It  also  indicates  the  routing  of  material  through 
the  shop. 


THE  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS  DEPARTMENT 


435 


Fig.  374.  — Machine  Shop  Bench. 

The  individual  equipment  for  each  student  consists  of : 

One  combination  square  with  6"  scale. 

One  pair  6"  inside  firm  joint  calipers. 


Either  a long  continuous  bench  with 
drawers  underneath  and  vises  placed  at 
intervals,  or  an  individual  bench  such  as 
shown  in  Figure  374  may  be  used.  Since 
a large  part  of  the  class  is  likely  to  be 
working  on  the  machines  most  of  the  time, 
it  is  not  absolutely  necessary  to  have  a 
separate  bench  for  every  student  in  the 
class ; but  enough  drawers  must  be  pro- 
vided so  that  each  student  may  have  a 
separate  lock  drawer  for  his  equipment. 

With  twenty-four  students  in  a class,  if 
double  periods  are  given,  four  classes 
would  be  taught  daily.  This  would  re- 
quire 96  drawers.  If  continuation  classes 
are  also  taught  in  the  same  shop,  addi- 
tional drawers  should  be  provided  for 
them.  The  drawers  should  be  of  generous 
size  to  afford  the  student  ample  room  to 
store  his  individual  tools,  working  clothes,  and  small 
pieces  of  unfinished  work.  The  drawers  shown  in  Figure 
374  are  about  1'  6"  wide,  \ 9"  long,  9!"  deep. 


Fig.  375. 


43  6 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


One  pair  6"  outside  firm  joint  calipers. 
One  center  gauge. 

One  machinists’  hammer. 

One  center. punch. 

One  or  two  chisels. 

One  pair  6"  dividers. 


This  is  the  most  expensive  of  all  the  shops  to  equip. 
The  machine  equipment  for  a class  of  twenty-four  should 
be  as  follows : 


Machine 

Floor  Space 

Horse 

Power 

8 Engine  lathes  14"  X6'  0" 

2'o"X  7'  0" 

1 1 each 

4 Engine  lathes  16"  X6'  0" 

2'  0"  X 7'  0" 

1 2 each 

3 Engine  lathes  18"  X8'  0" 

20X9  0 

2 each 

1 Engine  lathe  24"Xi2'  0" 

2'6"XI2'  0" 

4 

1 Tool-makers’  lathe  14"  X6'  0"  . . . . 

2'o"X  7'  O" 

15 

1 Tool-makers’  lathe  16"  X6'  0"  ...  . 

2'  0"  X 7'  0" 

1-2 

i Small  tool-makers’  bench  lathe  . . . . 

i'6"x  s'  0" 

I 

1 Speed  lathe  12"  X5'  0" 

2' o"X  s'  6" 

I 

1 Large  milling  machine  

7'  0"  X 9'  °" 

5 

1 Universal  milling  machine 

2'  4"X  4'  7" 

2 

1 Large  universal  grinder 

S'  0"  X 6'  0" 

2 

1 Small  universal  grinder  (for  tool  room)  . 

3'  0"  X 4'  0" 

4 

1 30"  Radial  drill 

6'  4"  X 7'  0" 

3 

1 22"  Back-geared  drill  press 

30X4  0 

2 

1 Sensitive  drill  press 

2'  0"  X 2'  0" 

2 

1 Wet  emery  grinder 

1'  6"  X 2'  6" 

2 

1 Dry  emery  grinder 

1'  6"  X 2'  6" 

2 

1 Planer  3o"X3o"Xio'  0" 

S'  0"  X16'  0" 

s 

1 Power  hack  saw 

2'  0"  X 3'  6" 

2 

1 16"  Shaper  

2'  6"  X 4'  10" 

3 

1 Gas  hardening  furnace  

2'  0"  X 3’  0” 

1 Brazing  outfit  with  stand 

1 Air  pump  for  brazing  and  hardening 

3'  0"  X 3'  0" 

furnace 

1 Acetylene  welding  outfit 

i'  0"  X 2'  0" 
Portable 

2 

Other  machines  might  be  added,  but  the  above  list 
gives  a very  satisfactory  equipment  for  a general  machine- 
shop  course.  Two  or  three  of  the  lathes  should  be  fitted 
with  taper  attachments,  and  at  least  one  with  a relieving 
attachment,  and  each  should  have  one  universal  three- 
jawed  and  one  independent  four-jawed  chuck.  Part  of 
the  lathes  should  be  belt-driven  and  part  motor-driven  ; 
there  should  also  be  several  different  makes  of  lathes, 
so  as  to  familiarize  students  with  various  types. 

A large  assortment  of  tools  should  be  kept  in  the  tool 
room,  such  as  milling  cutters  of  various  kinds,  mandrels, 
taps  and  dies,  reamers,  drills,  lathe  dogs,  clamps,  planer 
jacks,  standard  gauges,  scales,  dividers,  surface  gauges, 
vernier  and  micrometer  calipers,  tool  holders,  etc.,  etc. 
If  much  tool  and  gear  hardening  are  to  be  done  a pyro- 
scope  or  pyrometer  and  a sclereoscope  are  very  desirable. 
A convenient  form  of  tool-room  cabinet  is  shown  in 
Figure  375.  A useful  tool  stand  to  be  placed  beside  each 
lathe  is  shown  in  Figure  376.  Figure  377  shows  a handy 
device  for  caring  for  chucks  and  face  plates.  It  is 
fastened  to  the  floor  at  the  head  of  the  lathe. 

The  tool  room  is  perhaps  a more  important  adjunct  in 


the  machine  shop  than  in  any  of  the  other  shops.  It 
should  be  centrally  located  so  as  to  be  reached  by 
students  from  all  parts  of  the  shop  without  too  much 
traveling.  It  should  be  well  lighted  and  provided  with 
a few  machines  such  as  tool  makers’  lathe  and  universal 
tool  and  cutter  grinder  for  use  of  the  tool-room  attendant 
in  making  and  repairing  tools. 

The  Foundry  (Figure  378).  — A reference  to  the  main 
floor  plan  of  the  shop  building  group,  Figure  367.  shows 


ii 

3 


Fig.  376.  — Tool  Stand. 


that  the  foundry  in  this  design  is  a wider  building  than 
any  other  except  the  automobile  shop.  The  floor  space 
is  divided  into  three  areas  running  lengthwise  of  the 
shop.  The  roof  over  the  central  portion  is  higher  than 
that  over  the  two  side  portions.  This  allows  height  for 
operating  a traveling  crane.  The  crane  as  well  as  the 
clerestory  is  supported  by  the  two  rows  of  columns 
shown.  The  height  of  the  walls  of  the  other  buildings  is 
fourteen  feet  from  the  floor  to  the  under  side  of  the  roof 
trusses.  This  does  not  give  room  to  operate  a traveling 
crane ; therefore,  instead  of  making  the  whole  building 
higher,  the  central  portion  only  is  raised,  allowing  a crane 
of  shorter  span  to  be  installed.  The  smaller  crane  is 


437 


THE  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS  DEPARTMENT 



less  expensive  to  purchase  and  to  operate,  and  will 
admit  of  lighter  supports.  The  span  of  the  crane  that 
would  be  installed  in  this  shop  is  twenty-four  feet.  This 
is  sufficient  space  for  all  heavy  floor  molding  or  work 
requiring  the  use  of  a crane.  The  side  areas  can  be 
used  for  bench  molding  or  light  floor  molding. 

A smaller  shop  might  suffice  for  a school,  but  if  a 
building  the  same  width  as  the  other  shops  in  this  plan, 
viz.,  forty-five  feet,  is  built,  it  is  almost  too  narrow  to 
divide  into  three  areas  as  above,  and  if  this  is  not  done, 
and  a crane  is  installed,  it  would  have  to  be  of  forty-five 
foot  span.  Such  a crane  would  require  a heavy  bridge, 
larger  motors  to  operate  it,  and  stronger 
supports  to  carry  it,  all  of  which  increases 
the  expense. 

It  is  not  necessary  that  the  crane 
should  operate  over  the  entire  area  of  the 
foundry,  therefore  the  plan  suggested  in 
Figure  378  is  the  best  where  a traveling 
crane  is  desired.  If  a small  building  is 
built  for  a foundry,  then  probably  no  crane 
or  only  a jib  crane  should  be  put  in. 

The  school  foundry  crane  should  be  a 
two-ton,  three-motor  crane,  operated  from 
the  floor.  One  motor  is  to  drive  the 
mechanism  which  propels  the  bridge  from 
end  to  end  of  the  building,  the  second 
motor  moves  the  crane  from  end  to  end  of 
the  bridge,  and  the  third  operates  the 
hoist.  Safety  stops  should  be  installed 
to  prevent  over  travel  either  of  bridge, 
crane,  or  hoist. 

The  floor  of  the  foundry  should  have  a 
depth  of  about  two  feet  of  molding  sand, 
and  in  the  central  portion  there  should  be 
a good-sized  area  excavated  to  a depth  of 
four  to  six  feet  and  filled  with  molding  sand  for  pit  molding. 

The  cupola  should  be  placed  at  one  end  of  the  foundry, 
as  shown,  and  within  reach  of  the  crane.  A two-ton 
cupola  is  about  thirty-six  inches  in  diameter  above  the 
tuyeres.  This  size  is  ample  for  the  school  foundry.  A 
fan  or  pressure  blower  with  motor  to  drive  it  is  needed 
to  operate  the  cupola.  They  may  be  placed  in  any  con- 
venient position  and  piped  to  the  cupola.  Across  this 
end  of  the  building  is  the  charging  platform,  from  which 
the  coke  and  iron  are  fed  into  the  furnace.  This  plat- 
form is  about  10  feet  above  the  floor.  The  storeroom  for 
coke  and  iron  should  be  located  as  close  to  the  cupola 
as  possible,  to  avoid  unnecessary  time  and  labor  in 
handling.  The  storeroom  in  the  plan  (Figure  378)  is 
shown  directly  back  of  the  cupola,  so  that  the  coke  and 
iron  need  be  moved  but  a few  feet  and  picked  up  by  the 
crane  and  lifted  on  to  the  charging  platform. 


The  core  making  may  be  carried  on  in  the  main  room 
of  the  foundry,  but  it  is  preferable  to  have  it  in  a separate 
room  as  shown.  Ample  bench  room  should  be  provided, 
also  floor  space  for  keeping  core  sand  and  other  materials. 
A moderate-sized  core  oven  with  the  necessary  smoke- 
stack should  be  installed  in  this  room.  A metal  truck 
which  can  be  wheeled  into  the  oven  should  be  provided 
for  handling  large  cores. 

There  should  be  a room  in  which  patterns  may  be 
stored  in  an  orderly  manner  and  protected  from  injury. 

The  school  foundry  should  provide  facilities  for  making 
castings  of  brass,  bronze,  aluminum,  and  other  of  the 


softer  metals.  The  brass  furnace  may  be  placed  in  any 
convenient  part  of  the  foundry,  preferably  near  the  supply 
of  fuel  and  metals.  The  one  shown  in  the  plan  is  prac- 
tically three  furnaces  combined,  so  that  three  crucibles 
can  be  operated  at  once. 

Various  types  of  brass  furnaces  are  in  use,  some  burning 
oil,  others  burning  coke.  A simple  form  of  furnace  to 
construct  is  that  shown  in  the  plan.  It  is  built  of  brick 
with  iron  grate  and  top,  and  is  lined  with  fire  brick. 
The  flues  from  the  three  fire  pots  lead  into  the  same 
smokestack.  Coke  is  used  in  this  furnace,  and  it  may 
be  operated  either  with  or  without  forced  draft.  The 
furnace  is  sunk  into  the  ground,  the  top  being  only  eight 
or  ten  inches  above  the  floor.  As  the  furnace  is  out  of 
reach  of  the  large  traveling  crane,  a jib  crane  may  be 
installed  within  convenient  reach. 

Along  the  sides  of  the  building  are  placed  benches 


Fig.  377.  — Chuck  Rack. 


H O a 1 "H  H 0 3 


$ 


PLAN-  OF  FOUNDRY  SHOP  FOU,  A.  LARGE  C05MQP0L1TAH'  HIGH  SCHOOL 


THE  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS  DEPARTMENT 


439 


Messrs.  Perkins , Fellows  & Hamilton,  Architects. 

Fig.  379.  — Foundry,  New  Trier  Township  High  School,  Kenilworth,  Illinois. 


upon  which  light  molding  can  be  done.  These  molding 
benches  are  sometimes  built  in  the  form  of  bins  in  which 
some  special  or  fine  grade  of  molding  sand  is  kept.  They 
are  4'  6 " wide,  by  6'  o"  long,  and  are  double  so  that  a 
student  may  work  from  either  side. 

Other  stationary  equipment  needed  for  the  foundry  is  : 


Machine 

Floor  Space 

Horse  Power 

1 Core-wire  straightener  .... 

2'o"X2'o" 

1 Tumbling  barrel  with  motor 

4'  5"  X8'  6" 

2 

1 Electric  sand  riddle 

4'  0"  X4'  0" 

1 

1 Emery  grinder  with  motor  . . . 

T 6"X2'  4" 

2 

Each  student  should  be  provided  with  a molder’s 
tool  box  and  an  assortment  of  molder’s  trowels,  slicks, 
and  other  tools  for  finishing  molds,  lifters,  gate  cutters, 
swabs  and  swab  dishes,  parting  sand  dishes  and  dusters, 
shovels,  riddles,  bellows,  molder’s  brushes,  and  camel’s- 
hair  brushes,  etc. 

There  should  be  an  assortment  of  large  ladles  with 
swivel  shanks,  also  small  hand  ladles  with  shanks,  snap 
flasks  and  weights  of  various  sizes,  flask  clamps,  clamp 
bars,  wheelbarrows  for  coke  and  iron,  a thousand-pound 
scrap-iron  scale,  crucibles,  and  other  tools  and  appli- 
ances. Wooden  molder’s  flasks  of  all  sizes  should  be 
made  as  needed  in  the  woodworking  shop. 


The  Forge  Shop  (Figure  380). — The  floor  plan  here 
shown  and  the  photograph  (Figure  381)  illustrate  the 
proper  arrangement  of  equipment  in  the  forge  shop,  two 
rows  of  double  forges  running  lengthwise  of  the  room, 
with  ample  working  space  between  them,  benches  con- 
taining the  blacksmiths’  vises  against  the  wall,  and  the 
power  hammer  and  other  machines  conveniently  grouped 
at  one  side.  The  shop  shown  in  the  photograph  has  a 
concrete  floor. 

The  kind  of  floor  that  should  be  laid  in  the  forge  shop 
is  a question  requiring  careful  study.  The  earth  or 
cinder  floor  is  safe,  from  the  standpoint  of  fire  risk,  and 
while  it  is  soft  to  stand  upon,  it  is  ruinous  to  the  shoes, 
and  the  black  dust  constantly  arising  from  the  floor 
makes  it  impossible  for  the  students  to  keep  either  their 
persons  or  clothing  clean.  If  the  floor  is  sprinkled  to 
keep  the  dust  down,  it  is  just  as  hard  on  the  shoes,  and 
standing  on  the  wet  floor  is  a menace  to  health,  espe- 
cially in  cold  weather.  The  concrete  floor  is  safe  from 
fire,  but  is  hard  to  stand  on.  The  wooden  floor  is  more 
comfortable  to  the  feet,  but  offers  more  danger  from 
fire.  In  a fireproof  building  the  wooden  floor  on  top  of 
a concrete  floor  offers  less  fire  risk,  and  more  comfort. 
In  a wooden  building  it  is  a question  between  fire  risk 
and  comfort ; one  must  be  sacrificed  to  obtain  the  other. 


Page  441  Fig.  381.  — Forge  Shop,  Oakland  Technical  High  School,  Oakland,  California. 


442 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


If  a wooden  floor  is  laid,  it  may  be  of  surfaced  i"  plank, 
overlaid  with  tongue  and  groove  flooring,  so  the 
surface  can  be  relaid  from  time  to  time  as  it  becomes 
worn  and  splintered.  A more  satisfactory  wooden  floor 
is  made  of  redwood  blocks  laid  with  the  wood  fiber  on 


With  each  forge  should  be  a set  of  the  following  tools 

2  Set  hammers  (one  large,  one  small), 
i Hand  hammer, 
i Sledge,  5-lb. 
x Sledge,  io-lb. 

i Set  flat  tongs  from  to  i". 
i Set  square  bit  tongs  §"  to  . 

1 Pair  chisel  tongs  for  eye  chisels. 

2 Pair  tongs  for  hand  chisels. 

3 Pair  chain  tongs. 

1 Hardie. 

4 Hot  eye  chisels. 

2 Cold  eye  chisels, 
i Eye  center  punch, 
i Poker, 
i Small  shovel. 

Hand  punches  to  suit  the  work, 
i Large  flatter  3"  face. 

1 Round  edge  flatter  T'XiY'  face. 


The  following  tools  should  be  provided, 
and  kept  in  racks  conveniently  placed, 
for  the  use  of  all  the  students  in  common : 


The  cast  iron  anvil  base  shown  in 
Figure  381  is  found  more  satisfactory 
than  the  wooden  blocks  frequently  used, 
provided  the  forge  shop  has  a very  rigid 
floor. 

Several  work  benches  should  be  placed 
in  convenient  positions  with  the  black- 
smiths’ vises  on  them.  Six  or  eight  vises 
will  be  ample  for  the  class.  Work  benches 
should  be  against  the  wall  and  about  two  feet  to  two 
feet  six  inches  in  width.  The  length  may  vary  to  suit 
conditions  in  the  shop. 

If  the  blower  and  exhauster  listed  above  are  provided 
with  direct  connected  motors,  they  will  require  floor 
space  about  3'  6"X3'  6"  and  5'  3"Xio'  o"  respectively. 
If  twenty-five  forges  are  installed,  a blower  with  about  a 
32"  fan  run  at  1200  revolutions  per  minute,  outlet  about 
nf"  diameter,  will  furnish  the  necessary  blast  and  require 
about  7!  horse  power.  If  the  down  draft  system  is 
used  a steel  plate  exhauster  with  50”  fan  at  900  R.  P.  M.. 
24"  inlet,  will  supply  the  draft  and  require  about  15 
horse  power.  The  fans  may  be  run  at  higher  speed  and 
correspondingly  reduced  in  size  and  horse  power.  If 


Machine  or  Apparatus 

Floor  Space 

Horse  Power 

24  Forges  in  pairs 

2' 

io" 

X6' 

3" 

24  Anvils  — 125-lb 

l' 

3" 

X2' 

0" 

1 Large  forge 

4' 

0" 

X4' 

10" 

1 Large  anvil — 250-lb 

i' 

4" 

X2' 

6" 

1 Power  hammer  .... 

2' 

6" 

X6' 

3" 

7 h 

1 Drill  press — 22"  back  geared  . 

3' 

0" 

X4' 

o" 

2 

1 Dry  emery  grinder  12"  to  14" 

i' 

6" 

X2' 

6" 

2 

1 Gas  hardening  furnace  .... 

2' 

9" 

X3' 

3" 

1 Air  pump  for  furnace  .... 

i' 

0" 

X2' 

0" 

2 

1 Blower  for  forges 

i' 

6" 

X3' 

6" 

i\ 

1 Exhauster  for  forges 

s' 

3" 

xs' 

3" 

15 

1 Bar  and  bolt  cutter 

1' 

6" 

X2' 

0" 

Hand 

Fig.  3S2.  — Forge  Shop. 


end,  with  a foundation  of  concrete  or  closely  laid, 
seasoned  and  sized  boards,  well  nailed  to  joist. 

the  machine  equipment  for  the  forge  shop  should  be : 


2 Sets  top  swages  from  to  1%". 

2 Sets  bottom  swages  from  to  1". 

2 Sets  top  fullers  from  to  1". 

2 Sets  bottom  fullers  from  to  1". 

2 Eye  punches  (one  large  and  one  small). 
1 Set  round  punches  from  \"  to  1". 

1 Set  heading  tools  from  to  1". 

1 Swage  block. 

1 Coal  shovel. 

1 Water  bucket. 


THE  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS  DEPARTMENT 


443 


■ P LAN ' 


DETAIL  AT A DETAIL  AT  'EL 


■ • ,5AND  . . 

note; 

FOUNDATION  TO  bZ  BOTTOMLESS 
REINFORCEMENT  W°  TWISTED  6AR5 
SFACED  6’  ON  CENTER.  HORIZONT- 
: ALLY  AND  IZ-  VERTICALLY 


f 


Le 


■1 

1 

1 

d 


• BLDE  VIEW- 


•'FRONT  VIEW- 


•FOUNDATION'  FOR-  A.  POWER- HARMED  ° 

NO  .SCALE 


WALTER-  A-  TENNEY  . VOCATIONAL  DIRECTOR. 
JOHN  J.  DONOVAN  . ARCHITECT 
OAKLAND  CALIFORNIA 


collaborators 


Fig.  383. 


444 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


the  overhead  exhaust  system  is  used,  a fan  of  much 
smaller  capacity  will  serve,  and  if  the  smoke  pipes  extend 
from  the  hoods  straight  up  through  the  roof  the  exhaust 
fan  may  be  omitted  altogether.  The  plan  shows  the 
fans  for  the  forge  blast  and  exhaust  systems  in  a small 
separate  room.  This  is  preferable  though  not  imperative. 

The  sizes  and  arrangement  of  piping  for  the  forge 
blast  and  exhaust  are  shown  in  Figure  380.  The  piping 
may  be  galvanized  iron  or  drain  pipe.  If  the  forge  shop 
floor  is  from  three  to  five  feet  above  the  ground,  iron 
pipe  may  be  used  and  hung  to  the  under  side  of  the 
floor.  If  the  floor  is  of  earth  or  cinders,  or  of  concrete 
and  laid  on  the  ground,  then  the  pipe  must  be  laid  under- 
ground. If  the  piping  is  laid  underground,  it  may  be 
drain  pipe,  with  joints  thoroughly  cemented,  or  it  may 
be  sheet  metal  bedded  in  concrete.  Even  if  drain  pipe 
is  used  it  is  better  to  bed  it  in  concrete,  as  the  settling 
of  the  earth  is  liable  to  crack  the  joints,  and  in  rainy 
weather,  if  water  soaks  into  the  ground  where  the  pipe 
is  laid,  it  will  fill  the  pipe  and  render  it  useless  until  it 
is  pumped  out.  The  concrete  should  be  4"  thick 
around  the  pipe  on  all  sides. 

If  down  draft  forges  are  installed  a double  forge  is 
recommended.  They  make  a neat  looking  installation 
and  save  somewhat  in  floor  space  and  in  piping.  The 
double  forge  requires  a floor  space  34//X75"  and  should 
be  placed  eight  or  nine  feet  from  center  to  center 
measured  lengthwise  of  the  rows  as  shown  in  Figure  380, 
leaving  five  or  six  feet  clear  working  space  between. 
When  the  forges  are  placed  in  two  rows  the  center  lines 
of  the  two  rows  should  be  about  sixteen  feet  apart  so  as 
to  leave  ample  room  for  a student  using  a sledge  to  swing 
it  without  interference. 

The  forge  shown  in  Figure  382  was  designed  by  Mr. 
Frank  Weaver,  instructor  in  forge  work  in  the  Vocational 
High  School,  Oakland,  California,  and  built  by  the 
students.  This  forge  is  not  the  down  draft  type.  It 
has  the  mechanical  blast  and  overhead  exhaust.  It 
may  be  used  either  with  or  without  the  exhaust  fan. 
If  in  a one-story  building,  the  exhaust  pipe  from  each 
group  of  forges  may  be  carried  directly  through  the  roof, 
and  the  natural  draft  will  be  found  satisfactory  without 
the  fan.  The  exhaust  pipe  has  a telescope  joint,  and 
the  hoods  are  counterweighted  so  they  can  be  raised  or 
lowered.  The  cut  shows  a group  of  four  forges  built 
together.  In  this  way  they  economize  in  floor  space 
and  in  piping,  are  compact  and  neat  in  appearance,  and 
easy  to  keep  clean.  The  tuyeres  are  self-cleaning,  by 
simply  removing  the  cap  on  the  pipe  extending  through 
the  side  of  the  forge  and  turning  on  the  blast.  Each 
group  of  four  forges  requires  a floor  space  six  feet  by  six 
feet  and  should  have  a clear  space  between  groups  of 
from  four  to  five  feet. 


These  forges  are  the  result  of  years  of  experience  on 
the  part  of  the  designer  both  in  commercial  shops  and 
in  teaching,  and  are  the  most  satisfactory  of  all  the  forges 
known  to  the  writer.  They  are  so  simple  that  they  can 
be  built  by  the  students  of  any  manual  training  high 
school,  as  very  few  tools  are  needed  in  their  construction. 

The  large  forge  shown  in  Figure  380  near  the  power 
hammer  is  four  feet  in  diameter,  and  the  water  and  coal 
tanks  extend  10",  making  the  total  floor  space  48"X58". 
A single  forge  of  the  type  shown  in  Figure  382  may  be 
substituted. 

There  are  several  types  of  power  hammers  in  use. 
For  a well-equipped  high  school  shop,  a hammer  that 
will  work  stock  about  four  inches  thick  is  preferable, 
though  smaller  sizes  are  frequently  installed.  A belt- 
driven  trip  hammer,  that  will  work  stock  up  to  three 
and  a half  inches  in  thickness,  requires  a floor  space 
36//X5i'/,  also  belting,  pulleys,  shafting,  and  some 
source  of  power.  It  is  also  furnished  with  individual 
motor.  A self-contained  power  hammer  operated  by 
compressed  air  generated  in  the  machine  itself  has  been 
found  very  satisfactory.  This  hammer  is  furnished  for 
either  belt  or  individual  motor  drive.  It  requires  floor 
space  2'  6 " X 6'  3"  and  7^  horse  power.  A genuine 
steam  hammer  can  only  be  installed  if  the  school  has  a 
high  pressure  steam  power  plant  in  constant  operation. 
A steam  hammer  may  be  operated  by  compressed  air. 
This  will  require  an  air  compressor,  tank,  and  motor  or 
other  source  of  power.  The  floor  space  occupied  by 
the  machine  is  2'  ioj'Xi'  9",  and  the  tank,  compressor, 
and  motor  will  require  about  4'  o"Xi2'  o".  These 
latter  may  be  placed  overhead,  upon  a raised  platform 
or  gallery. 

A power  hammer  must  have  a special  foundation. 
There  are  several  ways  of  building  it.  One  method  is 
to  make  a solid  concrete  block  considerably  larger  than 
the  base  of  the  hammer,  set  into  the  ground  from  one 
to  three  feet,  depending  on  the  height  of  the  shop  floor 
above  ground.  Pipes  containing  anchor  bolts  must 
be  placed  (so  that  the  location  of  the  bolts  will  coincide 
with  the  holes  in  the  base  of  the  machine)  before  the 
concrete  is  poured.  Under  the  anvil  the  top  surface 
of  the  concrete  must  be  about  eight  inches  lower  than 
the  general  surface,  so  that  a cushion  of  wood  may  be 
interposed. 

better  method  (Figure  383)  is  to  build  a bottomless 
reinforced  concrete  box,  sunk  into  the  ground  three  feet 
or  more,  depending  on  the  height  of  the  shop  floor 
above  ground.  The  box  should  be  filled  to  a depth  of 
two  or  three  feet  with  sand.  On  top  of  the  sand,  laid 
lengthwise  of  the  box,  are  timbers  of  soft  wood  that  Mil 
withstand  decay.  They  should  be  eight  or  ten  inches 
thick  and  should  fill  the  box  from  end  to  end  and  from 


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SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


side  to  side.  On  top  of  these  are  timbers  12"  or  14" 
square  stood  on  end,  the  top  ends  on  a level  with  the 
top  surface  of  the  floor.  The  upright  timbers  should 
be  bound  together  with  iron  bands  and  the  machine 
bolted  on  as  shown.  The  top  surface  of  the  timber 
foundation  should  be  about  three  inches  or  four  inches 
larger  on  all  sides  than  the  base  of  the  machine,  and 
the  center  of  the  anvil  should  be  over  the  center  of  the 
sand  box. 

Gas  tool-hardening  and  tempering  furnaces  may  be 
obtained  in  various  sizes.  A size  that  will  be  adequate 
for  any  work  likely  to  be  done  in  the  school  shop  will 
occupy  a floor  space  2'  g"Xs'  3"-  It  will  require 
piping  for  gas  and  air,  and  an  air  pump  either  motor  or 
belt-driven.  The  best  arrangement  is  a rotary  air  pump 
with  direct  connected  motor  mounted  on  the  same  base, 
which  may  be  placed  in  any  out-of-the-way  position,  as 
overhead,  or  on  a bracket  on  the  wall,  thus  occupying 
no  floor  space  otherwise  needed.  An  air  pump  with 
1"  outlet  and  2 horse  power  motor  will  be  adequate. 

A dry  emery  grinder  carrying  two  wheels  about 
2//Xi4//  and  mounted  on  an  iron  column  will  require 
about  i'  6//X2/  3"  floor  space  and  a two  horse  power 
to  run  it.  If  an  individual  motor  is  used,  a two  horse 
power  1800  R.  P.  M.  motor  placed  overhead  and  belted 
direct  to  the  grinder  will  be  satisfactory. 

A combination  punch  and  shear,  while  not  an  absolute 
necessity,  is  a great  convenience  to  the  forge  shop.  A 
machine  that  will  punch  holes  up  to  diameter  in 
stock  and  cut  rounds  1"  diameter  and  flats  3,/Xf//  is 
recommended.  It  will  require  a 2 feet  by  3 feet  floor 
space  and  is  hand  operated. 

If  a central  storeroom  is  not  maintained  in  the  school 
plant,  in  which  supplies  for  all  shops  are  stored  to  be 
issued  as  the  instructor  needs  them,  then  a stock  rack 
to  carry  bars  of  iron  and  steel  will  be  needed  in  the  forge 
shop  itself.  An  adequate  rack  will  occupy  floor  space 
\ o"X  S'  o".  A coal  bin  must  be  provided,  in  or 
adjoining  the  shop,  large  enough  to  contain  two  or  three 
tons  of  coal. 

The  Automobile  Shop  (Figure  384).- — The  drawing 
shows  a shop  about  sixty  by  eighty  feet.  A smaller 
shop  could  be  made  to  render  good  service,  but  would 
not  be  quite  satisfactory.  The  writer  has  operated  a 
school  automobile  shop  fifty  by  sixty  feet,  in  which 
practical  repair  work  has  been  carried  on  continuously 
with  considerable  success ; but  it  was  found,  that  with 
a class  of  fifteen  to  twenty  students,  there  was  insuffi- 
cient room,  and  the  efficiency  was  reduced  on  this 
account. 

This  shop  should  have  a concrete  floor,  and  should  be 
as  near  fireproof  as  possible  on  account  of  the  danger 
from  oils  and  gasoline.  There  should  be  ample  floor 


space  so  that  a number  of  cars,  say  twelve  or  fifteen, 
can  be  taken  into  the  shop  at  one  time. 

There  should  be  a pit  five  feet  wide,  five  feet  deep,  and 
twenty-four  feet  long  conveniently  located.  A good 
plan  is  to  have  it  about  eleven  feet  from  one  wall,  leaving 
room  to  pass  around  the  end  of  a car  when  over  the  pit, 
and  also  within  easy  access  of  the  machines  and  the  tool 
room.  A pit  of  the  above  dimensions  will  accommodate 
three  cars  at  one  time.  The  pit  should  have  a cover  of 
two  inch  planks,  ten  or  twelve  inches  wide,  set  flush 
with  the  floor.  The  planks  should  all  be  separate  from 
each  other,  and  should  fit  closely  so  when  they  are  all  in 
place  the  pit  is  completely  covered,  and  each  should  have 
a rope  handle  by  which  to  lift  it.  There  should  be  about 
three  electric  light  outlets  in  the  side  wall  of  the  pit, 
into  which  to  plug  light-cords,  which  will  reach  to  any 
part  of  a machine  which  the  workman  desires  to  get  at 
while  in  the  pit. 

Another  plan,  and  one  which  is  in  some  ways  prefer- 
able, is  to  have  a raised  platform  about  five  feet  above 
the  floor,  upon  which  the  car  can  be  placed  while  working 
underneath  it.  The  platform  is  more  convenient  for 
the  workman  but  requires  more  room,  because  of  the 
space  occupied  by  the  incline  upon  which  the  car  must 
be  taken  up  and  down. 

A small  fireproof  storeroom  should  be  built  at  one  side 
of  the  automobile  shop  in  which  to  keep  oils,  greases, 
and  gasoline.  It  is  advisable  to  purchase  oils  in  barrel 
lots.  If  this  is  done  they  may  be  kept  in  the  barrels, 
in  which  case  a rack  will  be  needed  on  which  to  set  the 
barrels,  elevating  them  sufficiently  above  the  floor  for 
convenience  in  drawing  oil.  A better  way  is  to  have 
metal  tanks  into  winch  the  oil  may  be  transferred  from 
the  barrels  in  which  it  is  received.  In  either  case  the 
door  to  this  storeroom  should  be  large  enough  for  a 
barrel  to  be  taken  in  and  out  easily.  The  larger  supplies 
might  also  be  kept  in  this  room. 

There  should  also  be  a small  room,  fitted  with  drawers 
and  shelves,  for  tools  and  small  supplies,  and  also  an 
office  for  the  instructor. 

It  is  sometimes  desirable  to  lift  one  end  of  a car  from 
the  floor  and  support  it  without  putting  jacks  underneath. 
For  this  purpose  it  is  convenient  to  have  a one  or  two 
ton  differential  chain  hoist  attached  to  one  of  the  roof 
trusses.  Care  should  be  taken  to  insure  that  the  truss 
is  strong  enough  to  sustain  the  additional  load. 

The  list  of  equipment  on  page  449  includes  the  most 
essential  items  that  should  be  found  in  the  school  shop. 

The  garage  press  and  the  portable  crane  may  be 
built  by  any  school  having  a machine  and  forge  shop. 

If  the  school  has  a separate  electric  shop,  the  charging 
of  storage  batteries  may  be  done  there,  and  the  generator 
set  omitted  from  the  automobile  shop  equipment.  If 


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Mr.  Floyd  A.  Nar amort' % Architect. 


THE  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS  DEPARTMENT 


449 


Mt.  Floyd  A.  Naramore,  Architect. 


Fig.  387.  — Electrical  Shop,  Benson  Polytechnic  High  School,  Portland,  Oregon. 


Floor  Space 

Horse 

Power 

Floor  Space 

Horse 

Power 

1 Garage  press 

3'  o"X3'  0" 

Hand 

1 Electric  drill 

Portable 

1 

6 

1 Electric  generator  for  storage  batteries  . 

2'  o"X3'  6" 

5 

1 Electric  auto  starter 

7'o"X5'o" 

2 

1 Air  compressor  and  tank 

3'  o"X4'  0" 

3 

1 Electric  valve  grinder 

Portable 

t 

1 Steam  vulcanizing  outfit 

2'  0"  X3'  0" 

1 Portable  three-wheel  jack 

1 2"  X 1 2"  Two-wheel  emery  grinder  . . 

1'  6"  X2'  3" 

2 

8 Auto  jacks 

1 14"  X6'  0"  Engine  lathe 

2'  0"  X7'  0" 

2 

15  Machinists’  vises 

1 16"  X8'  0"  Engine  lathe 

2'  0"  Xg'  0" 

2 

15  Machinists’  hammers 

1 20"  Back-geared  drill  press 

2 0 X4  0 

I 

1 Gas  soldering  furnace 

1 One-  to  two-ton  differential  chain  hoist, 

3 Assorted  sizes  soldering  coppers  . . . 

attached  to  roof  truss 

1 Grease  gun 

1 Portable  crane  with  differential  chain 

4 Sets  solid  open-end  wrenches  to  f" 

hoist  

1 Complete  set  “Ford”  wrenches  . . . 

1 Brazing  outfit 

2'  6"X2'  6" 

3 Assorted  sizes  monkey  wrenches  . . . 

1 Acetylene  welding  outfit 

Portable 

3 Pyrene  fire  extinguishers 

1 Electric  welding  outfit 

2'  0"  X4'  0" 

s 

15  Screwdrivers,  assorted  sizes 

installed  in  the  auto  shop  it  may  be  placed  on  a platform 
overhead  or  on  a bracket  on  the  wall  so  as  to  take  no  floor 
space.  The  same  is  true  of  the  air  compressor  and  tank. 

If  a very  extensive  equipment  is  desired,  more  machines 
might  be  added.  If  no  separate  forge  shop  is  maintained, 
at  least  one  forge  and  anvil  with  set  of  tools  should  be 
installed  in  the  auto  shop,  but  if  separate  forge  and 


machine  shops  are  maintained,  then  the  above  makes  a 
very  good  working  equipment. 

The  machines  should  be  grouped  together  in  one  part 
of  the  shop  where  there  is  good  light  and  out  of  the  way 
of  cars  passing  in  and  out. 

The  Electrical  Shop  (Figure  385).  — Where  but  one 
room  can  be  given  to  electrical  work,  it  should  be  large 


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THE  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS  DEPARTMENT 


451 


enough,  and  the  equipment  should  be  selected  and 
arranged  with  a view  to  giving  instruction  in  house 
wiring,  telephone  work,  switchboard  work,  and  con- 
struction and  repair  of  electrical  machines  and  ap- 
pliances. Such  an  arrangement  is  shown  in  the 
plan. 

To  provide  instruction  in  house  wiring,  a framework 
divided  into  three  or  four  rooms  should  be  built  against 
one  side  or  end  of  the  shop,  where  it  will  cut  off  the  least 
light.  It  should  be  built  of  full-sized  framing  lumber  and 
put  together  in  the  same  manner  as  a real  building  is 
constructed.  It  may  be  two  stories  in  height.  The 
students  will  use  this  for  continuous  practice  in  both 
knob  and  tube  and  conduit  wiring,  putting  in  and  tak- 
ing out  again  different  wiring  arrangements.  When, 
through  cutting  and  boring  holes,  parts  of  the  frame- 
work become  unfit  for  further  use,  they  will  be  removed 
and  replaced  by  new  pieces. 

It  is  a very  good  plan  to  make  the  electric  shop  the 
main  distribution  point  for  all  the  electrical  service  for 
the  entire  school  plant.  This  arrangement  gives  the 
electric  shop  a large  practical  working  switchboard 
providing  both  direct  and  alternating  current  for  the 
students  to  observe,  care  for,  and  study,  which  is  a valu- 
able piece  of  instructional  apparatus,  obtainable  in  no 
other  way.  The  board  should  be  guarded  by  an  iron 
grillwork  extending  nearly  or  quite  the  full  height  of 
the  board,  and  provided  with  doors  at  convenient  inter- 
vals as  indicated  on  the  plan. 

A rack  for  holding  a quantity  of  iron  conduit  of 
different  sizes,  and  up  to  twenty  feet  in  length,  may  be 
placed  in  a convenient  position  in  the  shop.  The  one 
shown  in  the  figure  is  in  direct  line  with  the  outside  doors, 
so  the  pipe  can  be  brought  straight  into  the  rack  without 
turning  or  carrying  around  or  over  machines  or  other 
equipment.  Convenient  to  the  rack  should  be  benches 
containing  pipe  vises,  where  cutting  and  threading  may 
be  done.  If  the  floor  space  is  limited  and  a central  store- 
room is  provided  for  the  whole  plant,  the  conduit  rack 
may  be  omitted,  and  the  conduit  brought  from  the 
storeroom  as  needed  for  immediate  use,  or  a limited 
quantity  stored  under  the  bench. 

A telephone  switchboard  may  be  installed  in  any 
convenient  position,  from  which  lines  may  be  run 
to  telephones  stationed  in  various  places  about  the 
room. 

Long  work  benches  should  be  placed  against  the  wall 
with  large  lock  drawers  built  under  them  for  pupils’  use. 
Machinist  vises  should  be  fitted  on  these  benches  at 
about  five  or  six  foot  intervals,  also  soldering  stoves.  A 
small  gas  pipe  should  be  run  along  the  wall  at  the  back 
of  the  bench  and  the  stoves  permanently  connected 
to  it. 


A table  for  storage  batteries  should  be  conveniently 
placed,  preferably  away  from  other  equipment.  If 
space  allows  it  is  better  to  arrange  a separate  room  for 
storage-battery  work.  The  generator,  if  the  floor  space 
is  needed,  may  be  placed  on  an  overhead  support  which 
can  easily  be  arranged. 

In  addition  to  the  items  above  mentioned,  the  fol- 
lowing will  be  found  a very  satisfactory  list  of  equip- 
ment : 


Machines 

Floor  Space 

Horse 

Power 

1 16"  X8' 0"  Engine  lathe 

2'  0"  Xg'  0" 

2 

2 14"  X6'  0"  Engine  lathe  

•2'  0"  X7'  0" 

2 each 

2 i2"X4'  0"  Speed  lathe  with  draw  in 
collets 

2'  o"Xs'  0" 

1 each 

1 Universal  milling  machine 

2'  o"Xs'  0" 

3 

i Shaper  

2'  0"  Xs'  0" 

2 

1 20"  Drill  press,  back  geared  .... 

2'  0"  X4'  0" 

I 

1 Emery  grinder,  two  2"Xi2"  wheels  . . 

1'  6"  X2'  3" 

2 

1 Armature  disk  slotter 

2'  8"X4'  6" 

2 

1 Circular  shear 

i'6"x6'o" 

3 

1 Armature  coil  winder 

2'  0"  X2'  6" 

3 

1 Armature  coil  spreader 

1'  0"  X4'  0" 

Hand 

1 Coil  taping  machine 

1'  o"Xi'  6" 

1 

4 

1 Magnet  winder  for  large  magnets  . . . 

1'  o"X2'  0" 

1 

4 

2 Magnet  winders  for  small  magnets  . . 

1'  0"  X2'  0" 

1 

6 

1 5-k.w.  generator  set 

2'  0"  X4'  0" 

75 

If  no  separate  electrical  laboratory  is  provided  in  the 
school,  other  generator  sets  of  various  types  and  sizes, 
also  motors  of  various  kinds,  and  one  rotary  converter 
should  be  installed  in  the  electrical  shop,  for  experimental 
purposes.  It  is  better,  however,  to  so  arrange  the  work 
and  equipment  that  the  theoretical  work  and  most  of  the 
electrical  experiments  can  be  performed  in  the  electrical 
department  of  the  science  laboratory.  The  work  in 
the  electrical  shop  will  then  be  almost  wholly  construc- 
tion, repair,  and  practice  in  the  operations  and  pro- 
cesses of  the  electrician’s  trade,  and  the  equipment 
should  be  that  which  is  necessary  to  carry  out  such  a 
course. 

A quantity  of  small  tools  must  be  provided,  such  as 
hack  saws,  pipe  cutters  and  reamers,  pipe  dies,  pipe 
wrenches,  pliers,  soldering  coppers,  drills,  lathe  tools, 
milling  cutters,  etc. 

A tool  room  must  be  provided  and  fitted  with  shelves, 
drawers,  racks,  etc.,  for  keeping  the  small  tools. 

The  Printing  Shop  (Figure  388).  — The  shop  and 
equipment  shown  in  the  plan  will  require,  to  handle  the 
work  properly,  three  instructors,  a compositor  to  teach 
hand  work  and  the  fundamental  principles  and  processes 
of  the  printing  trade,  a linotype  operator  to  teach 
machine  typesetting,  and  a pressman  to  teach  presswork. 
This  shop  will  accommodate  thirty  or  more  students  at 
one  time. 

The  equipment  consists  of : 


452 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Mr.  Wm.  A.  Poland,  Architect. 


Fig.  389.  — Printing  Shop,  Junior  High  School,  Trenton,  New  Jersey. 


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Equipment 

Floor  Space 

Horse 

Power 

12  Type  cabinets 

3'  0"  X 3'  0" 

4 Imposing  tables  with  built-in  units  . . 

3'  0"  X 5'  0" 

1 Imposing  table  with  built-in  units  . . 

4'  0"  X s'  0" 

1 Proof  press  and  stand 

2'  0"  X 4'  0" 

Hand 

1 Galley  press  and  stand 

2'  0"  X 4'  0" 

Hand 

1 Miller  saw 

3'  0"  X 3'  0" 

1 

2 

3 Typesetting  machines,  three-magazine 
type,  with  extra  magazines  and  side 
magazine  attachment 

s'  0"  X 6'  0" 

3 

4 

1 Type  dump 

2'  0"  X 3'  0" 

1 Cylinder  press  33"  X46"  bed  .... 

8'  9"  X 13'  4" 

S 

1 Stock  table  for  cylinder  press  with  dry 
racks  under 

3'  6"  X 8'  9" 

4 io"Xis"  Platen  presses 

4'  0"  X s'  0" 

j each 

2 Stock  tables  with  dry  racks  .... 

3'  0"  X 4'  0" 

1 Folding  machine 

6'  0"  X 6'  0" 

2 

1 Stock  table  for  folding  machine  . . . 

3'  0"  X 6'  0" 

1 Wire  stitcher 

3'  0"  X 3'  0" 

l 

6 

1 Perforator 

3'  0"  X 3'  0" 

Foot 

1 Punch  

3'  0"  X 3'  0" 

Foot 

3 Tables  for  stitcher,  punch  and  perfora- 
tor   

2'  0"  X 3'  0" 

1 Spot  table 

3'  0"  X 4'  0" 

1 Mark-out  table 

3'  0"  X 4'  0" 

1 30"  Paper  cutter 

s'  0"  X 6'  0" 

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1 Table  for  cutter 

3'  6"  X 6'  0" 

1 Chase  rack 

3'  0"  X 3'  0" 

1 Remelting  furnace  for  type  metal  . . 

3'  0"  X 3'  0" 

2 Proof  readers’  tables 

2'  8"  X s'  0" 

Also  a large  assortment  of  type  of  different  sizes,  styles, 
and  faces ; leads,  slugs,  rule,  furniture,  galleys,  etc. 


The  stock  room  should  be  separate  from  the  print 
shop  and  accessible  from  the  outside,  so  the  stock  can 
be  delivered  without  taking  it  through  the  shop. 

Shelfing  should  be  provided  for  storing  stock  in  con- 
siderable quantities  and  of  various  sizes.  It  is  desirable 
to  have  the  paper  cutter  placed  in  the  stock  room  if 
space  will  allow,  also  a stock  table. 

A small  separate  room  should  be  built  for  the  furnace 
used  in  remelting  the  type  metal.  A gas  outlet  must 
be  provided  for  supplying  fuel  to  the  furnace,  and  a 
vent  pipe  similar  to  a stove  pipe  for  carrying  off  the 
fumes.  A supply  of  iron  molds  for  casting  the  ingots 
of  type  metal  will  be  needed  in  this  room,  also  a 
ladle. 

The  space  for  proof  reading  and  editorial  work  should 
either  be  partitioned  off  into  a separate  room  or  inclosed 
by  a railing  and  provided  with  tables  and  chairs. 

Good  light  is  needed  for  nearly  all  the  printing  work 
but  especially  for  typesetting.  Therefore  the  type  cases 
and  typesetting  machines  are  placed  as  near  the  windows 
as  possible.  They  should  also  be  equipped  with  electric 
lights.  The  typesetting  machines  must  be  supplied 
with  electric  current  for  the  motors  which  operate  them. 
The  melting  pots  on  these  machines  may  be  heated  by 
either  gas  or  electricity.  The  latter  is  more  convenient 
both  to  install  and  to  operate.  If  gas  is  used  for  heating, 


THE  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS  DEPARTMENT 


453 


a vent  pipe,  extending  to  the  outside  of  the  building, 
will  be  needed  to  carry  off  the  fumes. 

The  cylinder  press  is  a very  heavy  machine  and  in 
any  but  a very  substantial  and  rigidly  constructed 
building  will  cause  vibrations,  which  will  be  very  disturb- 
ing to  the  work  in  this  department.  If  the  printing  shop 
is  on  the  ground  floor  this  difficulty  may  be  overcome 
by  building  a separate  foundation  of  concrete  for  the 
press.  This  foundation  need  not  cover  the  entire  area 
occupied  by  the  press.  Since  the  press  rests  upon  the 
foundation  along  the  two  outer  edges  only,  it  may  take 
the  form  of  a hollow  rectangle  a little  longer  and  wider 
than  the  base  of  the  press.  A section  through  one  side 
of  this  rectangle  would  be  about  twelve  or  fourteen 
inches  wide  at  the  top  and  twenty  or  twenty-two  inches 
at  the  bottom,  and  two  or  more  feet  high,  depending  on 
the  height  of  the  floor  above  the  ground.  Anchor  bolts 
should  be  set  in  the  concrete  on  the  two  long  sides  of 
the  rectangle  to  hold  in  place  two-inch  planks  placed  on 
top  of  the  concrete.  The  top  surface  of  the  planks 
should  be  level  with  the  top  surface  of  the  floor.  While 
the  press  rests  only  on  the  two  long  sides  of  the  rectangle, 
the  two  short  sides  are  necessary  to  tie  them  together. 
The  central  space  may  be  filled  with  earth  tamped 
down  and  covered  with  a three  or  four  inch  layer  of 
concrete,  making  the  top  surface  even  with  the  floor. 

Owing  to  the  noise  made  by  the  presses  it  is  an  advan- 
tage to  have  the  press  and  composing  rooms  separated 
by  a comparatively  soundproof  partition. 

In  the  plan  a partition  is  shown,  the  upper  part  of 
which  is  double  glass.  A dead  air  space  about  four 
inches  thick  between  the  two  thicknesses  of  glass  helps 
to  deaden  the  sound  while  admitting  more  light  to  the 
press  room,  and  permitting  a view  of  both  rooms  from 
either  one  of  them,  which  is  an  advantage  in  super- 
vision. The  glass  should  be  set  in  hinged  sashes,  so 
that  both  sides  may  be  easily  cleaned. 

The  school  print  shop  will  easily  pay  for  itself  by  the 
output  of  work  for  the  school  system.  The  printing 
of  school  papers,  a great  variety  of  standard  and  special 
forms,  reports,  pamphlets  and  so  forth  both  for  the 
schools  and  the  administrative  offices  will  furnish  valu- 
able material  for  teaching  purposes  and  also  enable  the 
print  shop  to  become  practically  self-supporting,  without 
taking  in  any  commercial  work  from  outside  of  the 
school  system. 

The  Plumbing  Shop  (Figure  390).  — The  room  and 
equipment  here  illustrated  provide  facilities  for  teaching 
the  various  branches  of  the  plumbing  trade  in  the 
modern  high  school. 

On  one  side  of  the  shop  are  five  large  double  benches 
at  which  twenty  to  twenty-five  students  can  work. 
These  benches  are  provided  with  gas  stoves  and  solder 


pots,  and  on  the  end  of  each  bench  is  a pipe  vise.  There 
will  be  taught  the  fundamental  principles  and  opera- 
tions, such  as  cutting  and  threading  small  pipe  by  hand, 
making  sheet  lead  seams ; overcast  and  cup  joints ; 
wiping  half  inch,  five-eighths  inch,  and  two-inch  round 
and  branch  joints,  horizontal,  upright,  and  vertical ; 
wiping  stopcock  on  lead  pipe ; flange  joints ; wiping 
small  and  large  nipples  to  lead  pipe ; wiping  two-inch 
and  four-inch  ferrules  to  lead  pipe ; wiping  short  bends 
with  ferrules ; half-S  traps ; S traps,  etc.,  etc. 

On  the  opposite  side  of  the  shop  is  shown  the  provi- 
sion for  instruction  in  setting  up  and  connecting  various 
plumbing  fixtures.  This  consists  of  a framework  divided 
into  several  rooms  in  which  the  students  will  practice 
installing  sinks,  lavatories,  boilers,  hot-water  tanks, 
laundry  trays,  laundry  stoves  and  heaters,  urinals, 
closets,  bath  tubs,  kitchen  ranges,  instantaneous  water 
heaters,  radiators,  showers,  gas  fitting,  and  gas  fixtures. 
This  framework  is  two  stories  in  height  so  as  to  give 
more  space  for  students  to  work. 

Another  portion  of  the  shop  is  devoted  to  practice  in 
steam  fitting,  and  still  another  to  work  on  heavy  soil 
and  drain  pipe,  automatic  cellar  drainers,  trapping  and 
venting  drain,  soil  and  waste  pipes,  etc. 

The  equipment  consists  of : 

Six  Benches,  3'  o"  X16'  o". 

One  Pipe-threading  machine,  1"  to  4"  pipe,  Floor  Space, 
4'4"X7'o",  H.  P.,3. 

Individual  sets  of  tools,  comprising  ladles,  shave  hooks,  turn 
pins,  bending  pins,  rasps,  compasses,  pliers,  tap  borers  and 
dressers. 

Equipment  for  general  shop  use  comprises  pipe  cutters, 
pipe  tongs  and  wrenches,  pipe  reamers,  bending  springs, 
calking  irons,  hammers,  compass  saws,  blow  torches, 
soldering  coppers,  levels,  etc. 

Pipe  racks  are  provided  for  storing  both  long  and 
short  lengths  of  pipe  of  various  sizes  and  kinds.  This 
rack  is  placed  so  pipe  can  be  unloaded  into  it  directly 
from  the  delivery  wagon  outside.  Bins  for  pipe  fittings 
of  all  kinds  are  also  provided. 

Ventilating  fans  should  be  installed  in  this  shop  to 
carry  off  the  lead  fumes  and  keep  the  air  pure. 

The  Sheet  Metal  Shop  (Figure  392). — The  plan  shows 
an  ideal  arrangement  for  a sheet  metal  shop  for  instruc- 
tion purposes.  Long  benches  are  provided  against  the 
walls  under  the  windows,  insuring  good  light.  A gas 
pipe  should  be  run  along  the  back  of  these  benches,  to 
which  are  connected  gas  soldering  stoves.  There  should 
be  enough  of  these  so  that  each  student  may  have  one. 
On  these  benches  the  preliminary  work  of  the  student, 
such  as  learning  to  solder,  and  practice  work  in  laying 
out,  cutting,  and  making  various  articles  in  sheet  metal, 
will  be  done.  Under  these  benches  should  be  a set  of 


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456 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


lock  drawers,  a separate  drawer  being  provided  for  each 
student  in  which  to  keep  his  individual  set  of  tools  and 
small  pieces  of  work. 

Next  to  these  benches  on  either  side  of  the  shop  is  a 
row  of  four  large  benches  four  by  eight  feet  in  size.  On 
these  benches  will  be  placed  the  various  hand  machines 
and  tools  which  will  be  used  in  cutting,  forming,  seaming, 
etc.,  such  as  rolls,  turning,  wiring,  burring,  grooving, 
beading,  edging,  crimping  and  seaming  machines,  and 
stakes  of  various  kinds. 

In  the  center  of  the  room  is  one  (or  more)  large  table 
or  bench  on  which  to  lay  out  large  jobs,  and  ample 
floor  space  is  left  for  erecting  large  pieces  of  work. 

A storage  rack  for  large  sheets  of  metal  is  provided, 
conveniently  placed  at  one  end  of  the  shop. 

The  equipment  for  this  shop  consists  of : 

One  Hand  punch,  capacity.No.  20  gauge  iron. 

One  Squaring  shear,  32"  to  40". 

One  Ring  and  circular  shear  to  cut  22"  circle. 

One  Folding  machine,  20". 

One  Combination  brake  and  folder,  42". 

One  Forming  machine,  slip  roll  pattern,  31". 

One  Groover,  30". 

One  Turning  machine,  capacity  to  wire. 

One  Wiring  machine,  capacity  -fo"  to  T55"  wire. 

One  Burring  machine,  capacity  . 

One  Setting  down  machine,  capacity  §"  seams. 

One  Elbow  edging  machine,  No.  1 faces,  2\"  rolls. 

Extra  pair  No.  3 faces  for  above. 

Extra  pair  No.  4 faces  for  above. 

One  Beading  machine,  ipf"  rolls. 

One  Crimping  machine,  if". 

One  Seaming  machine,  capacity  isf". 

One  Samson  punch. 

One  Mandrel  stake,  solid,  34^",  hollow,  40". 

One  Beakhorn  stake,  round  end  16^",  flat  end  20". 

One  Blowhorn  stake,  large  end  9",  small  end  18". 

One  Double  seaming  stake,  large  end  17",  small  end  12". 

One  Needlecase  stake,  round  end  ioJ",  flat  end  8". 

One  Hatchet  stake,  length  13". 

One  Hatchet  stake,  length  11". 

One  Hatchet  stake,  length  9". 

One  Bevel  edge  square  stake,  2\"  X4I". 

One  Double  seaming  stake  with  4 heads. 

One  Round  head  stake,  12I"  long. 

One  Bench  plate. 

Two  Pairs  bench  shears. 

Twenty-two  Gas  furnaces,  sheet  iron  top,  brick  lined. 

The  small  machines  listed  above  are  all  hand  oper- 
ated, and  will  be  placed  on  the  large  work  benches 
shown  on  the  floor  plan ; therefore,  as  they  will  require 
no  additional  floor  space,  these  sizes  are  not  recorded  in 
the  list. 

In  the  tool  room,  there  should  be  an  assortment  of 
extra  tools,  such  as  snips,  riveting  hammers,  setting 
hammers,  raising  hammers,  cutting  nippers,  grooving 


tools,  rivet  sets,  prick  punches,  solid  punches,  and 
hollow  punches,  all  of  various  sizes,  wire  gauges,  etc. 

Each  student  should  have  a set  of  tools  consisting  of 

One  Mallet. 

One  Scratch  awl. 

One  Rule. 

One  Pair  snips. 

One  Two-pound  soldering  copper. 

One  Hammer. 

A sheet  metal  shop  equipped  with  up-to-date  machines 
and  tools  for  handling  good-sized  jobs  can  find  a large 
amount  of  work  in  the  school  system  itself. 

Any  large  school  system  is  constantly  needing  sheet 
metal  work  of  various  kinds  either  for  repairs  or  for  new 
construction. 

Work  of  this  kind  which  has  a real  practical  value  is 
more  interesting  to  students  and  has  a far  greater  instruc- 
tional value  than  mere  practice  or  exercise  work.  There- 
fore the  equipment  of  this,  as  of  all  the  other  high  school 
shops,  should  be  such  as  is  found  in  commercial  shops. 

The  Cabinet  Shop  (Figure  394).  — The  bench  equip- 
ment would  be  the  same  as  that  described  for  the  pattern 
shop.  The  tools  furnished  with  each  bench  would  be 
the  same,  except  there  would  be  no  lathe  tools.  Several 
wooden  saw  horses,  also  a supply  of  wooden  hand 
clamps,  iron  “ C ” clamps,  and  long  bar  clamps  of 
different  sizes  should  be  provided.  Also  a supply  of 
extra  tools  to  be  kept  in  the  tool  room,  such  as  steel 
squares,  extra  bitts  and  ratchet  braces,  extra  chisels, 
and  gouges,  hand  saws  both  cross  cut  and  rip,  miter  box 
and  saw,  special  planes,  gauges,  scrapers,  wood  flies, 
file  cards,  draw  knives,  carving  tools,  pliers,  large 
dividers,  inside  and  outside  calipers  of  different  sizes, 
several  sets  of  lathe  tools,  etc.,  etc. 

The  machinery  equipment  for  this  shop  should  con- 
sist of : 


Machine 

Floor  Space 

Horse 

Power 

1 16"  or  18"  Universal  circular  saw  . . 

4'  s"X  s' 6" 

5 

1 16"  Swing  cut-off  saw  with  table  . . . 

4'  3"Xi8'o" 
to  24'  0" 

3 

1 36"  Band  saw 

3'  6"  X 6'  2" 

5 

x 30"  Cabinet  planer 

6'  3"  X 7' 3" 

IS 

1 16"  Hand  planer  or  jointer 

2'  8"  X 7'  0" 

5 

1 Tenoner 

4'  8"  X 8'  0" 

5 

1 Hollow  chisel  mortiser 

3'  0"  X 6' 6" 

3 

1 Belt  sander 

0 0 Xi^  0 

to  24'  0" 

5 

1 4"  X36"  Grindstone 

2'  0"  X 3' 6" 

1 

1 i6"Xxo'  0"  Lathe 

1'  io"Xio'  6" 

3 

1 12"  X 5' 0"  Lathe  

2'  0"  X 5'  2" 

1 

1 Universal  wood  trimmer 

2'  2"  X 4' 0" 

Hand 

The  saws,  planers,  tenoner,  and  sander  should  have  a 
shaving  exhaust  system  similar  to  those  described  in  the 
equipment  for  the  pattern  shop.  There  should  also  be 
safety  guards  for  all  machines. 


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Mr.  John  J.  Donovan,  Architect 


THE  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS  DEPARTMENT 


461 


M Junn  J . Donovan . ArchUect. 


Fig.  396.  — Manual  Training  Room,  Clawson  Elementary  School,  Oakland,  California. 


A steam- jacketed  glue  pot,  heated  by  gas  or  electricity, 
should  be  provided,  also  a warming  box  for  heating  stock 
to  be  glued.  The  latter  should  be  about  4'  X 4'  X 8'  inside 
and  may  be  built  by  students.  It  consists  of  a frame- 
work of  3//X4//  material  mortised  and  tenoned  together, 
boarded  with  i"X4//  tongue  and  groove  lumber,  lined 
with  asbestos  and  then  with  galvanized  iron.  The  bottom 
is  covered  with  one-inch  steam  pipes  which  are  connected 
to  a gas-operated  steam  generator.  (See  Figure  397.)  If 
the  building  is  steam  heated,  the  warming  box  should  also 
be  connected  to  the  main  steam  boiler,  so  as  to  utilize 
the  steam  from  the  heating  system  when  it  is  in  operation. 

Adjoining  the  cabinet  shop  should  be  a finishing  room 
about  20X24  feet,  which  can  be  heated  to  the  proper 
temperature  and  closed  against  dust,  when  staining, 
varnishing  and  polishing  furniture.  A small  office  for 
the  instructor  about  8X10  feet  is  needed,  also  a tool 
and  supply  room  about  10X15  feet,  where  extra  tools 
and  small  supplies  like  screws,  nails,  glue,  sandpaper,  etc., 
are  kept.  In  the  tool  room  should  be  shelving  and  one 
or  more  cabinets  similar  to  Figure  398. 


A lumber  room  about  20X24  feet  is  needed.  If 
possible  it  should  be  so  located  that  lumber  wagons  can 
drive  directly  up  to  it.  It  should  have  racks  built  across 
it  and  doors  all  across  the  two  ends  (see  Figure  394), 
so  that  lumber  can  be  delivered  directly  off  the  wagon 
into  one  end  of  the  lumber  room  and  taken  straight  out 
of  the  other  end  into  the  shop,  thus  avoiding  rehandling. 
Where  there  are  several  woodworking  shops  in  the  same 
school,  one  lumber  room  can  sometimes  be  placed  so  as 
to  serve  two  or  more  of  them. 

Figure  394  shows  the  arrangement  of  equipment  on 
the  floor,  the  benches  near  the  windows  to  get  the  best 
light,  leaving  a large  space  in  the  center  of  the  room  for 
assembling  work.  Working  space  between  benches 
should  be  not  less  than  3'  6"  from  side  to  side  and  4'  6" 
from  end  to  end.  The  machines  are  arranged  at  one 
end  of  the  room  with  ample  working  space  around  them. 
The  space  between  machines  should  seldom  be  less  than 
5 feet,  and  the  planer,  jointer  and  circular  saw  should  be 
so  placed  that  long  lumber  can  be  machined  on  them 
without  interference.  School  shops  are  sometimes  so 


462 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Fig.  397.  — Warming  Box  and  Steam  Generator. 


THE  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS  DEPARTMENT 


463 


planned  that  the  woodworking  machines  are  placed  in 
a separate  room  called  the  mill  room.  The  writer  does 
not  approve  of  this  plan,  because  dangerous  machinery 
should  always  be  under  the  eye  of  the  instructor,  and 
if  in  a separate  room,  this  will  be  impossible. 

The  Carpentry  Shop  (Figure  399). — Unless  the  cabinet 
shop  is  a much  larger  room  than  that  shown  in  Figure 
394,  the  carpentry  shop  should  be  a 
separate  room.  The  equipment  would 
be  much  more  simple  and  inexpensive 
than  that  described  for  the  other  wood- 
working shops.  No  machinery  would 
be  needed,  as  the  joinery  and  interior 
finish  would  come  under  the  head  of 
mill  cabinet  work,  and  would  be  gotten 
out  in  the  cabinet  shop.  There  should 
be  several  carpenters’  benches  against 
the  walls,  leaving  nearly  the  whole  floor 
space  for  the  erecting  of  models  in 
carpentry,  sections,  and  complete  frames 
of  buildings  at  a reduced  scale,  also  full 
size  sections  of  buildings,  roof  and  other 
framing,  stair  work,  and  so  forth,  re- 
quiring a large  floor  space. 

Instead  of  tool  drawers  in  the  benches, 
each  student  should  have  a locked  tool 
box  (such  as  a carpenter  carries  on  to 
the  building  with  him)  and  the  usual  kit  of  carpenters’ 
tools.  These  would  be  : 

Steel  square. 

Cross  cut  saw. 

Rip  saw. 

Hammer. 

Level. 

Plumb  bob  and  line. 

Hatchet. 

Try  square. 

Bevel. 

Drawknife. 

Jack  plane. 

Smooth  plane. 

Block  plane. 

Bit  brace. 

Set  of  bits. 

Extra  and  special  tools  would  be  kept  in  the  tool  room. 
A number  of  sawhorses  should  be  furnished.  The 
carpenter’s  bench  would  be  larger  and  of  a different 
construction  from  that  in  the  other  woodworking  shops. 

An  office  and  tool  room  will  be  needed  as  in  the  other 
shops,  and  against  one  wall  should  be  a set  of  lockers  in 
which  the  students  could  lock  up  their  tool  boxes  when 
not  using  them. 

Since  this  shop  joins  the  cabinet  shop,  the  lumber  for 
both  might  be  kept  in  the  cabinet  shop  lumber  room 


and  brought  into  the  carpentry  shop  on  trucks  provided 
for  that  purpose.  A small  quantity  might  also  be 
stacked  in  racks  against  the  wall,  as  indicated  on  the 
plan. 

The  Exhibit  Room  (Figure  400).  — Just  as  a photo- 
graph or  drawing  will  convey  certain  kinds  of  informa- 
tion at  a glance  more  satisfactorily  than  can  be  gathered 


from  pages  of  printed  matter,  so  an  exhibit  of  work 
done  in  the  industrial  departments  of  a high  school  will 
convey,  to  the  mind  of  the  interested  parent  or  student, 
valuable  information  as  to  the  scope  and  character  of 
the  courses,  more  quickly  and  satisfactorily  than  any 
other  means.  If,  therefore,  conditions  will  admit  of  it, 
an  exhibit  room  should  be  provided  as  an  important 
feature  of  the  school  plant.  It  should  be  prominently 
located,  if  possible,  on  the  street  side  of  the  building 
(with  an  entrance  from  the  street),  so  as  to  be  a standing 
advertisement  to  passers-by,  constantly  drawing  the 
attention  of  the  public  to  the  work  of  the  school.  The 
room  should  be  of  generous  size,  especially  if  the  school 
be  large  and  contain  many  industrial  departments,  so 
that  each  department  may  have  its  own  space,  large 
enough  to  admit  of  a fairly  comprehensive  exhibit. 
There  should  be  ample  fight,  both  natural  and  artificial. 
The  artificial  fighting  will  need  to  be  planned  with  special 
reference  to  each  part  of  the  exhibit,  and  the  manner  in 
which  the  exhibit  is  arranged,  so  as  to  show  it  to  the  best 
advantage. 

The  method  of  arranging  the  exhibits  will  vary  with 
the  character  of  the  material  displayed.  Some,  as,  for 
example,  pieces  of  furniture  or  machines,  will  require 
floor  space  only,  others  will  require  tables  or  shelves. 
Again,  work  like  millinery  or  dressmaking  should  be 


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45  Drovers  to  /if  opening  5t'>4i"*i3i’ 
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ond  s/g~  bottoms. 

4-5  Ntetot  drover  pa//s. 

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N/ost?  fronts ; drawers  oat  of  w stock. 

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THE  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS  DEPARTMENT 


465 


shown  in  glass  cases,  while  drawings  and  some  other 
articles  should  be  arranged  upon  walls  or  upon  displayers, 
having  large  vertical  leaves. 

The  Central  Storeroom  (Figure  400). — -In  a large 
plant,  like  the  one  here  discussed,  large  quantities  of 
supplies  are  annually  purchased  and  distributed  to  vari- 
ous departments.  In  any  well-managed  institution, 
transactions  of  such  magnitude  must  be  systematically 
checked  and  recorded.  In  the  school  plant  this  can  be 
best  accomplished  by  having  a central  storeroom,  where 
all  supplies,  of  every  kind,  whether  for  academic  or 
industrial  departments,  are  delivered.  This  room  should 
be  located  so  that  teams  can  drive  up  to  it  and  deliver 
all  supplies  directly  from  the  wagon,  and  doors  of  ample 
size  should  be  provided  for  admitting  readily  large 
crates  or  packages. 

An  exception  should  be  made  of  wood,  coal,  or  fuel 
oil  for  heating  the  school  plant,  and  of  blacksmith  coal 
for  the  forge  shop.  Wood  and  coal  should  be  delivered 
and  stored  near  where  they  will  be  used.  Fuel  oil  should 
be  stored  in  tanks  under  the  sidewalk  and  piped  to  the 
furnaces. 

Lumber  for  the  carpentry,  cabinet,  or  pattern  shops 
might  be  kept  in  special  storerooms  adjoining  the  shops 
in  which  it  is  to  be  used.  But  if  the  central  storeroom 
can  be  made  large  enough,  and  located  within  easy  access 
of  the  wood  shops,  it  is  better  to  have  the  lumber  stored 
there  and  delivered  to  the  shops  as  needed.  The  supply 
room  adjoining  each  shop  could  then  be  very  small, 
holding  only  a supply  for  immediate  use,  or  it  could  be 
omitted  altogether. 

Supplies  should  be  requisitioned  by  the  different 
departments  as  needed.  They  should  be  issued  by  the 
storeroom  clerk,  and  charged  to  the  department  receiving 
them. 

This  room  should  be  provided  with  shelves  of  various 
widths,  wide  shelves  for  holding  paper  stock  for  the  print 
shop,  and  narrower  ones  for  such  other  supplies  as  are 
best  kept  on  shelves.  There  should  be  bins  for  other 
types  of  supplies  such  as  plumbing  fittings,  etc.,  racks  for 
steel  and  iron,  both  sheets,  bars  and  pipe,  and  drawers  for 
small  supplies  such  as  nuts,  machine  screws,  cabinet- 
makers’ hardware,  etc.  The  room  should  be  fireproof, 
and  metal  tanks  provided  for  storing  oils  and  gasoline. 

A power  hack  saw  should  be  placed  in  this  room,  also 
a platform  scale,  so  that  orders  for  steel  or  iron  from  the 
shops  can  be  cut  to  size,  and  the  quantity  recorded 
exactly. 

In  addition  to  the  book  accounts,  as  a means  of 
facilitating  stock  taking,  a manila  tag  should  be  attached 
to  each  bin,  drawer,  rack,  or  shelf,  one  for  each  kind  of 
material  kept  in  stock.  On  the  tag  should  be  entered 
the  quantity  of  materials  on  hand.  As  material  is 


drawn  from  this  supply  the  quantity  drawn  each  time 
should  be  entered  on  the  tag  and  the  balance  brought 
down ; thus  the  tag  shows  at  all  times  the  quantity  of 
stock  on  hand.  The  writer  has  operated  such  a store- 
room in  connection  with  his  school  and  found  it  very 
satisfactory. 

If  the  shops  are  built  as  a separate  structure,  as  shown 
in  these  plans,  then  a main  office  for  the  shop  building, 
centrally  located,  should  be  provided  for  the  head  of 
the  industrial  arts  department.  This  office  should  be 
connected  by  telephone  with  all  the  shops,  and  also  with 
the  principal’s  office  and  the  outside.  The  central 
office  in  this  plan  is  shown  adjoining  the  lecture  and 
exhibit  rooms. 

The  Intermediate  or  Junior  High  School  Shops.  — One 

of  the  most  important  developments  in  recent  educa- 
tional policy  is  the  intermediate  school.  Comprising  the 
seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  grades,  it  forms  the  connect- 
ing link  between  the  elementary  and  high  schools,  and 
should  partake  of  the  character  of  both. 

In  the  elementary  school  the  pupil  lays  his  educational 
foundation  in  a study  of  the  fundamentals.  In  the  high 
school  he  begins  to  specialize,  and  his  election  of  courses 
should  be  determined  largely  by  life  career  motives. 
The  intermediate  school  should  provide  means  for  a 
gradual  transition  from  elementary  to  high  school 
methods.  It  should  offer  an  opportunity  for  the  student 
to  try  many  different  kinds  of  work,  both  academic 
and  industrial  or  vocational,  to  discover  his  likes  and 
dislikes,  his  aptitudes  and  limitations,  that  he  may  more 
intelligently  choose  his  high  school  course.  Vocational 
guidance  should  be  commenced  in  the  intermediate 
school.  And  if  the  student  does  not  continue  through 
the  high  school,  there  is  even  greater  need  for  the  widest 
opportunity  for  self-analysis  and  discovery,  for  investiga- 
tion and  experimentation,  as  an  aid  to  choosing  a voca- 
tion or  life  career.  Therefore,  on  the  industrial  side, 
the  intermediate  school  should  provide  equipment  that 
will  enable  the  student  to  gain  some  knowledge  of  the 
general  characteristics  and  fundamental  processes  of  a 
number  of  occupations,  at  least  sufficient  to  help  him 
decide  whether  he  would  like  any  particular  occupation, 
or  is  adapted  to  it. 

Since  the  students  will  not  specialize,  but  will  investi- 
gate many  lines  of  work  in  this  school,  the  equipment 
will  be  neither  as  expensive  nor  as  complete  as  in  the 
high  school.  It  is  much  better  to  have  simple  equip- 
ments for  many  different  kinds  of  work  than  to  have 
one  or  two  shops  expensively  equipped.  The  general 
principles  of  shop  planning  laid  down  for  high  schools, 
and  the  data  on  equipment,  floor  space,  power,  etc., 
already  given,  are  easily  adaptable  to  the  planning 
of  shops  for  the  intermediate  school.  In  a small 


H O (1  I H 'll  O 9 


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THE  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS  DEPARTMENT 


467 


intermediate  school  where  but  one  shop  for  boys’  work  is 
provided,  it  should  be  a general  utility  shop.  One  large 
shop  could  be  so  equipped  that  introductory  work  in 
carpentry,  cabinetmaking,  pattern  making,  electrical 
work,  sheet  metal  work,  plumbing,  machine  shop  work, 
and  forging  can  be  given.  Twenty-five  to  thirty  work 
benches  similar  to  those  described  for  the  pattern  or 
cabinet  shops  should  be  furnished.  By  making  a slight 
change  in  the  benches  so  that  a woodworking  vise  may 
be  placed  on  one  side  and  a machinist  vise  on  the  other, 
these  could  be  used  for  all  purposes  for  which  a bench 
is  needed.  Or,  if  preferred,  part  of  the  benches  could 
be  equipped  with  woodworking  vises  and  the  rest  with 
machinist  vises. 

In  addition  to  benches  and  hand  tools,  four  to  six 
wood-turning  lathes,  a circular  saw,  band  saw,  planer, 
and  a grindstone  will  give  sufficient  woodworking 
equipment  for  doing  the  three  lines  of  wood  work  men- 
tioned above.  By  selecting  a very  moderate  amount 
of  equipment  from  the  list  given  under  “ Sheet  Metal 
Shop,”  including  a few  gas  soldering  stoves,  soldering 
coppers,  snips,  tinners,  rolls,  turning,  wiring,  setting 
down,  and  burring  machines,  several  stakes,  etc.,  a 
beginning  course  in  sheet  metal  work  can  be  given.  The 
same  suggestion  applies  to  electrical  work  and  plumbing. 

One  or  more  forges  of  the  hand  blower  type,  two  or 
three  screw-cutting  engine  lathes  about  nine-inch  to 
fourteen-inch  swing,  a small  shaper,  a drill  press,  an 
emery  grinder,  and  small  hand  milling  machine  with 
the  necessary  hand  tools  will  provide  for  an  introductory 
course  in  forging  and  machine  shop  work. 

In  the  larger  intermediate  school,  more  shops  should 
be  provided,  and  additional  equipment  for  each  of  them. 
For  example,  all  the  woodworking  equipment  in  one 
shop,  the  sheet  metal  and  plumbing  in  one,  and  forging 
and  machine  shop  work  in  another.  In  a very  large 
intermediate  school  this  idea  might  be  extended  to  the 
point  of  providing  a separate  shop  and  more  extensive 
equipment  for  each  kind  of  work ; however,  the  equip- 
ment should  be  more  simple  and  less  expensive  than  in 
the  high  school  shops. 

A printing  shop  is  very  desirable  in  the  intermediate 
school,  largely  for  its  educational  value,  it  being  a great 


aid  to  teaching  Engksh.  Two  or  three  platen  presses, 
sizes  eight  by  twelve  to  ten  by  fifteen  inches,  preferably 
motor-driven,  two  or  three  imposing  stones,  eight  or 
ten  type  cases  with  a good  assortment  of  type,  a paper 
cutter  hand-operated,  a stapling  machine,  proof  press, 
and  other  small  accessories  should  be  provided. 

In  a word,  the  industrial  department  in  an  inter- 
mediate school  should  be  planned  and  equipped  for 
introductory  work  only,  not  to  give  a vocational  course, 
but  to  enable  the  student  to  decide  whether  he  wants 
to  go  on  to  the  high  school  and  take  a vocational  course, 
or  whether  he  is  better  adapted  to  some  line  of  work 
outside  the  industrial  field,  or  if  compelled  to  leave  school 
during  his  intermediate  course  to  earn  his  living,  to  en- 
able him  to  choose  intelligently  the  occupation  he  will 
enter. 

Conclusion.  — This  chapter  has  been  written  with  a 
view  of  giving  accurate,  usable  data  regarding  the  equip- 
ment needed  for  the  various  kinds  of  shop  work  most 
commonly  taught  in  manual  training  and  technical 
schools,  its  general  arrangement  in  the  shops  for  efficient 
operation,  the  floor  space  required  for  each  machine 
and  the  horse  power  required  to  run  it.  So  far  as  known, 
this  detailed  information  has  never  before  been  brought 
together  in  compact  form,  and  could  only  be  obtained 
by  consulting  a large  number  of  catalogues  and  refer- 
ence books,  or  by  extensive  correspondence  with  dealers. 
Definite  information  on  these  matters  is  the  first  require- 
ment on  the  part  of  the  technical  school  director  or 
instructor  who  is  planning  to  introduce  industrial  or 
vocational  courses,  or  of  the  architect  who  is  designing 
rooms  or  buildings  for  these  courses. 

The  information  here  given  has  been  gathered  by  the 
writer  during  years  of  experience  in  planning,  equipping, 
and  managing  industrial  schools,  and  he  believes  it  will 
be  found  reliable.  From  the  data  given  in  this  chapter, 
school  men  or  architects  should  be  able  to  make  selec- 
tions and  arrangements  that  will  meet  the  requirements 
for  shops  or  manual  training  rooms  in  schools  of  all  sizes 
and  under  all  conditions,  from  the  small  intermediate 
school  having  one  general  utility  shop  to  the  large 
cosmopolitan  high  school  offering  trade  and  technical 
instruction  in  many  different  vocations. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 


THE  HOME  ECONOMICS  DEPARTMENT 

By  Agnes  Fay  Morgan,  Ph.D.,  Associate  Professor  of  Household  Science,  University  of  California 

Part  I : Statement  of  the  Problem.  The  Development  of  Home  Economics  Education.  The  New  Meaning  of  Home  Economics 
Education.  Trade  Education  Growing  out  of  the  Domestic  Arts.  General  Education  Through  Domestic  Applications.  Necessary 
Change  in  the  Teaching  of  Home  Economics. 

Part  II : Equipment  of  the  Elementary  and  Secondary  Schools  for  Instruction  in  Home  Economics.  Location  and  Number  of 
Rooms.  The  Cooking  Unit.  The  Serving  Unit.  The  Laundry  Unit.  The  Housekeeping  and  Home  Nursing  Unit.  The  Clothing 
Unit. 

PART  I 


Statement  of  the  Problem.  -The  problem  of  planning 
and  equipping  laboratories  for  household  science  classes 
in  the  lower  schools  is  complicated  by  the  changing 
character  of  the  material  presented  under  this  name. 
It  may  be  too  soon  to  venture  any  suggestions  as  to 
standard  rooms  for  this  work,  certainly  too  soon  to 
assume  that  the  last  word  can  be  said  in  the  matter. 
Since  the  mobility  of  the  subject  inheres  not  only  in 
the  actual  material  presented  but  in  the  ideals  set  up 
from  time  to  time  as  representing  the  goals  to  be  attained 
by  such  instruction,  the  character  of  equipment  used 
must  likewise  remain  somewhat  uncertain. 

The  Development  of  Home  Economics  Education.  If 
one  follows  briefly  the  history  of  the  home  economics 
education  movement  it  is  possible  to  see  the  reason  for 
this  state  of  change.  In  the  beginning,  perhaps  as 
early  as  1870,  there  were  developing  two  separate  move- 
ments for  women’s  education  in  matters  pertaining  to 
the  home.  The  one  in  the  East,  begun  by  the  Woman’s 
Education  Association  in  Boston,  consisted  of  a series 
of  excellent  cooking  schools,  of  which  the  Boston  Cook- 
ing School  is  the  best  known.  Under  such  leaders  as 
Miss  Parloa,  Mrs.  Rorer,  Mrs.  Lincoln,  Miss  Farmer, 
these  schools  undertook  to  train  as  skilled  cooks  any 
pupils,  both  adults  and  children,  who  came  to  them.  These 
schools  lasted  about  twenty-five  years,  and  accomplished 
much  in  the  way  of  introduction  to  the  establishment  of 
cooking  as  a part  of  the  public  school  instruction  for 
girls. 

The  movement  in  the  West,  inaugurated  by  the  agri- 
cultural colleges  at  about  the  same  time  as  that  in  the 


East,  was  the  result  of  the  provisions  of  the  Morrill  Act.1 
Since  the  land-grant  colleges,  created  by  this  act,  were 
open  to  women  students,  some  provision  had  to  be  made 
for  their  peculiar  interests,  and  as  a result  the  Colleges 
of  Agriculture  of  Iowa,  Illinois,  Kansas,  and  other 
middle  western  states  began  about  the  same  time  to 
offer  courses  in  household  science,  domestic  science,  or 
domestic  economy,  as  the  subject  was  variously  called. 
The  students  enrolled  in  the  classes  were  in  general  better 
prepared  for  possible  mental  as  well  as  manual  develop- 
ment of  the  subject  than  those  in  the  eastern  cooking 
schools.  The  presence  of  a staff  of  chemists,  physicists, 
physiologists,  and  other  scientists  in  the  agricultural 
colleges  made  natural  the  attempt  to  correlate  the 
cooking  or  food  work,  as  it  was  now  called,  with  the  al- 
ready established  courses  in  the  science  departments. 
That  this  correlation  was  and  still  is  imperfectly  es- 
tablished detracts  not  at  all  from  the  fundamental 
importance  and  value  of  this  step.2 

The  question  of  the  educational  as  well  as  utilitarian 
value  of  instruction  in  the  manipulation  of  foods,  of 
clothing  construction,  and  housing  problems  has  been 
much  discussed  among  educators,  and  such  instruction 
has  been  admitted  to  the  schools  upon  the  same  basis 
as  the  training  in  the  manual  trades  for  boys.  There 
has  been  claimed,  however,  a peculiar  universality  for 
the  domestic  problem  in  the  lives  of  women,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  specialization  in  trades  and  pro- 
fessions by  men.  It  is  in  acknowledgment  of  this  claim 
that  training  for  the  home  has  been  so  readily  and 
generally  introduced  into  the  public  grade  and  high 
school  curricula.  But  the  status  of  women  as  wage 
earners,  as  well  as  the  machinery  of  the  home  itself. 


1 In  1862  Congress  passed  a bill,  often  called  the  Morrill  Act,  granting  30,000  acres  of  land  to  each  state  for  each  senator  and  representative,  for 
the  maintenance  of  agricultural  schools.  The  state  colleges  of  agriculture  have  developed  out  of  these  land-grant  schools. 

2 For  further  history  of  this  development  see  The  Home  Economics  Movement,  by  I.  Bevier  and  S.  Usher,  Whitcomb  and  Barrows,  1906. 

468 


THE  HOME  ECONOMICS  DEPARTMENT 


469 


has  been  rapidly  changing  in  the  last  decade.  Edu- 
cation for  trades  and  professions  must  now  be  provided 
for  girls  as  well  as  for  boys,  and  the  real  usefulness  of 
the  technique  and  the  culture  conveyed  under  the  name 
of  home  economics  must  be  constantly  proved  anew. 

The  New  Meaning  of  Home  Economics  Education.  — 
Out  of  the  critical  consideration  of  the  changing  American 
home  has  come  gradually,  and  as  yet  vaguely,  a new 
twofold  interpretation  of  domestic  education.  On  the 
one  hand  has  developed  the  vocational,  practical  train- 
ing in  the  doing  of  the  daily  manual  tasks  about  the 
home,  an  interpretation  favored  by  the  Federal  Board 
for  Vocational  Education  and  of  particular  applica- 
bility to  girls  of  the  junior  high  school  age,  and  to  those 
enrolled  in  continuation  and  special  classes.  This 
type  of  education  has  been  called  by  Snedden  1 “ home- 
making ” as  contrasted  with  “ household  arts,”  a 
cultural  course.  Such  a term  can  hardly  be  accepted 
as  final,  for  the  word  home  connotes  all  the  intangible 
social  and  spiritual  relations  of  the  family,  preparation 
for  which  is  dependent  upon  fundamental  education, 
as  well  as  the  physical  surroundings  and  service  of  the 
house.  The  type  of  domestic  education  demanded  by 
the  Smith-Hughes  Act  as  interpreted  by  the  Federal 
Board  for  Vocational  Education 2 largely  excludes  the 
study  of  anything  but  the  latter. 

Trade  Education  Growing  Out  of  the  Domestic  Arts.  — 
Out  of  this  training  there  is  emerging  a definite  body  of 
trade  or  industrial  preparation,  since  the  industries 
which  have  left  the  home  may  still  be  followed  most 
easily  by  girls  trained  in  the  so-called  domestic  arts. 
We  have  thus  the  anomaly  of  home  economics  educa- 
tion leading  to  wage  earning  outside  the  home.  Such 
trades  are,  of  course,  chiefly  concerned  with  garment 
and  hat  making  or  selling ; the  cooking  and  serving  of 
food ; the  decoration,  cleaning,  and  managing  of  the 
house;  laundering;  and  care  of  children  and  the  sick. 
Courses  leading  to  skill  in  any  of  these  occupations  may 
well  be  termed  vocational.  Whether  a general  smatter- 
ing of  all  of  them  may  very  long  be  considered  vocational 
is  questionable,  for  even  where  paid  employees  take  over 
the  labor  in  the  modern  home  the  trend  of  such  service 
is  still  toward  specialization  in  a few  of  the  duties  in- 
volved. The  view  that  any  large  number  of  young  girls 
may  choose  an  education  which  shall  fit  them  only  for 
performing  the  physical  tasks  and  for  making  the  ma- 
terial choices  involved  in  the  conducting  of  their  own 
future  households,  is  surely  no  longer  tenable.  The 
conclusion  from  these  assumptions  would  seem  to  be 
that  the  technical  training  for  household  tasks  should 
discard  much  of  its  present  amateur  character  and  take 


on  an  intensive  professional  attitude  with  definite  out- 
look toward  permanent  and  paid  occupations. 

General  Education  through  Domestic  Applications.  — 
The  second  interpretation  now  read  into  home  economics 
is  that  of  education  in  economics,  science,  and  art  con- 
veyed to  young  students  through  applications  inevitably 
met  in  the  American  home.  It  is  increasingly  apparent 
that  such  education  properly  modified  should  be  avail- 
able to  boys  as  well  as  to  girls. 

The  new  conception  of  the  order  in  which  information, 
perception,  and  reasoning  may  be  used  in  education 
makes  it  possible  to  consider  the  teaching  of  chemistry 
at  least  partly  through  food  classifications,  cleaning, 
painting,  dyeing ; physics  through  cooking,  machines, 
ventilation,  lighting,  heating ; design  through  carpets, 
costumes,  wall-paper ; accounting  through  the  household 
budget.  Of  course,  home  economics  subjects  furnish 
only  one  of  many  avenues  of  instruction  of  this  type, 
hygiene,  physical  education,  dramatics,  shop  and  trade 
training,  and  agriculture  being  some  of  the  others. 

Whether  the  household  applications  be  considered  a 
vehicle  for  the  teaching  of  the  formal  sciences  and 
arts,  or  these  formal  subjects  the  subordinated  means 
of  explanation  of  everyday  phenomena,  the  fact  remains 
that  modern  education  finds  it  possible  and  profitable 
to  combine  these  two  formerly  unrelated  fields.  As 
one  result,  the  appliances  and  technique  formerly 
grudgingly  allowed  a small  share  of  school  time  as  a 
concession  to  future  practical  household  needs,  may 
now  be  welcomed  as  furnishing  avenues  of  interest  for 
academic  instruction. 

If  these  avenues  are  to  lead  to  valuable  training  for 
citizenship  and  more  abundant  life,  the  teachers  of 
household  subjects  must  present  broader  and  deeper 
preparation  in  those  subjects  fundamental  to  the  ap- 
plications taught  than  was  formerly  the  rule.  Technique 
in  cooking,  laundering,  and  sewing  must  surely  become 
subordinate  to  explanation  in  terms  which  shall  con- 
nect each  operation  with  the  general  law  which  it  is 
used  to  illustrate.  The  “ why  ” instead  of  the  “ how  ” 
of  the  phenomena  of  everyday  life  would  thus  become 
the  main  objective  of  the  teacher  of  home  economics. 

Necessary  Change  in  the  Teaching  of  Home  Econom- 
ics. — This  latter  conception  of  the  function  of  education 
for  the  home  would  seem  to  be  emerging  as  the  permanent 
phase  into  which  the  movement  can  be  expected  to 
develop.  It  is  founded  upon  no  assumption  as  to  the 
status  of  the  home,  nor  as  to  the  duties  of  women  in 
society,  and  may  therefore  be  safely  embedded  in  a 
sternly  critical  and  utilitarian  scheme  of  general  educa- 
tion. That  the  teaching  of  the  subject  must  be  radically 


1 Snedden  — Problems  of  Secondary  Education , 1917,  Chapter  23. 

2 Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education,  Bulletin  No.  28,  pages  23  to  25,  1918. 


470 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


altered  in  order  to  fit  into  such  a scheme  is  readily  ad- 
mitted, and  even  more  apparent,  therefore,  is  the  need 
for  a sweeping  change  in  the  training  of  teachers  for 
the  primary  and  secondary  grades.  Such  a change 
would  need  to  be  constantly  directed  toward  the  elimi- 
nation of  the  amateurish  and  sentimental  attitude  of 
mind  of  these  teachers,  away  from  the  limitations  of  home 
and  housewife’s  conditions  for  every  operation,  and 
toward  professional,  commercial,  and  scientific,  or  co- 
operative enterprises. 

If  home  economics  education  is  to  be  either  vocational 
in  the  specialized  sense,  or  cultural  in  the  sense  that  it 
may  be  used  as  a pedagogical  device  for  the  imparting 
of  general  basic  information  as  well  as  for  illustration 
of  the  scientific  method,  two  distinct  criteria  must  be 
applied  to  the  type  of  equipment  chosen  for  the  schools 
in  which  such  instruction  is  to  be  given.  Practical 
equipment  of  the  same  size  and  kind  in  use  in  the  com- 
munity should  be  installed  for  the  former  purpose,  and 
a variety  of  scientific  and  simplified  equipment  for  the 
latter.  The  elementary  schools  should,  in  general, 
be  provided  generously  with  practical  appliances,  the 
intermediate  and  secondary  schools  should  have  both 
types,  since  only  in  the  higher  grades  can  the  more 
complicated  phenomena  of  life  be  explained  at  all  by 
concrete  domestic  problems. 

PART  II 

Equipment  of  the  Elementary  and  Secondary  Schools 
for  Instruction  in  Home  Economics.  — It  is  now  the 

general  practice  to  provide  space  for  the  teaching  of 
home  economics  subjects  in  connecting  rooms  arranged 
more  or  less  in  the  order  of  an  apartment  or  house. 
Five  units  may  be  distinguished  in  this  space : (i)  the 
cooking  unit ; (2)  the  serving  unit ; (3)  the  laundry  unit ; 
(4)  the  sewing  unit ; (5)  the  home  nursing  and  house- 
keeping unit.  Of  these  only  the  cooking  and  sewing 
units  are  usually  considered  indispensable,  and  are 
first  supplied,  the  serving,  laundry,  and  housekeeping 
units  being  most  frequently  added  in  the  order  named. 
When  the  space  provided  is  small,  a single  room  may  be 
utilized  for  instruction  in  all  the  varieties  of  home 
economics  subjects  by  means  of  suitable  portable  equip- 
ment, or  two  rooms  may  be  made  to  answer  all  purposes 
adequately. 

Location  and  Number  of  Rooms.  — Formerly  the 
domestic  science  rooms  were  often  devised  at  the  last 
minute  in  both  new  and  old  school  buildings  out  of 
left-over  basement  space.  Poor  lighting,  ventilation, 
and  heating  were  usually  the  result,  and  cooking  odors 
pervading  the  whole  building  added  to  the  general  dis- 
satisfaction. This  unfortunate  placing  is  less  often  en- 
countered of  late  years. 


The  home  economics  rooms  might  well  occupy  a 
separate  building  or  a separate  wing  from  the  rest  of 
the  school.  If  this  is  impossible  the  cooking-room  should 
be  placed  either  on  the  first  or  second  floor,  or  near 
the  lunchroom,  for  convenience  in  delivery  of  supplies. 
If  all  home  economics  instruction  can  be  assembled 
in  a separate  building,  either  in  the  form  of  a cottage 
or  apartment,  a certain  unity  and  concentration  is 
gained,  the  value  of  which  can  hardly  be  overestimated. 
Lessons  learned  in  physical  surroundings  not  unlike 
those  of  the  homes  of  the  children  are  more  apt  to  be 
carried  over  into  immediate  home  life  than  if  the  usual 
school  environment  is  used.  At  the  same  time  care 
must  be  taken  that  home  economics  lessons  shall  not  be 
so  dissociated  from  the  ordinary  school  atmosphere  as 
to  attain  a separated  and  sometimes  an  inferior  rating 
in  the  pupil’s  mind.  This  danger  can,  however,  be 
obviated  only  by  the  diligent  care  and  improved  training 
of  the  home  economics  teacher. 

The  same  advantage  presented  by  the  detached 
building  may  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  a separate  wing 
for  these  rooms.  Such  a wing  may  be  planned  for  either 
one  or  two  floors ; the  cooking,  serving,  and  laundry 
units  on  one  floor,  if  necessary ; and  the  sewing  and 
housekeeping  units  on  the  other.  If  the  apartment 
plan  be  used  it  is  usually  found  convenient  and  economi- 
cal to  provide  the  following  rooms,  as  illustrated  in 
Figures  401  and  402  : (1)  A room  of  generous  size,  at 
least  480  square  feet,  which  may  be  used  as  a living- 
room  for  the  teaching  of  housekeeping  and  interior 
decoration,  and  as  a community  or  school  social  room 
when  occasion  demands.  (2)  A smaller  room  pro- 
viding at  least  200  square  feet  of  floor  space  communicat- 
ing with  the  former  and  also  with  the  kitchen,  to  be  used 
as  a dining-room  and  recitation  room,  or  to  be  united 
with  the  living-room  when  larger  space  is  required  for 
lectures  or  social  meetings.  (3)  A bedroom  and  bath- 
room to  be  used  for  instruction  in  housekeeping,  home 
nursing,  first  aid,  care  of  children,  and  at  other  times 
as  a rest-room  for  teachers  or  pupils.  (4)  A room,  vary- 
ing in  size  with  the  needs  of  the  classes  to  be  held,  for 
instruction  in  cooking.  At  least  one  ordinary  sized 
family  kitchen  should  be  included  in  the  latter  space, 
and  also  laboratory  desks  or  long  tables  for  class  in- 
struction, as  well  as  a pantry  or  storage  cupboards. 
(5)  A laundry,  equipped  with  stationary  and  portable 
tubs,  dryer,  ironing  boards,  and  benches.  This  room 
should  be  compact,  and  separated  from  the  cooking 
room  if  possible.  (6)  A sewing-room  equipped  with 
tables,  chairs,  sewing  machines,  pressing  boards,  and 
walled-off  or  screened  fitting  place.  The  living-room 
mentioned  above  under  (1),  if  necessary,  may  be  used 
as  sewing- room. 


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JOHN  J.  DONOVAN.  AR.CHI 
• COLLABORATORS  » 


47  2 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


In  the  following  discussion  of 
the  six  rooms,  comprising  five 
units  mentioned  above,  no  refer- 
ence as  a rule  will  be  made  to 
the  absolute  cost  of  the  equip- 
ment suggested,  for  it  seems  to 
the  writer  that  any  such  discus- 
sion should  assume  ideal  con- 
ditions, without  other  limitation 
than  that  of  educational  effi- 
ciency. The  reader  who  may  be 
interested  in  the  practical  ma- 
terialization of  these  plans,  and 
who  will  usually  encounter  the 
difficulties  of  limited  expend- 
iture, must  make  for  himself  the 
choice  of  apparatus  and  space 
which  his  purse,  his  community 
requirements,  and  his  teaching 
staff  demand.  The  quotation  of 
definite  prices  on  any  of  the 
articles  suggested  seems  inad- 
visable because  of  the  rapidly 
changing  character  of  such  prices 
and  because  of  the  lack  of  uni- 
formity in  this  matter  in  various 
parts  of  the  country. 

The  Cooking  Unit.  — i.  Types 
of  Arrangement. — Two  types  of 
laboratory  arrangement  have 
been  developed  for  the  teaching 
of  cooking  in  the  schools.  The 
older  and  still  more  frequently 
met  may  be  called  the  laboratory 
desk  type , the  newer  has  been 
called  the  unit  kitchen  type.  In 
the  former  the  usual  science 
laboratory  arrangement  of  long 
tables  or  rows  of  tables  is  used ; 
in  the  latter  small  inclosures 
imitating  in  arrangement  and 
equipment  the  home  kitchens. 

The  laboratory  desk  type  de- 
veloped naturally  from  the  class- 
room habit  of  teaching,  and  with 
certain  modifications  may  still 
be  considered  the  most  efficient, 
practical,  and  lasting  equipment 
for  the  teaching  of  young  pupils. 
The  objection  to  this  type  of 
equipment  is,  of  course,  the 
obvious  one  that  it  does  not 
reproduce  home  conditions. 


THE  HOME  ECONOMICS  DEPARTMENT 


473 


There  is  no  serious  belief  by  any  one  experienced 
in  the  administration  of  home  economics  education 
that  home  conditions  can  ever  be  effectually  repro- 
duced in  the  schools,  or  even  that  such  a repro- 
duction, if  attained,  would  be  altogether  desirable. 
In  the  limited  time  that  can  be  assigned  to  domestic 
training,  the  larger  part  of  the  teaching  of  the  sub- 
ject to  normal  girls,  aged  n to  18  years,  should  be 
concerned  with  the  economic  and  scientific  principles 
underlying  the  purchase  and  preparation  of  food, 
rather  than  with  the  manual  technique,  “ the  skills,” 
involved  in  handling  those  foods.  Expertness  in 
manipulation  admittedly  cannot  be  attained  in  all 
types  of  food  preparation,  even  in  the  most  inde- 
fensibly extended  school  course  in  cooking.  The 
emphasis,  then,  should  be  placed  upon  mastery  of 
the  tools,  in  the  sense  described  above,  with  the 
expectation  that  skill  in  handling  will  be  attained 
on  the  job. 

Home  economics  education,  even  when  viewed  as 
vocational,  must  in  this  respect  resemble  medical 
or  engineering  education  rather  than  trade  training. 
Skill  in  the  performance  of  manual  operations  plays 
surprisingly  small  part  in  the  efficiency  of  even  the 
rural  and  village  American  housewife  to-day,  while 
great  value  is  attached  to  intelligent  choice  of  ma- 
terial, expenditure  of  time  and  money,  management 
of  children  and  leisure  time.  An  analysis  of  the 
housewife’s  day  in  the  middle  class  American  home 
would  undoubtedly  reveal  constant  choices,  planning, 
weighing  of  values,  and  some  manual  labor  largely 
of  a primitive  and  easily  mastered  type. 

The  equipment  for  training  future  housewives 
should  therefore  provide  for  the  demonstration  of 
fundamental  truths,  rather  than  the  uninspired 
reproduction  of  familiar  and  unanalyzed  conditions. 
Since  it  appears  that  an  analyzed  and  suggestive 
reproduction  of  such  conditions  should  furnish  the 
desired  medium  for  instruction,  a third  type  of 
arrangement,  which  is  a combination  of  laboratory 
desk  and  unit  kitchen,  is  here  suggested.  This  unit 
desk  arrangement  as  shown  in  Figure  403  may  in 
convenient  working  space  exhibit  all  the  elements 
shown  in  the  home  kitchen,  without  the  objection- 
able features  of  the  laboratory  fitted  out  with  unit 
kitchens  only.  These  objectionable  features  are,  in 
order  of  increasing  importance,  the  waste  of  space 
and  therefore  of  pupils’  time,  difficulty  of  super- 
vision by  one  teacher,  and  inadequacy  of  group  work. 

Some  of  these  same  objections  may  be  raised  in 
criticism  of  certain  types  of  the  laboratory  arrange- 
ment, particularly  the  hollow  square  type,  for  so 
many  years  the  standard  in  all  parts  of  the  United 


Fig.  403. 


mwwwAsw 


474 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


3CALB: 


- AGNE5  FAY  MORGAN  * 
» JOHN  J.  DONOVAN,  ARCHI  * 
* COLLABORATORS  »- 


- - COOKING  UNIT  — 

ARRANGED  TO  ACCOMMODATE  12  OR  24  PUPILS  WITH 

COMPLETE  UNIT  TABLES  IN  A SPACE  26'~0"  * 35'~6" 


Fig.  .404. 


STORE  ROOM  § OFFICE 


TEE  HOME  ECONOMICS  DEPARTMENT 


475 


States.  This  arrangement,  as  shown  in  Figures  41 1 and 
416,  illustrates  the  common  mistake  of  placing  the  pupils 
on  the  outside  of  the  square,  or  horseshoe,  with  supplies 
on  the  inside,  and  sinks  only  at  the  corners  or  on  the 
opposite  walls.  Such  arrangement  involves  the  maximum 
loss  of  time  on  the  part  of  the  pupils,  with  minimum 
exertion  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  Even  the  teacher 
may  find  the  arrangement  not  altogether  comfortable, 
however,  since  she  is  expected  to  stand  within  the  fiery 
ring  of  stoves  and  ovens. 

In  the  plan  of  the  unit  desk  arrangement  shown  in 
Figure  403  each  pupil  has  sufficient  table  space,  5 square 
feet,  in  which  to  keep  utensils  and  to  perform  mixing 
and  other  operations,  thus  supplying  all  essentials  of 
the  table  and  cupboard  usually  found  in  the  home 
kitchen.  She  has  within  3 or  4 feet  behind  her  a standard 
range,  besides  the  convenient  two  gas  burner  stove  in 
front  of  her  on  top  of  her  desk.  She  has  at  her  right  or 
left  hand  a convenient  sized  sink  supplied  with  hot  and 
cold  water.  Behind  her  are  the  supply  tables  just  as 
in  the  home  kitchen  she  finds  the  supply  cupboards. 
Every  physical  feature  of  the  home  kitchen  is  present, 
with  the  usual  waste  space  and  inefficient  arrangement 
eliminated. 

A more  expensive  but  more  efficient  cooking  arrange- 
ment unit  than  any  heretofore  commonly  used  is  the 
type  of  individual  unit  kitchen  desk  shown  in  Figure  404 
and  consisting  of  table,  with  cupboard  below,  small 
range,  sink  and  drainboard.  One  sink,  two  drain- 
boards,  a double  table  equipped  with  cupboards  on 
two  sides,  and  two  small  ranges,  back  to  back,  in  a total 
floor  space  of  35  square  feet  supply  complete  equip- 
ment for  two  pupils.  A cooking-room  of  the  usual  size, 
25/X3o',  might  accommodate  six  of  these  units  and  leave 
sufficient  space  for  necessary  tables,  storage  cupboards, 
and  refrigerator. 

It  is  desirable  that  at  least  one  unit  kitchen  or  family- 
sized kitchen  be  added  to  this  equipment,  as  well  as  to 
the  unit  desk  arrangement,  just  as  storerooms  and 
dining-rooms  are  usually  added.  Where  space  permits 
and  older  pupils  are  to  be  taught,  enough  unit  kitchens 
should  be  included  to  accommodate  either  part  or  all 
of  the  class,  with  not  more  than  three  pupils  assigned  to 
one  kitchen.  When  only  part  of  the  class  can  thus  be 
accommodated  the  others  are  retained  at  the  table 
desks.  Any  intermediate  arrangement  down  to  the 
minimum  of  one  unit  kitchen  can  of  course  be  used.  An 
excellent  example  of  this  scheme  is  shown  in  Figure  408. 

2.  Placing  of  Unit  Kitchens  and  Table  Desks.  — The 
spatial  arrangement  of  the  table  desks  and  unit  kitchens 
when  both  are  used  is  a problem  of  some  difficulty,  which 
will  have  to  be  solved  in  individual  cases  with  reference 
to  size  of  room,  number  of  pupils  in  the  class,  lighting. 


and  equipment.  Figure  405  illustrates  a scheme  for  a 
class  of  24  in  a space  32'X40/  with  windows  on  three 
or  four  sides.  The  objection  to  this  plan  lies  in  the  fact 
that  to  gain  access  to  two  of  the  unit  kitchens  one  must 
pass  through  one  other  unit  kitchen.  This  is  not  a 
serious  matter  in  practice,  however,  since  all  supplies 
are  assumed  available  in  each  unit,  and  no  passing  back 
and  forth  is  necessary.  An  assembly  or  recitation  and 
dining  table  space  add  greatly  to  the  value  of  this  ar- 
rangement. 

In  Figure  406  an  arrangement  for  smaller  space  with 
windows  on  two  or  three  sides  is  shown.  No  dining 
table  or  recitation  room  is  possible  in  this  plan,  but  the 
unit  kitchens  are  somewhat  more  satisfactorily  ar- 
ranged. The  complete  desk  unit  is  not  available  here, 
because  of  lack  of  space  for  the  ranges  and  extra  sinks. 
This  plan  should  work  out  well  for  smaller  classes  than 
those  for  which  such  an  arrangement  as  is  shown  in 
Figure  405  is  considered  necessary. 

For  the  more  advanced  lessons  which  may  be  given 
to  girls  of  the  ages  16  to  19  years,  a cooking  unit  of  a 
somewhat  more  elaborate  type  is  required.  In  Figure 
407  is  shown  an  example  of  a suite  of  rooms  which  might 
be  used  for  these  classes.  At  the  left  of  the  plan  will  be 
noted  the  same  table  desk  and  unit  kitchen  combina- 
tion advocated  for  use  in  the  lower  grades.  The  store- 
room, refrigerator,  and  dumb-waiter  connecting  with 
other  kitchens  or  lunchroom  above  are  shown  opening 
directly  into  an  entrance  service  hall.  Sometimes 
provision  for  this  important  detail  of  the  convenient 
delivery  of  supplies  is  neglected. 

3.  The  Dietetics  Laboratory.  — At  the  right  of  the  plan 
in  Figure  407  is  shown  the  dietetics  laboratory,  which 
should  be  equipped  with  fume  hood,  acid-proof  sinks, 
and  possibly  a small  separate  balance  room  for  the 
carrying  out  of  simple  physiological  and  food  chemistry 
experiments  to  illustrate  the  study  of  nutrition.  The 
students’  desks  in  this  laboratory  may  be  of  the  usual 
chemistry  type,  since  very  little  cooking  or  so-called 
practical  food  work  need  be  done  here.  Equipment  of 
this  sort  is  not  ordinarily  found  in  the  home  economics 
section  of  the  high  schools,  or  even  in  junior  colleges. 
Its  introduction  is  now  both  practicable  and  desirable 
if  the  food  work  is  to  be  carried  through  these  higher 
grades  without  deadening  repetition  of  lessons  taught 
earlier  in  the  course.  The  work  outlined  for  the  dietetics 
laboratory  cannot  usually  be  advantageously  done  in 
the  chemistry  or  physiology  laboratories  by  the  teachers 
of  those  subjects  because  of  lack  of  time,  training  and 
interest  on  the  part  of  the  latter.  Preliminary  general 
courses  in  these  subjects  and  in  physics  are  necessary 
for  the  students  of  dietetics.  By  means  of  the  uni- 
versally interesting  applications  of  these  sciences  to  be 


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Page  476  Fig.  405  and  Fig,  406. 


THE  HOME  ECONOMICS  DEPARTMENT 


477 


found  in  the  study  of  nutrition  and  practical  dietetics, 
new  point  and  life  may  be  given  to  the  necessary  train- 
ing in  the  scientific  method. 

For  large  schools  two  suites  such  as  those  shown  in 
Figures  401  and  407,  placed  one  above  the  other,  present 
all  the  elements  necessary  for  full  instruction  of  the 
secondary  type  in  scientific  and  practical  aspects  of 
the  cooking  and  serving  of  food,  and  the  care  of  chil- 
dren and  the  sick.  In  Figure  401  a small  hospital  diet 
kitchen  and  fully  equipped  hospital  or  home  bathroom 
are  shown,  for  use  in  the  preliminary  training  of  nurses 
as  now  practiced  in  many  large  high  schools. 

4.  Arrangement  of  Unit  Kitchens.  — Where  more 
than  one  unit  kitchen  is  provided  there  arises  at  once 
the  problem  of  the  size,  kind  of  partitions,  arrangement 
of  furniture,  and  completeness  of  equipment  of  each 
unit. 

(a)  Size.  The  unit  kitchen  for  use  by  not  more  than 
three  pupils  does  not  require  more  than  60  to  64  square 
feet  of  floor  space.  A larger  space  than  this  involves 
a waste  of  time  in  walking  from  sink  to  table  to  stove ; 
a space  much  smaller  than  this  involves  crowding  when 
more  than  one  pupil  is  at  work. 

(. b ) Partitions.  The  placing  of  permanent  wooden  or 
other  opaque  partitions  between  the  unit  kitchens  can- 
not be  considered  advisable,  for  a number  of  reasons. 
Permanent  partitions  of  any  kind  prevent  the  flexible 
use  of  the  units  by  experimental  changing  of  size,  and 
opaque  partitions  render  difficult  the  oversight  of  the 
class  by  the  teacher. 

In  some  schools  gas  pipe  railings,  three  or  four  feet 
from  the  floor,  have  been  used  to  indicate  the  divisions 
of  the  unit  kitchens.  See  Figure  409.  Movable  wooden, 
or  better  glass  partitions  mounted  on  frames  and  castors 
constitute  an  excellent  means  of  separation.  The 
available  space  may  thus  be  divided  into  a larger  number 
of  small  kitchens,  or  on  occasion  thrown  into  large 
compartments.  These  partition  frames  when  built  of 
wood  should  not  be  more  than  four  or  five  feet  high,  so 
that  some  supervision  by  the  teacher  in  adjoining  kitchens 
may  be  possible.  The  glass  partitions  allow  of  higher 
frames  if  desired.  Imaginary  partitions  may  serve 
very  well  in  some  schools,  particularly  in  the  upper 
grades. 

(c)  Arrangement  of  Furniture.  Each  kitchen  should 
contain  a sink  with  one  or  two  grooved  drainboards,  a 
stove  or  range,  a storage  cabinet,  and  a worktable. 
Where  space  is  limited  cupboards  may  be  built  in  under 
the  drainboards,  Figure  409,  and  a cabinet  base  table, 
Figure  410,  used,  with  elimination  of  the  storage  cabinet. 

All  of  these  articles,  with  the  necessary  exception  of 
'the  sink,  should  be  movable  so  far  as  possible,  Figure 
409.  Even  the  stove  in  some  cases  may  be  changed 


in  position  at  will.  The  object  of  mobility  is  chiefly 
that  of  affording  practice  for  the  pupils  in  the  efficient 
arrangement  of  their  kitchens  and  of  accommodating 
in  the  same  rooms  classes  of  various  sizes,  and  different 
kinds  of  instruction.  Where  it  is  impossible  or  un- 
desirable to  provide  for  movable  furniture,  some  economy 
can  be  effected  by  the  construction  of  built-in  cabinets. 

5.  Materials  and  Finish  of  Walls  and  Floors.  — In 
choosing  the  materials  and  finish  for  the  interior  surfaces 
of  cooking  units  the  first  consideration  should  be  sani- 
tation and  washableness.  Trim  metal  is  the  most 
desirable  but  its  cost  is  prohibitive  compared  with  that 
of  wood.  The  least  amount  of  wood  trim  is  desirable, 
for  the  finish  of  these  rooms  should  approach  that  of  the 
interior  finish  of  hospitals  where  corners  are  rounded, 
bases  coved,  and  chair  rails  when  used  have  a very 
slight  projection  from  the  plaster  walls.  All  wood  trim 
such  as  baseboards,  chair  rails,  picture  moldings,  cas- 
ings and  doors,  frames,  window  sash,  etc.,  should  be 
given  at  least  three  coats  of  lead  and  oil  paint  and  two 
coats  of  a high  grade  of  flat  enamel  paint  with  the  gloss 
only  slightly  dulled. 

When  the  funds  will  permit,  the  chair  rail  should  be 
omitted  and  the  walls  tiled  to  a height  of  five  or  six 
feet  with  an  encaustic  glazed  tile  6"x6"  so  as  to  have  as 
few  joints  as  possible,  with  a 6 inch  sanitary  coved  glazed 
tile  base  at  the  floor.  At  the  top  of  the  tiling  should  be 
a glazed  tile  cap  of  simple  design  with  the  least  neces- 
sary projection. 

When  tile  cannot  be  used  because  of  cost,  Keene’s 
cement  plaster  wainscoting  is  the  next  best  material. 
When  used  it  should  not  be  marked  off  to  imitate  tile,  as 
the  markings  serve  no  better  purpose  than  so  many 
recesses  for  the  lodgment  of  dirt,  grease,  etc.  The 
jointing  defeats  the  purpose  of  the  use  of  the  materials 
and  should  not  be  allowed.  The  Keene’s  cement  wain- 
scot should  be  carried  to  the  height  suggested  for  tile 
and  finished  at  the  top  with  or  without  a cap,  preferably 
the  latter.  The  walls  and  ceilings  above  the  wainscot 
should  be  of  hard  wall  plaster  troweled  to  a smooth, 
hard  surface. 

All  Keene  cement  and  plastered  wall  and  ceiling 
surfaces  should  be  painted  with  a high  grade  of  wash- 
able wall  paint,  having  no  less  than  three  coats,  and  then 
given  a “ satinette  ” enamel  final  coat.  The  color 
scheme  may  vary  with  the  light  accessible  to  the  rooms, 
cream  or  ivory  tones  being  as  a rule  the  most  favorable 
for  all  purposes. 

Floors  : The  most  desirable  of  all  flooring  for  cooking 
units  is  cork  tiling,  as  it  is  resilient,  washable,  and  com- 
fortable to  work  upon.  Here  again  the  cost  is  an  ele- 
ment likely  to  limit  its  use.  The  next  best  are  tile,  com- 
position, or  cement  flooring  in  order.  Cement  and  tile, 


- HOME  ECONOMIC5  DEPARTMENT  - 
FOR  A SENIOR  HIGH  SCHOOL  COOKING  UNIT 

scale: 


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479 


however,  require  linoleum  strips  or  sections  in  the 
working  divisions.  The  advantage  in  the  use  of  these 
materials  with  a sanitary  cove  base  of  similar  materials 
is  that  by  installing  deep  sealed  floor  drains  the  floors 
may  be  hosed  freely. 

Wood  floors  are  and  will  be  most  generally  chosen,  as 
they  are  the  least  expensive.  Consequently,  the  harder 
and  more  durable  woods  should  be  selected.  Maple  is 
by  far  the  best  of  all  woods  for  such  flooring.  Next 
in  order  are  birch,  northern  pine,  Douglas  fir,  and  south- 
ern pine. 

The  finish  of  wood  floors  should  be  of  a high  grade 
floor  varnish,  at  least  three  coats.  Usually  the  wood 
floors  of  cooking  units  are  treated  with  a prepared  floor 
oil,  but  the  low  kindling  temperature  of  such  floor 
dressings  makes  their  use  dangerous,  particularly  where 
there  is  so  much  use  of  fuel. 

6.  Working  Tables.  — A number  of  arrangements  of 
the  continuous  table  desks  in  the  cooking  unit  are  possible, 
the  two  most  frequently  used  being  the  hollow  square 
and  the  parallel  long  tables.  In  Figure  403  is  shown  a 
modified  hollow  square  with  the  objectionable  features 
eliminated.  Figure  412  illustrates  another  modification 
of  this  arrangement,  two  long  tables  with  students 
facing  each  other,  and  space  between  for  the  teacher. 
The  supply  tables  and  ranges  are  placed  then  back  of 
the  students  and  at  the  sides  of  the  room.  This  arrange- 
ment is  probably  the  most  economical  of  space  of  any 
that  has  been  devised.  In  the  dietetics  laboratory  in 
Figure  407  are  shown  the  conventional  double  tables 
long  found  practical  in  chemistry  laboratories.  Any 
arrangement  based  on  a stationary  position  for  the 
teacher  is  not  as  likely  to  be  serviceable  as  one  in  which 
the  teacher  is  expected  to  move  about  from  one  pupil’s 
desk  to  another,  for  constant  supervision  and  assistance 
in  the  mechanical  operations  taught. 

Whatever  the  placing  of  the  tables,  there  should 
always  be  allowed  sufficient  working  space  for  each 
pupil.  This  should  be  not  less  than  five  square  feet  of 
unobstructed  table  top,  the  depth  usually  being  not  over 
24  inches,  the  width  30  inches. 

If  ordinary  movable  kitchen  tables  are  used,  as  they 
often  may  be,  not  more  than  two  pupils,  preferably  only 
one,  should  be  assigned  to  each  table,  3'  6"  X2'  3"  in  size. 
When  these  tables  are  used  the  difficulty  arises  of  pro- 
viding suitable  cupboard  space  for  the  individual  utensils. 
This  difficulty  may  be  solved  by  the  use  of  cabinet  type 
tables  such  as  those  illustrated  in  Figure  410.  These 
cabinet  type  movable  tables  might  well  be  used  in  the 
individual  unit  kitchen  desk  illustrated  in  Figure  404. 
There  are  several  excellent  tables  of  this  kind  on  the 
market,  which  may  be  purchased  in  communities  where 
it  may  not  be  possible  to  have  them  built  to  specifica- 


tions. In  furnishing  the  large  unit  kitchen  this  type  of 
table  is  not  required  in  most  cases  since  cupboards  or 
cabinets  are  usually  included  in  the  furnishings. 

Design  of  Table  Desk  Cabinets.  Where  continuous 
table  desks  are  used,  as  illustrated  in  Figures  401,  405, 
406,  407,  412,  the  drawers  and  cupboards  built  in  below 
must  be  designed  with  special  attention  to  the  number  of 
utensils  assigned  each  outfit,  and  to  the  number  of 
different  classes  using  a given  table.  One  or  two  open 
shelves  beneath  the  top,  one  drawer  and  one  shelf, 
several  drawers,  or  a drawer  and  cupboard  are  the 
variations  that  naturally  suggest  themselves.  In  Figure 
414  is  shown  the  front  elevation  of  a type  of  table  desk 
well  adapted  to  use  for  dietetics  or  other  advanced  course 
in  which  a certain  amount  of  individual  apparatus  may 
have  to  be  assigned.  Each  unit  of  this  table  con  tarns 
four  individual  lockers,  one  common  locker,  and  one 
common  drawer.  Four  students  in  different  sections 
might  thus  have  an  individual  assignment  of  apparatus 
with  a certain  amount  of  materials  and  utensils  in  com- 
mon in  the  unlocked  drawer  and  cupboard. 

In  Figure  415  are  shown  the  front  elevations  of  two 
other  less  elaborate  arrangements,  the  one  alternating 
an  open  space  with  a drawer  and  a cupboard,  the  other 
showing  a tier  of  four  drawers,  then  a single  drawer, 
then  a drawer  and  cupboard,  a single  drawer  again, 
and  the  whole  repeated.  In  Figure  416  an  arrangement 
similar  to  the  simpler  one  outlined  in  Figure  415  is 
shown.  Other  designs  may  be  used,  such  as  that  of  a 
roller  drop  over  the  cupboard  below  the  drawer,  Figure 
413,  or  two  full  length  double  drawers,  one  of  them 
sufficiently  deep  to  serve  as  cupboard,  illustrated  in 
Figure  417. 

A good  clear  piece  of  maple  or  similar  wood  from 
i8//Xi2//  to  24,/X24,/  in  size  with  drawer  pull  is  usually 
provided  for  molding  or  bread  board,  and  fitted  into 
a space  immediately  under  the  table  top  in  each  pupil’s 
working  area.  Well-sized  heavy  pieces  of  canvas  treated 
with  a light  dressing  of  paraffin  or  oil  may  be  used  in- 
stead of  these  boards  if  occasion  demands. 

Materials  for  Table  Tops.  Sugar  pine,  maple,  or  any 
other  serviceable  hard  wood  may  be  used  for  the  table 
tops,  and  may  be  finished  in  a variety  of  ways.  If  left 
unvarnished  or  painted,  considerable  time  and  labor 
must  be  expended  in  keeping  the  wood  scoured,  a ne- 
cessity not  desirable  under  any  conditions.  Painting, 
enameling,  staining,  and  varnishing  are  the  alternatives 
with  wooden  tops. 

A number  of  composition  materials,  such  as  alberene 
or  germanstone,  are  available  for  table  tops,  and  are 
easy  to  care  for,  but  are  often  absorbent  of  grease  and 
other  substances.  Cement  tops  have  been  used  in  some 
schools  to  good  advantage. 


P-LAJ OF  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE  DEPARTMENT  IN  ELEMENTARY  AND  INTERMEDIATE 

SCHOOL  TAKEN  FROM  DRAWINGS  OF  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  *29.  N.Y.  CITY,  ms  c.  s.  j.  3hyde<l.  archi 

scale: 


THE  HOME  ECONOMICS  DEPARTMENT 


481 


Vitrified  tile,  glass,  marble,  lava  have  all  been  used 
with  varying  success.  The  glass,  marble,  and  lava 
crack  with  heat,  and  are  destructive  of  glass  and  china 
utensils ; the  tile,  being  set  in  small  pieces,  collects  dirt, 
and  wears  out  in  the  seams. 

Any  table  top  chosen  should  be  easily  cleaned,  non- 
absorbent, not  warped  or  cracked  by  heat,  fireproof,  and 
resistant  to  acids  and  alkalis.  Any  good  grade  of  wood, 
such  as  sugar  pine,  treated  with  acid-proof  liquid  and 
properly  protected  by  metal  under  the  stoves  is  probably 
the  best  and  most  economical  choice  to  meet  most  of 
these  requirements. 

Heights  of  Tables.  The  height  of  a table  adjusted 
for  standing  work  for  the  medium  tall  adult  woman, 
66  inches  in  height,  should  be  about  33  to  38  inches. 
The  American  girl  11  to  14  years  old,  the  7th,  8th,  and 
9th  grade  ages,  averages  53  to  59  inches  in  height,  and 
should  therefore  work  at  a table  not  more  than  23  to  29 
inches  high.  Where  tables  are  constructed  for  indi- 
vidual classes  of  known  average  height  better  adjust- 
ment can  naturally  be  made.  For  the  senior  high  school 
classes,  the  tables  may  be  of  standard  adult  height,  or  in 
the  unit  kitchens  and  unit  kitchen  desks,  varied  an  inch 
or  two  so  that  pupils  of  various  sizes  may  be  assigned 
to  working  tables  best  suited  to  their  needs. 

Some  kind  of  seat  should  be  provided  for  each  pupil, 
since  many  of  the  operations  to  be  carried  out  are  long 
and  tedious.  These  seats  may  be  either  unattached 
stools,  or  seats  attached  to  the  side  of  the  table  desks 
by  hinged  brackets.  If  space  is  provided  under  the 
table  top  for  the  seats  to  be  swung  or  pushed  out  of  the 
way  when  not  in  use  a neater  and  more  usable  laboratory 
results.  If  separate  stools  are  provided  their  legs  should 
be  tipped  with  rubber  or  at  least  with  metal  glide  caps. 
In  any  case  the  height  of  the  seat  should  be  carefully 
adjusted  to  the  average  height  of  the  pupils  as  well  as 
to  the  height  of  the  table.  With  tables  31  inches  high, 
the  stools  should  measure  19  inches,  or  in  general  a 
difference  of  1 2 inches  should  be  maintained  between  the 
two. 

7.  Stoves.  — The  type  of  stove  used  in  the  school  must 
be  chosen  with  reference  to  the  fuels  in  use  in  the  com- 
munity. Where  several  kinds  of  fuel  are  accessible, 
stoves  constructed  for  use  with  each  should  be  available 
in  the  school.  Wherever  possible  small  individual  gas 
stoves  should  be  provided  for  the  general  class  instruc- 
tion in  principles,  although  single  examples  of  others, 
such  as  oil,  coal,  and  electric  ranges,  should  be  available 
for  the  teaching  of  the  peculiar  technique  involved  in 
their  use,  and  for  comparisons  of  costs  and  speed  of 
cooking. 

Electric  Stoves.  If  electric  stoves  are  used,  small  hot 
plates  and  double  ovens  may  be  used  on  the  table  desks, 


and  an  electric  range  in  the  unit  kitchens  or  unit  kitchen 
desks.  Individual  meters  should  be  attached  to  these 
devices,  for  the  cost  of  electric  cooking  is  usually  large 
enough  to  warrant  this  special  emphasis  on  the  study 
of  economy  in  its  use.  In  Figure  418,  showing  part  of 
the  electrical  equipment  in  use  in  the  University  of 
New  Mexico,  these  individual  meters  may  be  seen. 

Gas  Stoves.  Single  or  double  burner  gas  plates  are 
usually  attached  immovably  to  the  back  of  the  table 
desks,  over  some  sort  of  fire-resistant  material.  These 
small  stoves  are  useful  for  class  instruction  in  principles, 
taking  the  place  of  the  Bunsen  burners  used  for  a similar 
purpose  in  other  science  laboratories.  For  various 
excellent  types  of  these  small  stoves  see  Figures  416, 
417,  4i9- 

With  properly  guarded  flexible  metal  tubing  con- 
nections, however,  these  gas  plates  may  be  made  mov- 
able, and  the  working  space  on  the  desk  top  more  va- 
riously usable.  The  gas  plates  must  then  be  attached 
to  stiff  magnesite  boards,  unless  a strip  of  zinc  or  copper 
is  placed  across  the  back  of  the  table  top,  for  fire  pro- 
tection. This  arrangement,  as  well  as  the  more  usual 
fixed  burner  type,  is  illustrated  in  Figure  420. 

For  most  communities,  gas  is  still  the  cheapest, 
cleanest,  and  generally  most  efficient  fuel  for  cooking. 
The  ranges  used  in  the  unit  kitchens  or  unit  kitchen  desks 
should  therefore,  if  possible,  be  chosen  from  among  the 
excellent  varieties  of  gas  ranges  now  on  the  market,  and 
as  many  different  types  should  be  installed  as  there  are 
kitchens  to  equip,  for  good  points  of  various  sorts  are 
exhibited  by  many  of  them.  For  the  unit  desk  arrange- 
ment illustrated  in  Figure  403  and  the  unit  kitchen  desk 
illustrated  in  Figure  404  the  small  3 or  4 burner  range 
with  oven  below  should  be  chosen,  in  order  that  space 
may  be  saved  and  supervision  by  the  teacher  made 
easier.  In  the  larger  unit  kitchens  the  larger  ranges 
with  oven  above  may  be  installed. 

The  gas  meter  should  be  conspicuously  placed  on  the 
wall  of  the  cooking  laboratory,  so  that  the  pupils  may  be 
taught  to  read  and  observe  it.  See  Figure  416.  In  high 
schools  and  junior  colleges  at  least  one  stove  besides 
should  have  an  individual  meter  for  experimental  pur- 
poses. 

A water  and  electric  meter  as  well  should  be  available 
for  instruction  in  reading  and  computing  of  costs  in 
some  part  of  the  home  economics  school  equipment. 

Oil,  Coal,  and  Wood  Stoves.  If  coal  or  wood  is  used 
at  all  in  the  community,  at  least  one  stove  of  these  types 
should  be  found  in  the  laboratory,  and  indeed  several 
different  types,  if  no  other  fuel  is  available.  Simple  4- 
or  6-hole  ranges  are  best  for  the  instruction  in  family- 
size  cooking,  with  single  or  double  oil  burners  for  the 
table  desk  practice.  Small  portable  ovens  should  be 


482 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


D.B. 

5. 

5. 

DB. 

1C. 

<| 

) 

1 

1 

T. 

T. 

PE>. 


5. 


IMAGINARY  PARTITIONS,  MOVABLE  FURNITURE. 


MOVABLE  WIRE  GLASS  PARTITIONS  § FURNITURE, 
CUPBOARDS  UNDER  THE  DRAIN  BOARDS. 


•LEGEND- 

C.  CABINET 

D. B.  DRAIN  BOARD 
D.T  DROP  TABLE 
R.  RANGE 

5.  SINK 
T.  TABLE 

scale: 


WOOD  oo-  GLASS  PARTITIONS,  BUILT  IN  CABINETS. 

UNIT  KITCHEN  ARRANGEMENT! 


Fig.  409. 


THE  HOME  ECONOMICS  DEPARTMENT 


483 


provided  for  use  with  the  latter  as  well  as  with  the  gas 
plates  described  above.  It  may  be  advisable  where 
both  coal  and  gas  are  commonly  used  to  equip  the  unit 
kitchens  with  good  combination  coal  and  gas  ranges. 

If  coal,  wood,  or  oil  for  use  with  these  stoves  are  kept 
in  the  cooking-room,  fireproof  boxes  should  be  pro- 
vided for  them. 

Hoods.  It  is  an  excellent  precaution  wherever  possible 
to  install  metal  hoods  or  canopies  over  the  larger  ranges, 
the  outlets  being  connected  with  the  usual  ventilating 
shaft.  The  installation  of  these  hoods  in  the  unit 
kitchens,  unit  kitchen  desks,  and  lunchrooms  should 
help  to  solve  the  problem  of  the  ever  present  odors  so 
often  an  objectionable  feature  of  cooking  instruction 
in  the  schools.  Moreover,  if  these  canopies  are  con- 
structed of  steel,  copper,  galvanized  or  Russian  iron, 
well  insulated  by  asbestos  from  any  wooden  wall  sur- 
faces, they  lessen  considerably  the  fire  hazard.  Where 
special  care  to  avoid  obstruction  of  the  light  is  necessary, 
wire  glass  should  be  substituted  for  the  metal. 

8.  Sinks.  — (a)  Standard  porcelain  sinks  of  the  usual 
kitchen  size,  1'  6"X2'  o",  should  be  used  in  the  unit 
kitchens  and  unit  desks,  ( b ) smaller  sinks  at  intervals 
of  4 to  8 feet  let  into  the  long  table  desks,  or  (c)  small 
sinks  and  copper  or  other  metal-lined  trough.  In 
Figures  405,  406,  414,  and  420  sinks  of  type  (e)  are 
illustrated,  the  detail  of  which  is  given  in  Figure  414. 
An  arrangement  of  type  ( b ) is  shown  in  Figures  420 
and  412;  type  ( a ) in  all  the  unit  kitchens.  In  Figure 
419  it  may  be  noted  that  although  the  sinks  provided 
are  numerous  and  of  excellent  design  the  mistake  of 
omitting  drainboards  has  been  made.  Double  inclined 
and  grooved  wooden  drainboards  should  be  attached 
to  all  the  larger  sinks  in  the  cooking-room,  being  omitted 
only  in  the  case  of  the  small  sinks  and  troughs,  types 
(b)  and  (c)  above,  used  with  certain  kinds  of  long 
table  desks.  In  the  latter  case  the  sinks  are  designed 
to  be  mere  catch-basins  below  the  water  faucets,  not 
to  be  used  for  dishwashing.  Other  materials,  such  as 
germanstone  or  similar  compositions,  porcelain,  or  zinc, 
are  sometimes  used  for  drainboards,  but  for  the  same 
reasons  given  in  the  discussion  of  table  tops  prove  less 
satisfactory  than  wood.  Where  space  for  a drainboard 
is  not  available,  small  movable  porcelain  top  tables 
should  be  placed  near  the  sink. 

In  order  that  the  time  of  pupils  and  teacher  may  be 
conserved,  all  dishwashing  sinks  should  be  piped  with 
hot  water,  and  whenever  possible  the  table  desks  should 
be  similarly  equipped.  In  the  unit  kitchens,  unit 
kitchen  desks,  diet  kitchen,  and  dietetics  laboratory, 
hot  water  should  be  available  over  each  sink.  In  order 
to  provide  this  a suitable  type  of  water  boiler  should  be 
installed  in  the  cooking  unit,  preferably  in  a hall  or 


separate  inclosure  with  all  precautions  against  fire  risk, 
or  hot  water  from  the  school  steam  plant  may  be  used 
if  available. 

A short  nickeled,  tin,  or  glass  towel  rod  should  be 
attached  to  some  convenient  part  of  the  individual  desk. 
It  may  be  placed  on  the  inner  side  of  a cupboard  door 
or  the  under  side  of  the  table  top,  ledge  or  sink  drain- 
board.  See  side  of  sink  in  Figure  404.  This  is  for  use 
during  the  lesson,  when  constant  employment  of  hand 
and  dish  towel  is  necessary.  A larger  towel  drier  or 
rack  of  the  collapsible  wall,  laundry,  horse,  or  inclosed 
steam  types  should  be  provided  for  the  drying  of  towels 
between  lessons.  It  should  be  candidly  stated,  however, 
that  the  minimum  of  time  spent  in  laundering  towels 


Fig.  410. — ’Movable  Cabinet  and  Table  with  Alba  Iron  White 
Porcelain  Top. 


should  be  exacted  of  pupils  and  teacher,  since  with  a 
reasonably  large  supply  and  frequent  consignments  to  a 
local  laundry  the  towels  can  be  maintained  in  a more 
sanitary  condition,  and  school  time  saved  for  other  more 
profitable  exercises.  For  instruction  in  laundering  pro- 
cesses, an  occasional  lesson  in  towel-washing  should  be 
given. 

The  rolls  of  paper  towels  now  so  common  may  often 
be  utilized  for  hand  washing  with  resultant  saving  in 
laundry.  These  rolls  should  be  placed  over  each  large 
sink,  with  a waste  basket  for  receiving  the  shreds  on  the 
floor  beneath. 

9.  Storage  Clipboards  and  Cabinets.  — If  sufficient 
storage  space  in  drawers  and  cupboards  be  supplied 
each  student  in  the  desk  tables,  a smaller  number  of 
general  cupboards  will  need  to  be  provided.  Usually 
some  cupboards  with  shelves  and  drawers  should  be 
built  into  the  walls,  to  store  extra  utensils  and  supplies 
not  distributed  in  the  individual  desk  space,  or  in  the 
cabinets  of  the  unit  kitchens.  If  possible,  all  shelves 


484 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


should  be  inclosed,  and  in  some  cases,  at  least,  glass 
doors  are  desirable. 

If  sufficient  wall  space  for  the  construction  of  these 
cupboards  is  not  available  in  the  cooking-room  a separate 
pantry  should  be  provided.  See  Figures  401  and  404.  In 
any  case  the  shelves  should  be  either  movable  or  care- 
fully planned  beforehand  for  certain  uses.  The  drawers 
are  more  useful  if  their  contents  also  are  planned  for, 
and  thin  wooden  partitions  properly  distributed  within 
them. 

There  are  several  excellent  movable  kitchen  cabinets 
on  the  market  equipped  with  drawers,  bins,  shelves,  and 
boxes,  which  may  sometimes  prove  more  economical 
and  efficient  than  built-in  appliances.  Their  best 
feature  lies  in  their  being  easily  moved  about.  In 
Figures  421  and  422  are  shown  some  examples  of  these 
cabinets.  Usually  these  articles  are  best  confined  to  the 
unit  kitchens,  and  a simpler  arrangement  of  drawers, 
shelves,  and  bins  built  into  the  wall  for  the  general  use 
of  the  teacher  and  the  whole  class  at  the  desk  tables. 

Supply  Shelves.  Shelves  for  supplies  may  be  made  of 
plate  glass  or  of  wood  covered  with  a good  washable 
enamel  or  with  well-secured  oilcloth.  All  shelves  and 
drawers  need  frequent  washing  and  should  be  constructed 
and  finished  with  this  in  mind. 

Large  quantities  of  food  supplies  are  no  longer  neces- 
sarily accumulated  in  school  kitchens,  even  where  family- 
size  portions  of  food  are  prepared,  for  the  saving  in 
cost  is  not  now  so  great  as  formerly  when  large  amounts 
are  purchased.  Modern  food  economics  points  towards 
the  more  complete  segregation  of  food  storage  in  ware- 
houses under  optimum  conditions,  and  away  from 
family  storage  and  preservation.  This  tendency  re- 
flected in  price  removes  the  former  advantage  obtained 
by  large  quantity  buying,  with  its  attendant  danger  of 
loss  by  spoilage.  Overlarge  storage  capacity  should 
therefore  no  longer  be  considered  a necessary  part  of  the 
school  cooking  equipment.  The  large  flour,  meal,  and 
vegetable  bins  formerly  used  should  now  be  replaced 
by  10,  25,  or  50  pound  capacity  tin  boxes  or  stone  crocks 
and  plenty  of  narrow  shelves  for  package  goods.  Foods 
which  can  be  kept  in  jars  should  be  placed  in  well- 
labeled  1,  2,  or  3 quart  wide  mouth  glass  jars  for 
protection  against  dust  and  vermin.  These  jars  may 
be  placed  on  narrow  open  shelves  on  the  side  walls, 
just  as  on  an  opposite  wall  should  be  placed  the  jars 
and  bottles  of  the  simple  chemicals  needed  for  the 
demonstration  of  the  composition  and  properties  of 
foodstuffs. 

Supply  Tables.  Large  plain  kitchen  tables,  with  or 
without  drawers  and  cupboards  below,  should  be  used 
for  setting  out,  convenient  to  the  students’  reach,  the 
supplies  needed  for  a given  lesson.  These  tables,  not 


less  than  2'X^  in  size,  should  be  equipped  with  large 
ball-bearing  castors,  and  covered  with  heavy  oilcloth, 
vitrolite  glass,  or  porcelain  tiling.  Since  every  student 
should  find  herself  within  two  or  three  steps  of  such  a 
supply  table,  the  number  of  these  tables  should  be  about 
one  to  each  4 to  8 students.  If  extra  cooking  or  chemical 
equipment  be  needed  for  a given  lesson,  this  too  may  be 
placed  on  the  supply  tables  beforehand.  The  proper 
use  of  such  tables  may  add  somewhat  to  the  work  of 
preparation  by  the  teacher,  but  can  be  made  to  increase 
very  greatly  the  quantity  and  effectiveness  of  work 
done  by  the  student  in  a short  laboratory  period.  In- 
deed the  habit  of  thus  systematically  preparing  for  the 
performance  of  any  kitchen  task  is  not  the  least  valuable 
lesson  to  be  learned  by  the  cooking  class. 

In  the  unit  kitchen  desks  a two-gallon  enameled 
garbage  pail  with  cover,  operated  by  a foot  lever,  is  a 
useful  part  of  the  equipment.  See  Figure  404.  Similar 
pails  should  be  placed  under  the  large  sinks  or  at  the 
ends  of  the  desk  tables.  Sometimes  small  earthen 
garbage  jars,  with  or  without  covers,  may  be  used  to 
advantage  as  part  of  the  individual  desk  equipment. 

Refrigerators.  An  indispensable  feature  of  the  cook- 
ing unit  is  the  refrigerator.  This  may  be  built  into  the 
wall,  with  an  ice  compartment  which  may  be  reached 
from  an  outside  hallway,  or  better  may  be  of  the  ready-built 
movable  type  which  is  furnished  by  refrigerator  concerns 
in  a large  variety  of  styles  and  sizes.  The  size  must  be 
governed,  of  course,  by  the  number  and  size  of  the 
classes  which  will  use  it,  although  an  ice  compartment 
holding  less  than  50  lb.  of  ice  is  usually  expensive  and 
inefficient.  The  style  should  be  simple,  washable  in  all 
parts,  and  readily  disassembled  for  inspection  and  study. 
Porcelain  or  enamel  lining  is  preferable  to  galvanized 
steel.  The  refrigerator  should  be  placed  close  to  an 
outside  door  or  in  a service  hall  for  convenience  in  de- 
livery of  the  ice.  In  addition  to  the  refrigerator  a cool- 
ing closet  of  generous  size  is  an  excellent  feature  of  the 
cooking  unit. 

10.  Utensils  and  Apparatus.  ■ — • Several  types  of  equip- 
ment for  food  manipulation  should  be  provided.  These 
are  (a)  the  individual  desk  table  equipment ; ( b ) the  unit 
kitchen  or  unit  desk  equipment ; (c)  labor-saving  devices ; 
( d ) chemical  or  scientific  equipment ; (e)  hotel  or  lunch- 
room equipment ; (/)  hospital  diet  kitchen  equipment. 

For  all  the  cooking  utensils  a few  general  words  may 
be  said  as  to  material,  design,  and  number. 

A variety  of  materials  should  be  used  for  purposes 
of  comparison  and  study,  such  as  saucepans,  double 
boilers,  pie-pans,  dishpans,  etc.,  of  gray,  white,  and 
blue  enamel  ware,  aluminum,  cast  aluminum,  tin.  nickel, 
and  galvanized  iron.  Each  unit  kitchen  or  unit  kitchen 
desk  should  be  equipped  with  a different  type  of  ware. 


THE  HOME  ECONOMICS  DEPARTMENT 


485 


-COOKING  BENCHER- 

c/cale:  %"=i~o" 

O'  1‘  2’  3' 


WINDOW/  ON  THI / /IDE  WINDOW/ 


--PLAN  OF  COOKING  ROOM 

-TYPE  IN  U/E  IN  BO/TGN  ELEMENTARY  /CHGOL/~ 

c/CALE : 

o'  10^ 15' 


Fig.  41 1. 


486 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


TABLE 

0 0 

RANGE  5 RANGES 

0 O 

TABLE 

0 0 

O O 

8 STUDENTS  AT  EACH  TABLE 


SINK 

STOVES 

S. 

STOVES 

S. 

SINK 

STOVES 

$ 

STOVES 

s. 

ARRANGEMENT  FOR  TINGLE  TABLET  FACING  EACH.  OTHER 


Fig.  412. 


none  that  is  efficient,  safe,  and  properly  constructed 
being  omitted.  Many  teachers  and  housekeepers  find 
the  aluminum  ware  particularly  convenient  because  of 
its  lightness,  durability,  and  high  heat  conductivity. 
American  granite  ware,  gray  or  blue,  and  the  Swedish 
white  enamel  ware  are  found  also  to  be  light,  easily 
cleaned,  and  of  lower  original  cost.  When  the  granite 
ware  begins  to  chip  seriously  it  should  be  discarded  be- 
cause of  danger  of  antimony  poisoning,  difficulty  of 
cleaning,  and  unevenness  of  heating.  The  heavy  black 
iron  kettles  of  the  last  generation  need  not  be  represented 
in  the  modern  school  kitchen,  nor  the  copper  ware  which 
is  now  practically  unobtainable  for  general  use.  Only 
the  actually  used  wares  of  to-day  should  appear,  but 
these  in  all  of  the  approved  types. 

Simple  designs  should  be  chosen  for  all  cooking  utensils  ; 
those  with  no  sharp  corners,  or  cracks,  rolled-over  edges, 
or  unnecessary  indentations  are  best.  The  stream-line 


design  is  applicable  to  cooking  utensils  as  well  as  to 
automobiles,  and  provides  most  surely  against  the  ac- 
cumulation of  dirt. 

(a)  The  Individual  Desk  Table  and  General  Class 
Equipment.  The  number  of  utensils  provided  for  each 
pupil  should  be  kept  small  enough  to  avoid  cluttering  the 
table,  waste  of  time  in  cleaning,  or  the  cultivation  of  an 
undesirable  dependence  upon  specific  tools.  At  the 
same  time  the  variety  should  be  sufficient  to  prevent 
waste  of  time  and  material  in  cooking  operations. 

A certain  number  of  utensils  should  thus  be  available 
in  the  drawers  and  cupboards  assigned  to  each  student, 
including  a small  amount  of  the  simplest  chemical  ap- 
paratus. In  addition  to  such  articles  as  trip  balances 
and  thermometers,  a microscope  should  be  stored  in  the 
wall  cupboards  or  supply  room  ready  for  occasional  use. 
In  the  same  manner  extra  cooking  equipment  must  be 
kept  on  hand  in  the  cooking  unit,  ready  for  use  on 


THE  HOME  ECONOMICS  DEPARTMENT 


487 


Mr.  John  J.  Donovan,  Architect. 


Fig.  413.  — Cooking-room,  Oakland  Technical  High  School,  Oakland,  California, 


occasion.  This  extra  equipment  consists  largely  of 
bread-baking,  fruit-canning,  jelly-making,  freezing,  and 
similar  appliances.1 

( b ) The  Unit  Kitchen  Equipment.  In  the  movable 
cabinet  and  table  drawers  of  the  unit  kitchen  should  be 
stored  family-size  cooking  equipment  of  rather  large 
variety.  Each  kitchen  may  be  equipped  with  a dif- 
ferent ware  if  desired,  but  care  should  be  taken  that  all 
necessary  articles  are  supplied  in  each.  The  setting  out 
of  the  necessary  supplies  and  of  extra  utensils  should 
seldom  be  done  by  the  teacher  preceding  a lesson  in 
family-size  food  or  meal  preparation  in  the  unit  kitchen. 
All  materials  and  utensils  should  be  put  away  in  their 
proper  places  in  the  kitchen  and  the  pupils  expected 
to  get  them  out  and  do  the  work  in  an  orderly  and 
efficient  fashion.2 

Family-size  Cooking  Utensils.  It  would  scarcely  be 
sufficient,  as  might  be  thought  at  first  glance,  to  com- 


bine all  the  apparatus  listed  under  individual  desk  and 
general  class  equipment  in  order  to  indicate  the  furnishing 
of  the  family-size  kitchen.  The  difficulty  is  that  in  many 
cases  larger  size  utensils  must  be  used,  as  well  as  certain 
mechanical  devices,  the  use  of  which  is  not  required  in 
the  analyzed  or  idealized  processes  carried  out  at  the 
desk  tables  during  instruction  in  the  principles  of  food 
selection  and  preparation.  Examples  of  the  latter  are 
the  bread  and  cake  mixers,  various  types  of  egg  beaters, 
mayonnaise  mixers,  etc.  The  different  purposes  for 
which  the  unit  kitchen  practice  operations  are  pre- 
scribed must  be  kept  in  mind  in  choosing  utensils  for 
these  parts  of  the  cooking  laboratory. 

Individual  Serving  Outfit.  With  the  addition  of  a 
small  outfit  of  serving  dishes  and  silver,  valuable  practice 
in  meal  serving  by  small  groups  of  pupils,  or  even  by  one 
at  a time,  can  be  carried  on  in  the  unit  kitchens.  Small 
movable  dining  tables  may  be  placed  in  the  space 


1 For  complete  lists  of  utensils  required,  see  Equipment  for  Teaching  Dcmestic  Science,  by  Helen  Kinne,  Whitcomb  and  Barrows,  1909. 

2 See  Iris  Prouty  O’Leary  — Cooking  in  the  Vocational  School  as  Training  for  Home  Making , U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin,  1915,  No.  1, 
whole  No.  625. 


488 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


directly  in  front  of  the  open  kitchen  as  shown  in  Figure 
423,  or  the  kitchen  table  maybe  converted  for  the  purpose 
into  a temporary  dining  table.  With  this  arrangement 
every  article  of  food  cooked  may  be  served,  at  least  by 
mock  service. 

The  dishes  and  other  table  ware  used  for  this  purpose 
should  be  of  a uniform  pattern  so  that  when  collected  for 
larger  meal  service  they  may  serve  for  the  formal  dining- 
room equipment. 

The  unit  kitchen  desk,  because  of  limited  cupboard 
space,  naturally  cannot  be  equipped  with  as  large  an 
assortment  of  utensils  as  the  larger  kitchen,  but  may  be 
provided  with  a considerably  larger  outfit  than  that 
described  for  the  individual  desks  in  the  long  table  or 
class  desks.  In  any  case  the  latter  may  be  looked  upon 
as  the  minimum  and  the  unit  kitchen  equipment  as  the 
optimum,  any  possible  compromise  being  struck  between 
the  two. 

( c ) Labor-saving  Devices  in  the  Kitchen.  (1)  Elec- 
trical appliances.  If  electric  current  is  available,  at  least 
one  type  of  electric  toaster,  thermostat  oven,  coffee  urn, 
and  water  heater  should  be  included  in  the  cooking  equip- 
ment. Special  attention  in  high  school  continuation 
classes  may  thus  be  directed  towards  the  rapid  prepara- 
tion of  the  small  family  breakfast  or  lunch.  The  use  of 
the  small  electric  motor  for  beating  eggs,  salad  dressing, 
turning  the  freezer,  the  sewing  machine,  the  buffer,  etc., 
should  also  be  taught. 

(2)  Fireless  cookers.  A number  of  simply  constructed 
fireless  cookers  are  on  the  market,  and  numerous  di- 
rections are  available  for  amateur  construction  of  these 
labor-saving  devices.  At  least  one  example  of  this  piece 
of  apparatus  should  be  found  in  every  school  kitchen. 

(3)  Pressure  cookers.  The  small  aluminum  pressure 
cooker  of  vaselike  shape  is  still  probably  the  most 
satisfactory  article  for  general  use.  Its  shape  and  size 
are  both  poorly  chosen  for  use  in  canning,  however,  so 
that  if  much  canning  work  is  to  be  done,  as  in  country 
schools,  this  cooker  should  be  discarded  in  favor  of  the 
square  steam  canner.  Some  type  of  pressure  cooker 
should  be  available  even  in  the  elementary  school 
equipment  for  demonstration  of  the  processing  of  canned 
foods,  sterilization  for  hygienic  purposes,  the  rapid 
cooking  of  tough  meats  and  otherwise  usually  long-process 
foods,  as  well  as  of  the  relation  between  pressure  and 
boiling  temperature. 

(4)  Dish-washing  devices.  Although  no  efficient  dish- 
washing machine  for  a small  number  of  dishes  and  a 
small  expenditure  of  money  is  yet  available,  there 
can  be  little  doubt  that  simple  devices  to  decrease  the 
drudgery  of  dish-washing  will  continue  to  be  made, 
and  their  use  should  be  taught.  A few  articles  of  this 

1 Survey  of  the  Gary  Public  Schools. 


kind  are:  well-designed  dish  drainers,  mops,  plate 
scrapers,  chain  pot  scrubbers,  hose  and  spray  attach- 
ments for  rinsing  dishes,  rubber  mats  and  stoppers  for 
sink  and  drainboard,  sink  strainers,  soap  shakers. 

If  hotel  or  lunch  room  trade  classes  are  held,  practice 
in  the  manipulation  of  a modern  dish-washing  machine 
should  be  provided  as  well. 

(5)  Wheel  tray.  A thoroughly  mobile  wheel  tray 
equipped  with  large  ball-bearing  rubber-tired  castors 
with  two  trays  and  perhaps  a drawer,  is  an  excellent 
appliance  for  use  in  the  school  kitchen.  If  a formal  meal 
is  to  be  served  some  such  wheeled  device  is  almost  in- 
dispensable. The  article  may  be  made  out  of  any 
ordinary  small  table  by  adding  the  wheels  as  shown  in 
Figure  423,  but  is  preferably  of  metal,  for  durability 
and  ease  in  cleaning.  This  tray  is  not  to  be  confused  with 
the  pleasing  bit  of  dining-room  furniture  known  as  the 
tea  wagon.  The  latter  may  be  loaded  in  the  pantry 
or  at  dining-room  door  from  the  tray,  for  it  is  usually 
not  constructed  for  the  humble  utilitarian  purpose  to  be 
served  by  the  wheel  tray. 

{d)  Chemical  or  Scientific  Equipment.  For  the  proper 
development  of  an  experimental  basis  for  the  study  of 
the  selection  and  preparation  of  food,  as  well  as  for  the 
illustration  of  scientific  principles  by  means  of  such 
study,  a certain  amount  of  simple  chemical  apparatus 
is  desirable  for  high  school  classes.  Some  of  this  ap- 
paratus should  be  stored  in  the  individual  desks  and  the 
students  made  responsible  for  it.  Some  of  the  apparatus 
should  be  stored  in  the  teacher’s  cabinets  and  distributed 
to  the  students  only  at  the  times  when  it  is  to  be  used. 
In  the  former  list  are  included  a few  test  tubes,  filter 
funnels,  beakers,  flasks,  test-tube  brush,  filter  paper; 
in  the  latter,  balances,  thermometers,  Bunsen  burners, 
stands  and  clamps,  condensers,  pipettes,  burettes,  and 
reagents.  Without  such  equipment  the  illuminating 
and  interesting  tests  for  the  various  characteristic  food 
compounds  cannot  be  made. 

(e)  Hotel  or  Lunch  Room  Equipment.  One  type  of  trade 
requiring  professional  training,  which  may  well  develop 
out  of  home  economics  education  as  commonly  under- 
stood, is  that  of  cafeteria  or  lunch  room  manager  or 
worker.  To  make  a proper  field  for  practice  and  super- 
vision in  this  training  the  school  lunch  room  or  cafeteria 
should  be  either  under  the  direct  charge  of  the  home 
economics  teacher  or  under  a trained  manager  willing 
and  able  to  cooperate  with  the  department. 

It  may  be  assumed  to  be  unwise,  if  not  disastrous,  to 
attempt  such  a scheme  as  that  tried  in  the  Gary  Schools  1 
and  elsewhere,  in  making  the  school  lunch  room  de- 
pendent upon  the  output  of  the  cooking  classes,  and 
the  cooking  teacher  and  the  pupils  responsible,  with  very 
Household  Arts , by  Eva  W.  White,  1918. 


ELECTRJC  OUTLETS 


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SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


little  paid  help,  for  the  food  served.  The  working  of 
this  plan  has  nearly  always  been  unfortunate,  and  illus- 
trative only  of  a theoretically  plausible  but  actually 
impractical  scheme  of  education.  Instruction  and  pro- 
duction cannot  be  yoked  in  this  way,  for  instruction 
which  is  not  immediately  measurable  in  results  that  all 
may  see,  is  almost  certain  to  be  neglected. 

A legitimate  use  of  the  lunch  room  may  be  made,  how- 
ever, for  training  in  management,  planning,  and  buying, 
small  classes  of  older  students,  already  well  grounded  in 
the  principles  of  cooking,  menu  making,  and  serving. 
Very  little  or  none  of  the  drudgery  of  the  lunch  prepara- 
tion should  be  shifted  on  the  shoulders  of  these  students 
under  the  specious  disguise  of  education. 


be  finished  in  a hard  washable  white  or  cream  enamel  or 
tiling,  the  floor  should  be  of  tiling  or  covered  with 
linoleum.1 

Effective  relief  of  the  hospitals  from  training  of  nurses 
in  preliminary  courses  in  choice,  cooking,  and  serving 
of  food  cannot  be  brought  about  until  the  schools  are 
able  to  duplicate  such  hospital  devices  as  these  in  the 
training  diet  kitchen. 

ii.  Care  of  Equipment.  There  is  often  expressed  the 
view  that  one  of  the  aims  in  the  teaching  of  domestic 
science  is  training  in  habits  of  cleanliness  in  the  conduct 
of  the  kitchen.  This  debatable  view  is  expressed  in  one 
of  the  most  inclusive  and  valuable  of  the  treatises  on 
home  economics  education.2 


ELEVATION  5 OF  TWO  TYPES  OF  DESK  TABLES 

Fig.  415. 


Although  the  large  quantity  products  of  all  the  cook- 
ing classes  should  be  marketed  through  the  lunch  room, 
there  should  be  no  contract  to  deliver  every  day  a 
certain  proportion  of  the  food  served.  Large  quantity 
cooking  equipment  need  not  be  supplied  in  the  cooking 
units,  therefore,  if  the  steam  table,  soup  kettles,  and 
other  articles  necessarily  found  in  the  cafeteria  or  lunch 
room  kitchen  can  be  used  by  the  small  class  interested 
in  that  type  of  work. 

Thorough  familiarity  with  the  labor-saving  and  large- 
quantity  cooking  utensils  in  use  in  commercial  food 
establishments  should  form  part  of  this  trade  training. 
Here  again  we  note  the  necessity  of  professionalizing 
parts  of  the  home  economics  curriculum  which  were 
formerly  taught  with  the  housewife’s  limitations  con- 
stantly in  view. 

(/)  Hospital  Diet  Kitchen  Equipment.  One  of  the  vo- 
cational or  prevocational  courses  now  often  emphasized  in 
girls’  high  schools  is  that  of  food  and  nutrition  or  dietetics 
work  for  girls  planning  to  enter  nurses’  training  schools. 
For  the  optimum  development  of  these  important  classes 
a small  diet  kitchen  should  be  attached  to  the  cooking 
laboratory.  See  Figure  401.  This  room  should  con- 
tain, in  addition  to  the  usual  refrigerator,  sink,  cabinet, 
table  and  range,  a small  steam  table,  broiler,  tray  rack, 
dish  sterilizer,  and  heated  food  truck.  The  walls  should 


The  writer  believes  that  in  actual  teaching  far  too 
much  emphasis  has  been  laid  upon  this  aspect  of  the 
subject.  Nothing  is  more  natural  or  simple  for  the 
uncritical  teacher  than  to  make  the  piece  de  resistance  of 
every  lesson  the  thorough  cleaning  of  utensils,  sinks, 
stoves,  and  tables.  Often  as  much  as  twenty  minutes 
out  of  the  total  of  60  or  80  or  even  45  are  devoted  to  this 
drudgery.  Yet  even  more  time  than  this  must  be  given 
to  repetition  of  these  operations  if  automatic  response  in 
later  practice  is  to  be  expected.  In  the  meantime,  since 
new  mental  concepts  are  not  taught,  the  intelligent  con- 
trol of  food  choice  and  manipulation  sought  is  entirely 
missed.  An  occasional  lesson  in  kitchen  housewifery 
should  be  introduced  instead,  and  the  work  of  scrubbing 
sinks  and  tables  be  left  to  the  janitor. 

The  janitor  or  janitress  in  charge  of  home  economics 
rooms  should  have  sufficient  help  to  be  able  to  keep  these 
rooms  in  spotless  order,  and  should  understand  the 
special  requirements  of  such  care.  In  some  small 
schools  the  teacher,  with  student  help,  may  be  obliged 
to  supplement  the  janitor’s  efforts,  but  such  work  should 
be  done  out  of  school  hours,  and  as  a distinct  part  of  the 
janitor’s  and  not  the  class’  duties. 

The  Serving  Unit.  In  addition  to  the  improvised 
serving  equipment  already  mentioned  as  of  value  in 
supplementing  the  unit  kitchen  and  unit  kitchen  desk. 


1 Ruth  McNary  Smith,  Equipping  a Diet  Kitchen,  Journal  of  Home  Economics  — Vol.  9,  page  162  - — 1917. 

2 Bulletin  36,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education  — Education  for  the  Home,  by  Benjamin  H.  Andrews  — 1014.  Part  I — page  28. 


THE  HOME  ECONOMICS  DEPARTMENT 


Fig.  416.  — Domestic  Science  Room,  Clawson  School,  Oakland,  California. 


Mr.  John  J.  Donovan , Architect. 


a more  formal  provision  for  meal  serving  in  a dining-room 
should  be  made.  The  inclusion  of  some  sort  of  dining- 
room in  the  home  economics  suite  has  of  recent  years 
become  so  general  that  only  a few  words  need  be  said 
here  as  to  details. 

Size  of  Dining-room.  The  room  to  be  used  for  dining- 
room need  not  be,  for  teaching  purposes,  larger  than  that 
required  for  the  ordinary  sized  family,  but  should  never- 
theless be  large  enough  to  accommodate  the  occasional 
dinner  or  supper  for  school  groups,  such  as  faculty, 
school  board,  or  students’  society.  Such  a room  might 
be  15'XiS'  to  20' X24/  in  size. 

The  intent  in  the  latter  provision  is  one  of  community 
usefulness  which  need  have  no  bearing  on  the  teaching 
carried  on  in  the  department.  The  caution  mentioned 
before  in  the  matter  of  the  school  lunch  might  be  re- 
peated here.  Even  though  equipment  be  provided  for 
the  serving  of  meals  to  groups  having  definite  connection 
with  the  school  life,  it  should  be  understood  that  teachers 
and  pupils  in  the  food  study  department  should  be  ex- 
pected to  assume  responsibility  for  such  service  only 
when  in  the  judgment  of  the  director  educational  value 
may  be  derived  from  it. 

In  planning  the  space  allowed  for  the  dining-room, 


a tnird  consideration  besides  the  practice  for  the  classes 
in  serving  and  community  usefulness  is  involved,  that 
of  alternative  use  of  the  room  for  other  purposes.  Fre- 
quently, no  recitation  room  is  provided  for  home  econom- 
ics classes,  instruction  being  carried  on  in  the  cooking 
laboratory.  For  some  lessons  this  arrangement  is  un- 
satisfactory and  might  economically  be  supplemented 
by  use  of  the  dining-room  as  a classroom.  The  extra 
equipment  to  provide  for  this  double  use  of  the  room 
consists  of  a portable  blackboard  and  a sufficient  number 
of  movable  tablet  armchairs.  If  a closet  can  be  pro- 
vided into  which  the  usual  round  dining  table  can  be 
rolled  when  not  in  use,  still  further  usableness  of  the 
room  is  possible. 

If  the  objection  is  raised  that  alternative  use  of  this 
room  for  other  than  serving  purposes  is  likely  to  detract 
from  its  homelike  character,  it  may  be  pointed  out  in 
answer  that  only  the  skeleton  of  home  conditions  need  be 
reproduced  in  the  school,  and  that  the  exclusively  domes- 
tic atmosphere  often  sought  by  domestic  science  teachers 
can  be  attained  at  too  great  cost,  if  efficiency  in  the  use  of 
expensive  school  space  and  equipment  must  be  sacrificed. 

The  Floor  and  Wall  Finish.  The  dining-room  floor 
will  naturally  be  finished  in  the  same  durable  wood  used 


492 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Mr.  Edward  Stolz,  Architect. 

Fig.  417.  — Domestic  Science  Room,  Schenley  High  School,  Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania. 


in  other  parts  of  the  school,  the  finish  being  wax,  oil, 
or  varnish.  Often  a good  quality  of  large  rug  is  pro- 
vided when  the  school  can  afford  to  use  the  room  only 
as  a dining-room.  When  it  is  used  also  for  a recitation 
room  the  rug  becomes  a nuisance  and  may  well  be 
eliminated. 

The  walls  should  be  finished  in  some  attractive  home- 
like style,  the  plaster  tinted  in  soft  shades,  or  a simple, 
plain  wall  paper  used.  The  choice  of  color  scheme  of 
the  room  should  be  guided  by  exposure,  amount  of  light, 
and  view.  Sunny  rooms  may  be  finished  in  grays,  cool 
browns,  blues  and  greens  without  seeming  cold,  while 
dark  north  rooms  require  yellows  and  warm  reddish 
browns  for  successful  treatment.  It  is  usually  best  to 
select  a neutral  grayish  or  brownish  tone  for  the  walls 
and  rug  and  to  provide  variety  and  accent  in  window 
hangings  and  pictures. 

The  whole  problem  of  the  selection  of  colors  and  fur- 
nishings for  the  dining-room,  as  well  as  for  the  house- 
keeping unit,  constitutes  a splendid  exercise  for  the 


classes  in  house  decoration.  In  order  that  the  best 
use  may  be  made  of  the  opportunity  by  these  classes, 
inexpensive  and  easily  altered  wall  finish,  curtains,  and 
furniture  should  be  chosen.  In  many  large  high  schools 
the  woodworking  classes  have  been  able  to  design  and 
make  part  or  all  of  the  furniture,  the  sewing  and  art 
classes  have  designed  and  made  curtains,  wall  stencils, 
table  covers,  and  have  repainted  furniture  and  redyed 
fabric  so  as  to  set  forth  the  dining-room  frequently 
in  new  and  charming  guise. 

In  Figure  424  is  shown  a view  of  the  practical  and 
good-looking  dining-room  furnished  in  this  way  in  the 
Lux  School  in  San  Francisco.  This  room  is  large  enough 
to  be  used  daily  as  dining-room  for  all  the  teachers 
of  the  school,  but  it  is  so  designed  and  furnished  as  to 
serve  excellently  also  for  the  class  practice  in  the  serving 
of  home  meals.  The  color  scheme  used  in  this  case  is 
golden  brown. 

Furniture.  The  necessary  furniture  for  the  dining- 
room consists  of  a round  or  square  extension  table,  6 to 


THE  HOME  ECONOMICS  DEPARTMENT 


493 


20  dining  chairs,  and  a serving  table  or  buffet  In 
addition  there  may  be  a china  cupboard,  tea  table,  tea 
wagon,  muffin  stand.  The  latter  articles  are  not  in- 
dispensable, and  most  of  them  are  best  stored  away  in  a 
roomy  closet  off  the  dining-room  except  when  in  use. 
The  china  cupboard  may  be  dispensed  with  if  a pantry 
between  the  kitchen  and  dining-room  is  provided.  This 
latter  plan,  as  shown  in  Figure  401,  is  on  the  whole  most 
efficient  for  school  purposes,  since  the  removal  and 
putting  away  of  dishes  may  then  be  carried  on  without 
disturbing  the  group  using  the  dining-room.  Where 
space  is  limited,  however,  see  Figure  403,  either  a mov- 
able or  built-in  cupboard 
may  form  part  of  the 
dining-room  furniture. 

The  kind  of  furniture 
chosen  should  be  governed 
by  the  taste  and  habits 
of  the  community  as  well 
as  funds  available.  It  is 
usually  best  to  make  a 
conservative  choice, 
avoiding  the  passing  fancy 
of  the  moment.  The 
simple  and  graceful  lines 
of  some  of  the  so-called 
colonial  furniture  will 
please  long  after  the  knobs 
and  twists  of  certain  other 
styles  have  become  mo- 
notonous or  tawdry.  It 
need  hardly  be  added 
that  imitation  woods  or 
leather  are  entirely  out 
of  place  in  school  furni- 
ture and  that  the  best 
genuine  materials  finished 
to  show  what  they  are, 
which  are  purchasable  with  the  money  available,  are  most 
suitable  under  all  circumstances.  Plain  oak  furniture 
may  be  stained  and  waxed  in  a number  of  pleasing  ways, 
all  of  them  showing  the  grain  of  the  wood,  or  may  be 
painted  and  enameled  to  suit  the  surroundings  and  the 
needs  of  the  classes.  Birch,  maple,  even  pine,  cedar,  or 
redwood  furniture  may  be  finished  acceptably  in  either 
of  these  fashions,  but  should  never  be  made  to  masquer- 
ade as  mahogany  or  rosewood. 

The  provision  of  an  open  fireplace  in  the  dining-room 
has  been  found  in  some  places  an  admirable  addition 
to  the  cozy  and  attractive  appearance  of  the  room.  An 
example  of  this  treatment  somewhat  too  formally  carried 


glassware,  and  linen  required  for  a given  school  will 
depend  largely  upon  their  collateral  use  for  other  than 
teaching  purposes.  If  the  serving  of  lunch  for  teachers 
regularly,  or  the  occasional  dinner  for  large  groups,  is 
contemplated,  tableware  must  be  provided  accordingly. 
For  teaching  purposes  alone,  service  for  six  is  ordinarily 
considered  sufficient.  This  is  true  particularly  when  the 
individual  serving  outfit  suggested  previously  is  pro- 
vided in  connection  with  the  cooking  unit. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  list  here  the  minimum  of  types 
of  dishes,  glassware,  silver,  and  linen  required  for  the 
equipment  of  the  serving  unit,  since  common  sense  and 


out  is  shown  in  Figure  426. 

Serving  Equipment.  The  quantity  of  china,  silver, 


Fig.  418. — Electrical  Equipment  Used  in  the  University  of  New  Mexico. 

the  experience  of  eating  as  well  as  serving  meals  will 
suffice  to  remind  the  reader  of  possible  desirable  additions. 
The  quality  in  all  cases  should  be  of  such  character  as  to 
establish  proper  standards  of  taste  in  the  minds  of  the 
students,  but  need  by  no  means  represent  the  outlay 
called  for  by  expensive  French  china,  Irish  linen,  and 
solid  silver.  Gay  and  beautiful  patterns  in  semi- 
vitreous  porcelain  are  obtainable,  and  are  preferable  to 
the  monotonous  and  ugly  durable  dishes  so  often  found 
in  school  dining-rooms.  A bit  less  durability  coupled 
with  more  endurability  may  well  be  found  educationally 
efficient.  A fair  quality  of  linen  of  bold  and  handsome 
pattern  might  well  be  substituted  for  the  severely  plain 
covers  so  often  used.  In  communities  where  the  kitchen 
oilcloth  and  turkey-red  cover  are  the  rule  in  the  homes, 


494 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Mr.  Wm.  B.  inner.  Architect. 

Fig.  419.  — Cooking-room,  Grover  Cleveland  High  School,  St.  Louis,  Missouri. 


the  cheapest  sort  of  unbleached  muslin  attractively 
stenciled  or  stitched  in  the  domestic  art  classes,  plain 
white  cotton  damask,  Japanese  toweling,  or  other 
simple  runner  material  might  be  used  to  indicate  possible 
improvement  without  added  expense. 

When  electric  current  is  available  at  a reasonable  price, 
one  or  two  electric  outlets  in  the  floor  or  wall  beside  the 
dining  table,  and  a representative  article  or  two  to  illus- 
trate the  table  use  of  electricity  should  be  provided. 
An  electrically  heated  coffee  urn  or  percolator,  toaster, 
or  grill  are  appliances  which  are  of  considerable  con- 
venience and  increasing  availability. 

Establishment  of  Standards  of  Taste.  In  choosing 
the  table-service  equipment  the  limitations  of  poverty 
and  taste  in  the  homes  of  the  community  should  not 
be  allowed  to  interfere  too  seriously  with  the  introduction 
of  the  idea  of  higher  standards  of  living  among  the 
students.  In  addition  to  poverty,  lack  of  knowledge 
of,  and  desire  for  the  more  refined  type  of  table  service, 
as  of  other  marks  of  good  taste,  sometimes  may  account 
for  the  existence  of  deplorable  living  conditions,  par- 
ticularly among  immigrants.  Discontent  of  the  student 
with  immediate  home  conditions  may  therefore  be  a 
lesser  evil  than  the  continuance  of  the  ignorance  which 
helped  to  produce  such  homes.  Emphasis  should,  of 
course,  be  placed  wherever  possible  upon  the  use  of  the 
least  expensive  means  to  bring  about  the  desired  result 
in  comfort,  harmony,  and  good  taste,  but  the  estab- 


lishment of  good  standards  of  living  in  the  real  sense, 
apart  from  luxury  or  showiness,  should  never  be  sacri- 
ficed to  unfortunate  existing  conditions. 

Service  with  no  Dining-room.  If  no  space  is  available 
for  a separate  dining-room,  provision  should  be  made 
for  practice  in  serving  meals  in  the  cooking  unit.  In 
the  laboratory  desk  type  of  kitchen,  space  for  this 
purpose  may  be  difficult  to  obtain  if  the  tables  are  ar- 
ranged in  parallel  rows.  In  Figure  412  dining  tables 
could  be  improvised  in  the  four  corners  shown  occupied 
by  supply  tables  ; in  Figure  403,  representing  the  horseshoe 
or  hollow-square  arrangement,  the  dining  table  might 
be  placed  within  the  square.  With  the  unit  kitchen 
type  of  arrangement,  practice  in  service  is  much  more 
easily  arranged,  since  the  space  in  the  center  of  the  open 
side  of  each  unit  may  be  utilized  for  this  purpose. 
This  is  illustrated  in  Figures  401,  407,  423. 

The  Laundry  Unit.  Some  provision  should  certainly 
be  made  for  the  teaching  of  the  simple  operations  and 
the  underlying  principles  of  laundering  in  even7  scheme 
of  home  economics  education.  In  this  as  in  the  other 
fields  already  discussed,  both  domestic  and  commercial 
types  of  equipment  and  performance  need  to  be  included. 
It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  in  England  and  Canada 
domestic-science  educators  have  always  placed  a good 
deal  of  emphasis  upon  the  science  and  art  of  laundering, 
nearly  as  much  time  being  spent  on  this  subject  as  upon 
food  preparation.  In  the  United  States  until  very 


THE  HOME  ECONOMICS  DEPARTMENT 


495 


recently  but  little  thought  has  been  given  to  the  matter, 
although  a few  training  schools  have  equipped  elaborate 
laundries.  It  would  seem  wise  and  reasonable,  however, 
to  give  to  so  necessary  and  so  tedious  a form  of  drudgery 
such  dignity  and  assistance  as  a few  lessons  in  the  house- 
hold science  course  will  afford. 

The  amount  of  time  spent  in  this  way  will  be  governed 
by  the  nature  of  the  training  sought,  and  by  the  character 
of  the  students  instructed.  In  certain  schools  and  lo- 


calities only  the  simplest  domestic  type  of  laundry  need 
be  taught,  while  in  others  careful  preparation  of  the 
girls  for  employment  in  commercial  laundries  is  justified. 
The  ever-growing  tendency  toward  the  specialization 
of  this  work  and  its  performance  outside  the  home  must 
be  considered  by  the  domestic  science  teacher. 

As  was  mentioned  in  the  discussion  of  the  cooking-unit 
equipment,  separated  and  analyzed  processes  should  be 
carried  out  in  order  that  the  student  may  acquire  in- 


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PPER.  STRIP,, 

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ATTACHED 

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O 

O 

C ZINC 

STRIP^ 

f O 

MOVABLE  2 BURNER.  PLATE,  FIGS. 


FIXED  SINGLE  BURNERS 


SINK 

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Shelf  iz"  wide 


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ARRANGEMENT  OF  SINKS  <5  BURNERS  IN  TABLE  DESKS 


SCALE'. 


O'  r 2’  3’  4'  5’ 


Fig.  420. 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


496  

telligence  in  the  control  of  the  conditions  of  her  work 
rather  than  merely  rule-of-thumb  skill  by  repetition  of 
the  task.  In  order  to  do  this  in  the  case  of  laundering 
instruction,  the  composition  and  physical  properties  of 
various  types  of  water,  soap,  washing  powders,  starch 
and  blueings,  the  structure  of  the  textiles,  and  the 
reaction  of  common  classes  of  dyes  to  different  kinds  of 
cleaning  treatment,  should  be  studied.  The  writer 
recalls  asking  the  laundry  instructor  in  a certain  state 
university  why  pongee  remains  spotted  when  it  has  been 


Fig.  421.  — Type  op  Ready-made  Movable  Cabinet. 


sprinkled  before  being  ironed,  and  the  answer,  given  with 
impressive  authority,  was  that  pongee  silks  must  be 
ironed  “ bone-dry.”  Nothing  further  was  forthcoming 
and  no  explanation  was  evidently  felt  to  be  necessary. 
Such  a state  of  mind  naturally  results  from  the  teaching 
of  “ complete  and  approved  methods  ” of  laundering, 
or  cooking,  or  engineering,  or  any  similar  process. 

The  equipment  for  teaching  laundry  in  a scientific 
way  should  include  besides  the  tubs,  wringers,  washing 
machines  and  other  appliances,  full  sets  of  chemical  and 
other  testing  apparatus  for  the  demonstration  of  the 
properties  of  the  various  cleansing  materials  and  fabrics 
under  consideration.  This  apparatus  may,  if  necessary, 
be  shelved  and  used  in  the  foods  laboratory  which,  if 
equipped  with  the  chemical  apparatus  mentioned,  will 
serve  for  much  of  the  testing  work  done  in  the  launder- 
ing lessons.  Similarly  certain  parts  of  the  apparatus 
provided  in  the  sewing  unit  may  be  called  into  use  for 
this  purpose.  The  ironing-boards  and  irons,  as  well  as 
the  hand  lens  or  microscopes  used  in  the  study  of  textiles, 
may  serve  in  common  the  two  uses. 

In  any  case,  separate  space,  however  small,  should  be 


assigned  for  instruction  in  laundry  problems  if  only  to 
emphasize  the  need  for  eliminating  laundry  work  from 
the  home  kitchen. 

Size  of  Room.  Smaller  classes  than  those  usually 
planned  for  the  cookery  courses  must  be  organized  for 
laundry  instruction,  usually  not  more  than  twelve  to 
sixteen  in  a section.  The  room  should  therefore  be 
large  enough  to  accommodate  four  to  six  batteries  of 
two  tubs  each,  and  the  same  number  of  ironing-boards 
and  washing-machines,  in  addition  to  space  for  the 
built-in  drier,  the  mangle,  and  stoves.  A set  of  specially 
designed  storage  cupboards  to  hold  the  outfit  needed 
by  each  student  or  group  of  students  in  carrying  out 
laundering  processes  should  be  provided,  along  with 
small  individual  lockers  to  be  assigned  to  the  students 
for  the  personal  belongings  inevitably  left  over  from 
lesson  to  lesson.  One  supply  cupboard  may  be  suf- 
ficient for  small  classes,  but  individual  lockers  are  almost 
as  much  a necessity  as  they  are  in  the  sewing-room. 

Floor  space  six  by  three  feet  in  size  should  be  allowed 
for  each  two  students’  washing  apparatus,  and  three  by 
four  feet  for  each  ironing-board.  The  drier  may  be 
built  into  a corner  and  occupy  from  2 to  6 by  4 feet 
floor  space.  The  mangle  will  vary  in  size,  usually  not 
exceeding  2 to  4 feet.  Armchairs,  or  benches  for  class 
use,  well  illustrated  in  Figure  427,  the  teacher’s  desk, 
and  two  or  three  double  burner  gas  stoves,  or  a small  wood 
or  coal  laundry  stove  will  take  up  the  remainder  of  the 
space.  The  individual  lockers  may  be  built  under  the 
windows  and  need  be  only  12”  deep  X 18"  wide  X 30” 
to  40”  high.  This  size  admits  hangers  for  waists  and 
skirts  without  doubling  them  up. 

In  addition  a laboratory  desk  of  the  type  shown  in 
Figure  420  with  space  for  four  to  twelve  students  and 
equipped  with  sinks  or  trough,  gas  outlets,  and  hot  and 
cold  water  supply  is  needed  for  the  scientific  testing 
work.  In  Figure  428,  in  a room  30'  X 26'  in  size,  is  shown 
an  advantageous  and  complete  arrangement  of  a de- 
sirable equipment  for  the  teaching  of  domestic  and  in- 
stitutional or  commercial  laundry  work.  A smaller 
number  of  washing-machines,  tubs,  and  ironing-boards 
may  be  used  than  that  shown,  but  in  order  to  make  the 
subject  worthy  of  school  attention  at  all,  the  labor-saving 
devices  and  scientific  testing  must  in  some  degree  be 
included. 

Walls  and  Floors.  The  walls  must  be  constructed  of 
waterproof  and  washable  material  similar  to  that  men- 
tioned in  the  discussion  of  the  cooking  unit.  Tile  or 
hard  plaster  are  usually  chosen.  The  floor  should  be 
provided  with  a drain  and  be  made  of  composition  or 
cement,  covered  with  linoleum  or  rubber  mats. 

Good  lighting  and  ventilation  are  particularly  in- 
dispensable in  the  laundry  room.  A canopy  similar 


THE  HOME  ECONOMICS  DEPARTMENT 


497 


to  that  suggested  for  the  cooking  stove  may  be  installed 
over  the  boilers  or  tubs,  and  a good  flue  should  be 
connected  with  the  drier.  An  excellent  example  of 
such  ventilation  is  seen  in  the  laundry  laboratory  at  the 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  Figure  429. 

Equipment.1  Stationary  tubs  or  trays  of  porcelain 
or  vitrified  clay  should  be  installed  in  groups  of  two  with 
drains  and  hot  and  cold  water  outlets.  If  a single  faucet 
is  used  the  water  may  be  carried  into  the  adjacent 
washing  machine  more  easily  by  means  of  a length  of 
rubber  hose.  These  tubs  should  be  set  at  the  right 


A good  quality  of  ball-bearing  wringer  either  at- 
tached to  the  machine  or  set  up  at  each  pair  of  tubs, 
a simple  cold  mangle,  a gas  heated  or  electrically 
operated  mangle,  are  desirable  additions  to  the  laundry 
equipment. 

In  rural  districts  an  outdoor  clothesline  or  revolving 
drier  may  profitably  be  installed  in  a convenient  court 
or  yard,  but  for  most  schools  the  drier  will  have  to  be 
of  the  indoor  type.  Clotheshorses  or  wall  driers  may, 
of  course,  be  utilized  if  necessary,  but  require  more 
space  than  is  ordinarily  available.  The  built-in  drier 


- - A MOVABLE  KITCHEN  CABINET  - - 

Fig.  422. 


height  for  students  of  the  size  who  are  to  use  them,  and 
may  vary  in  height  if  classes  of  varying  ages  are  expected. 
Portable  tubs  on  benches  may  indeed  be  utilized  in 
temporary  or  made-over  quarters,  but  are  not  desirable 
for  school  use  if  stationary  apparatus  can  be  obtained. 

A large  variety  of  washing  machines  operated  by 
hand,  water  power,  or  electricity  are  now  offered  in  the 
market,  and  samples  of  such  kinds  as  are  available  to 
the  community  should  be  included  in  the  school  equip- 
ment. So  far  as  possible  machines  of  various  types, 
such  as  rotary,  suction,  corrugated,  as  well  as  those 
driven  by  different  modes  should  be  used.  These  ma- 
chines may  serve  also  as  illustrative  of  the  power  machines 
in  large  laundries  for  vocational  classes. 


with  flue  heated  by  the  school  heating  plant  or  by  a 
small  attached  stove  forms  in  most  cases  the  efficient 
solution  of  this  problem. 

Wherever  ironing-boards  can  be  hinged  to  the  walls 
and  supported  by  a hinged  leg  when  in  use,  they  would 
best  be  installed  that  way,  since  the  space  can  be  utilized 
for  other  purposes  when  the  boards  are  not  in  use. 
Heavy  stationary  iron  standards  such  as  are  shown  in 
Figure  430  are  also  acceptable.  Separate  sleeve  boards 
should  be  provided  in  addition  to  the  large  board. 
Irons  heated  by  the  most  convenient  form  of  fuel  in 
use  in  the  community  should  be  used.  Electric  irons, 
of  course,  are  preferable  for  convenience  and  efficiency, 
since  they  furnish  an  even,  easily  regulated  heat.  Gas, 


1 For  further  details  of  equipment  of  the  laundry  laboratory,  see  Laundering,  by  L.  R.  Balderston,  published  by  I.  R.  Balderston,  1224  Cherry 
Street,  Philadelphia. 


498 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Mr.  Wm.  A.  Poland,  Architect. 

Fig.  423.  — Cooking-room,  Junior  High  School,  Trenton,  New  Jersey. 


charcoal,  or  alcohol  irons  are  sometimes  advisable,  and 
the  ordinary  stove-heated  sadirons  occasionally  are  the 
only  kind  available. 

Clothes  boilers,  or  a steam  jet  in  the  tubs,  wash- 
boards of  various  types,  sprinklers,  starch  kettles,  clothes 
sticks,  iron  rests,  iron  holders,  and  clothes  baskets  are 
other  necessary  articles  for  the  school  laundry.  All  of 
these  should  be  stored  in  properly  designed  cupboards 
when  not  in  use. 

The  spaces  for  holding  the  various  articles  to  be  stored 
should  be  carefully  proportioned  to  their  uses  and  la- 
beled. The  largest  spaces  must  be  for  the  boiler  and 
basket,  within  each  of  which  certain  smaller  articles 
can  be  kept. 

The  Housekeeping  and  Home  Nursing  Unit.  The 

problem  of  the  provision  in  schools  of  the  most  efficient 
equipment  for  the  teaching  of  all  those  arts  and  technique 
and  principles  involved  in  the  care  and  furnishing  of 
the  house  and  in  the  home  care  of  children  and  the  sick 
has  long  been  a difficult  one  to  solve.  It  cannot  be 
claimed  that  any  universally  satisfactory  conclusion 
has  so  far  been  reached,  nor  is  there  any  general  agree- 
ment upon  a working  scheme  for  such  instruction. 

The  most  obvious  answer  to  the  question  of  equipment 


for  this  work  is  the  practice  apartment,  or  practice  house. 
Many  schools  have  installed  such  apartments  with 
varying  success.  In  certain  districts  where  immigrants 
are  numerous  and  the  economic  level  is  rather  low  these 
apartments  or  cottages  have  served  as  excellent  social 
centers  and  Americanizing  influences.  Among  the  more 
prosperous  and  intelligent  districts,  however,  they  have 
been  for  the  most  part  unused.  In  any  case,  such  an 
apartment  if  built  into  the  school  in  an  isolated  part 
of  the  building,  accessible  only  to  the  students  of  the 
home  economics  courses  and  not  occupied  as  an  actual 
living  place,  is  apt  to  take  on  an  institutional  and  show 
character  not  compatible  with  the  carrying  out  of  the 
objects  for  which  it  was  planned.  Its  furnishings  are 
fixed  and  immovable  and  its  use  as  a laboratory  for 
house  decoration  is  apt  to  be  discouraged  because  of 
the  expense  involved  in  change. 

A detached  house  near  the  school  building  presents 
some  features  which  are  advantageous  but  some  which 
are  distinctly  objectionable.  The  isolation  which  makes 
it  distinctive  in  character  may  prove  a detriment  by 
separating  the  work  done  there  too  completely  from 
the  rest  of  the  school  routine.  Occasionally  such  a 
practice  cottage  may  be  used  to  advantage  as  living 


THE  HOME  ECONOMICS  DEPARTMENT 


499 


quarters  for  one  or  more  teachers  or  other  persons  con- 
nected with  the  school.  In  these  cases  rather  more 
convincing  working  conditions  may  be  attained,  but  it 
is  obvious  that  as  a continued  plan  the  arrangement  has 
its  disadvantages. 

Occasionally  in  high  schools  as  in  colleges  or  normal 
schools,  groups  of  students  are  taken  into  the  practice 
house  to  live  for  a given  period  and  to  discharge  all 
the  duties  of  the  housekeeper  under  the  supervision  of  a 
teacher.  The  writer  questions  the  educational  sound- 
ness of  this  plan,  and  certainly  its  difficulty  of  practical 
execution  is  plain.  It  would  seem  more  rational  than 
either  of  these  schemes  to  provide  for  the  housekeeping 
lessons  a real  laboratory  in  which  separated  and  analyzed 
processes,  rather  than  unthinking  “ skills,”  may  be 
taught.  The  yearning  for  the  exact  atmosphere  of  the 
home  which  seems  to  dominate  many  home  economics 
teachers  may  involve  a greater  sacrifice  of  efficiency  than 
the  momentary  consistency  will  justify.  Thus  a labora- 
tory for  the  housewifery  course  equipped  with  numerous 
samples  of  textiles,  woods,  cleaning  mixtures,  labor- 
saving  devices,  plumbing  plans,  and  samples  may  offer 
a good  deal  more  of  lasting  value  to  the  student  than  a 
nicely  furnished  practice  apartment  with  only  one  kind 
of  floor,  wall  finish,  plumbing,  and  other  appurtenances.1 
The  same  criticism  might  apply  to  a suite  of  rooms  to  be 
used  for  house-furnishing  classes.  The  writer  believes 
that  the  latter  course  would  best  be  given  in  a large  well- 
lighted  studio,  filled  with  various  property  sets  of  doors, 
windows,  floors,  and  with  very  little  resemblance  to  a 
furnished  home.  A valuable  feature  of  this  type  of 
work  should  be  the  excursions  to  furniture  stores, 
museums,  and  private  homes  whenever  possible.  In- 
deed a very  useful  course  might  be  given  in  this  way 
without  set  school  equipment. 

The  Community  Room.  In  Figure  401  is  shown  a 
large  living  room  with  fireplaces,  outside  entrance,  and 
connecting  with  a dining-room,  which  might  serve  as 
the  studio  for  house-furnishing  courses  and  the  laboratory 
for  the  housewifery  work.  Its  chief  use,  however,  should 
be  as  a community  social  room,  since  it  might  serve  as 
the  center  of  the  school  life  for  students  and  teachers 
and  parent  teacher  associations.  For  this  reason  it 
should  be  furnished  with  a goodly  supply  of  simple 
comfortable  chairs,  with  a rug  or  two,  two  or  three  tables, 
and  possibly  a piano.  These  articles  are  mentioned  as 
valuable  to  the  school  rather  than  the  home  economics 
instruction,  although  they  may  be  used  occasionally 
in  the  latter.  A convenient  and  charming  social  center 
for  the  school  is  shown  in  Figure  431  in  the  living-room 
of  the  Lux  School  in  San  Francisco. 

The  walls  of  such  a room  should  be  finished  in  some 


unobtrusive  neutral  tone,  since  they  must  act  as  a back- 
ground for  the  hangings,  rugs,  papers,  etc.,  to  be  dis- 
played in  the  furnishing  discussions.  The  floor  should 
be  finished,  if  possible,  in  oak  or  other  hard  wood,  well 
waxed,  since  it  is  not  unimaginable  that  it  might  some- 
times be  used  for  dancing.  A number  of  exhibit  cabinets 
with  glass  doors  and  fitted  with  narrow  shelves  should 
be  built  into  the  walls  of  the  room.  These  cabinets 
offer  a safe  and  usable  storage  space  for  the  large  variety 


Mr.  Wm.  C.  Hays,  Architect. 

Fig.  424.  — Teachers’  Dining-room,  Lux  School,  San 
Francisco,  California. 


of  sample  collections  which  should  form  the  background 
of  the  house  management  course. 

Occasionally  furniture  and  hardware  dealers  are 
willing  to  loan  pieces  of  furniture  or  fixtures  for  class- 
work  and  then  to  exchange  these  from  time  to  time. 
This  sort  of  cooperation,  of  course,  is  invaluable.  The 
house-furnishing  studio  or  community  room  would  natu- 
rally be  used  for  the  exhibition  of  these  loans. 

A few  drawing  boards  or  desks  add  considerably  to 
the  usefulness  of  such  an  exhibit  room,  and  provision 
of  steady  light  from  more  than  one  wall  for  the  study  of 
light  effect  on  color  is  desirable.  This  room  should  con- 
sequently, if  possible,  be  planned  for  a corner  of  the 
school  building  or  of  the  home  economics  wing  or  building. 


1 For  further  details  of  equipment  of  housewifery  laboratory,  see  Housewifery,  by  L.  R.  Balderston,  Lippincott,  1518. 


5°° 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Mr,  Wm.  C.  Hays,  Architect. 

Fig.  425.  — Teachers’  Dining-room,  Lux  School,  San  Francisco,  California. 


The  Bedroom  and  Bathroom.  A connecting  suite  of 
bedroom  and  bathroom  are  shown  in  Figure  401  as 
illustrating  possible  housing  for  the  home  nursing,  per- 
sonal hygiene,  or  care  of  children  lessons,  which  are 
now  frequently  included  in  even  the  junior  high  school 
course.  These  rooms  should  correspond  in  finish  to 
those  in  the  homes  of  the  students,  but  should  be  con- 
siderably larger  than  those  found  in  the  usual  residence. 
The  bedroom  when  not  in  use  for  instruction  in  bed- 
making or  housecleaning  could  serve  as  rest  room  for 
the  teachers,  or  for  tired  or  indisposed  girl  students. 
This  is  the  case  in  the  bedroom  shown  in  Figure  432. 
Such  a room  should  be  equipped  with  a double  and  single 
bed,  dressing  table,  crib,  tables,  and  chairs.  The  walls 
should  be  neutral  in  color,  the  windows  easily  shaded, 
and  the  floor  covered  by  a simple  comfortable  rug. 
Plenty  of  closet  space  should  be  provided  for  the  storage 
of  extra  bedding  and  the  home  nursing  supplies.  The 
latter  might  well  be  kept  in  narrow  wall  cabinets  with 
glass  doors.  A first-aid  outfit  which  may  be  drawn  upon 
for  the  use  of  the  whole  school  in  emergencies  may  be 
kept  in  this  room,  and  used  for  demonstration  purposes. 


Teaching  Care  of  Children.  Such  equipment  as  is 
required  for  teaching  the  care  of  children  should  be 
stored  and  used  in  these  rooms  also.  This  should  in- 
clude a large  doll  with  complete  infant’s  clothing  outfit, 
bathtub,  brushes,  crib,  and  feeding  utensils. 

The  services  of  a real  baby  and  its  mother  should  be 
secured  for  at  least  some  of  these  lessons,  since  the 
handling  of  a live  infant  in  bathing,  dressing,  and  feed- 
ing may  involve  difficulties  not  presented  by  the  doll. 
Whenever  possible  a day  nursery  or  hospital  in  the 
neighborhood  should  be  called  upon  for  assistance  in 
providing  practice  in  these  matters.1 

The  bathroom  shown  in  Figure  401  has  been  planned 
to  offer  all  variety  of  equipment  in  the  way  of  baths, 
such  as  sitz,  foot,  shower,  which  are  used  in  professional 
nursing,  as  well  as  the  usual  home  facilities,  because  of 
the  possible  pre-nursing  instruction  which  may  well 
be  given  in  some  schools  to  girls  who  plan  on  entering 
a hospital  training  school.  In  smaller  schools  less  varied 
bath  equipment  is  acceptable. 

It  will  be  noted  that  all  of  these  rooms  which  serve 
the  various  purposes  here  outlined  when  taken  together 


1 See  further  suggestions  in  Cooley,  Winchell,  Spohr  and  Marshall.  Teaching  Home  Economics  — Macmillan.  1918. 


THE  HOME  ECONOMICS  DEPARTMENT 


5°i 


Mr.  Edward  State,  Architect. 

Fig.  426.  — • Dining-room,  Schenley  High  School,  Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania. 


form  an  apartment  or  complete  living  quarters.  The 
reason  is  obvious,  in  that  processes  are  to  be  explained 
and  learned  which  are  connected  individually  with  all  the 
types  of  rooms  which  a family  needs  for  comfortable 
living.  The  provision  of  a suite  of  rooms  to  represent 
an  apartment  independently  of  such  intensive  use  of 
each  of  these  rooms  as  is  here  indicated  seems  to  the 
writer  indefensible. 

The  standard  of  furnishing  and  scale  of  living  possible 
in  the  homes  of  the  pupils  must  be  kept  in  mind  con- 
stantly in  planning  the  details  of  this  part  of  the  de- 
partment. It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  the  object 
of  all  instruction  should  be  analysis  and  understanding 
of  processes  and  the  acquiring  of  standards  of  taste, 
rather  than  immediate  skill  in  accomplishment,  and  that 
therefore  the  slavish  reproduction  of  the  student’s 
home  conditions  is  neither  necessary  nor  desirable. 
The  case  of  vocational  and  trade  training  presents  a 
slightly  different  problem,  involving  more  immediate 
provision  of  manual  technique. 


The  Clothing  Unit.  The  development  of  the  teach- 
ing of  sewing,  dressmaking,  and  millinery  in  the  schools 
has  been  truly  astonishing  in  recent  years.  Partly  be- 
cause of  the  rising  prices  of  labor  of  all  kinds  a con- 
siderable impetus  toward  the  home  construction  of  at 
least  simpler  blouses,  skirts,  dresses,  and  hats  seems  to 
have  occurred.  To  meet  this  tendency  more  and  more 
classes  in  sewing  have  been  organized  for  both  school- 
girls and  older  women.  For  obvious  reasons  these 
courses  are  very  often  elected  by  girl  students  in  prefer- 
ence to  many  of  the  more  academic  studies,  whenever 
the  choice  is  uninfluenced  by  such  considerations  as 
vocational  or  college  preparatory  necessities.  How  far 
the  natural  desire  of  the  schoolgirl  for  the  extra  clothing 
made  in  this  way  should  be  allowed  to  interfere  with 
the  provision  of  less  easily  acquired  mental  training  is  a 
problem  of  considerable  interest  and  difficulty  of  solution. 

In  spite  of  the  larger  numbers  enrolled  of  late  in  sewing 
classes  the  tendency  in  both  junior  and  senior  high 
school  clothing  courses  is  and  should  be  toward  greater 


502 


SCHOOL  ARC  HI  TEC  T U RE 


emphasis  upon  problems  of  purchasing,  the  economic 
condition  of  the  garment-making  trades,  good  taste  in 
design  and  color,  and  away  from  the  apportionment  of 
much  time  for  the  acquisition  of  technique  in  hand  and 
machine  sewing,  dressmaking,  and  drafting.  Trade  or 
vocational  sewing  classes  in  which  power-machine  work, 
machine  hemstitching,  and  similar  operations  are  taught 
constitute  an  important  exception. 

In  the  equipment  of  the  clothing  unit,  therefore,  pro- 
vision should  be  made  for  textile  testing  and  exhibits, 
sketching  and  draping  on  the  one  hand,  and  for  power 
machines  on  the  other.  If  vocational  sewing  courses 
are  given  they  should  be  housed  in  a separate  room  from 
those  occupied  by  the  usual  high  school  or  grammar 
grade  classes.  The  equipment  to  be  provided  for  the 
latter  may  be  divided  into  the  following  groups : 

1.  Textile  testing  and  exhibits. 

2.  Drawing  and  modeling  apparatus. 

3.  Sewing  apparatus. 

1.  Textile  Apparatus.  Cabinets.  Glass  cabinets  of 
the  type  mentioned  in  the  description  of  the  house- 
keeping unit  are  useful  for  the  display  of  textile  fibers, 
charts  showing  processes  of  manufacture,  small  models 


of  weaving  apparatus,  and  similar  illustrative  material. 
Storage  space  in  cupboards  with  shallow  deep  drawers 
and  adjustable  shelves  must  also  be  provided  for  ma- 
terials not  at  the  moment  on  exhibition.  A filing  case 
for  samples  of  cloth  adds  considerably  to  the  efficiency 
of  the  textile  work. 

Laboratory  Table.  For  the  physical  and  chemical 
testing  of  fabrics  which  may  well  be  introduced  into  the 
high  school  clothing  course,  a laboratory  table  of  the 
kind  described  in  the  laundry  unit  discussion  is  of  con- 
siderable value,  provided  no  properly  equipped  laundry 
laboratory  is  at  hand.  It  is  unnecessary  to  duplicate 
this  table  in  laundry  and  textile  room,  but  it  is  usually 
wise  not  to  rely  for  this  purpose  on  the  use  of  equipment 
in  the  cooking  unit,  since  classes  are  often  scheduled 
at  the  same  time  for  cooking  and  sewing  work.  In 
small  schools,  however,  the  equipment  in  the  cooking 
room  if  properly  chosen  should  serve  for  the  textile 
testing. 

Provision  for  running  water  with  sinks  and  gas  outlets 
is  necessary  for  this  laboratory  desk.  Ordinarily  one 
double  table  10  feet  long  and  5 feet  wide,  accommodating 
10  to  12  students  at  a time,  is  adequate.  The  table 


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* AGNES  FAY  MORGAN  * 
•JOHN  J.  DONOVAN,  ARCH! 
* COLLABORATORS  * 


5°4 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


should  be  inclosed  below  for  storage  of  apparatus  and 
chemicals  in  the  usual  laboratory  fashion.  It  is  en- 
tirely possible  to  equip  the  usual  large  cutting  table  in 
this  way,  with  sinks  let  into  the  top  under  smooth  board 
covers,  and  gas  outlets  below  the  top  ; see  Figure  436. 

Testing  Apparatus.  Powerful  hand  lenses,  or  low 
power  microscopes,  acid  and  alkali  bottles,  beakers, 
Bunsen  burners,  wire  gauzes,  tripods,  clay  triangles,  are 
the  chief  pieces  of  apparatus  needed  for  the  qualitative 
tests  possible  for  high  school  classes. 

2.  Drawing  and  Modeling  Apparatus.  The  usual 
precautions  observed  in  planning  drawing  rooms  should 
be  remembered  in  arranging  the  lighting  of  the  clothing 
unit.  North  light  is  usually  considered  steadier  and 
better  for  drawing,  but  sometimes  this  advantage  is 
best  sacrificed  to  the  cheer 
of  occasional  sunlight,  par- 
ticularly in  the  case  of 
grammar  grade  classes. 

In  any  case  the  light 
should  fall  over  the  left 
shoulder  of  the  worker, 
and  should  be  plentiful. 

Provision  of  adequate 
artificial  lighting  must 
also  be  carefully  made, 
since  afternoon  and  eve- 
ning classes  in  these  sub- 
jects are  frequently  or- 
ganized. 

Drawing  Apparatus. 

Drawing  boards,  either 
set  in  the  usual  adjustable 
fashion  on  pedestals,  or 
supported  on  the  sewing  tables  by  adjustable  blocks, 
should  form  part  of  the  clothing  unit  equipment.  These 
boards,  and  boxes  of  paints,  pencils,  rulers,  etc.,  may  be 
stored  when  not  in  use  in  a wall  cabinet  of  the  filing  case 
type  (see  Figure  436)  designed  for  this  purpose.  In 
Figure  434  is  shown  a class  using  such  drawing  boards 
in  making  preliminary  sketches  for  a millinery  lesson, 
and  in  Figure  435  for  costume  design  work. 

It  need  hardly  be  said  that  the  clothing  teacher  should 
be  thoroughly  trained  in  art  methods  and  technique 
before  attempting  such  work  as  is  implied  here.  In 
some  cases  the  drawing  and  designing  portion  of  the 
courses  might  best  be  given  in  cooperation  with  the 
art  classes. 

3.  Sewing  Apparatus.  Walls  and  floor.  The  walls 
of  the  rooms  used  for  the  clothing  classes  may  well  be 
decorated  attractively,  since  they  are  not  apt  to  be  ex- 
posed to  fumes  or  steam.  Calcimine  in  a subdued  gray- 
brown,  tan,  gray-green,  or  similar  tone,  or  a two-toned 


wall  paper  might  be  used,  with  wood  trim  in  natural 
color  and  dull  waxed  finish.  Washable  glass-curtains  of 
scrim  or  pongee  if  kept  immaculate  add  greatly  to  the 
attractiveness  of  the  windows. 

The  floor  should  be  of  oak  or  other  hard  wood,  if 
possible,  in  order  to  avoid  the  oiled  dirt-catching  danger 
of  the  soft  woods  used  in  other  parts  of  the  building. 

Cabinets.  In  no  other  schoolroom  is  there  greater 
need  for  properly  planned  cupboard  space  than  in  the 
sewing-rooms.  Individual  lockers  must  be  assigned 
students  for  work  in  course  of  construction,  and  these 
lockers  must  be  of  the  right  size  and  shape  to  receive 
the  articles  apt  to  be  made.  At  least  three  kinds  of 
locked  cupboards  should  be  available,  (a)  for  dresses 
and  coats,  (b)  for  hats,  (c)  for  flat  work,  underwear,  etc. 

(a)  Cupboards  to  re- 
ceive dresses  and  coats 
on  hangers  should  be  24 
inches  deep  and  64  inches 
high  inside  measurement, 
with  a single  rod  running 
down  the  center  two  inches 
from  the  top  upon  which 
the  hangers  are  hooked. 
The  doors  to  these  cup- 
boards may  be  of  wood 
or  glass,  and  if  smoothly 
sliding  save  floor  space  in 
opening.  These  cases  may 
be  used  for  exhibit  pur- 
poses to  advantage  if  glass 
doors  are  specified. 

( b ) Hat  cupboards  de- 
signed to  hold  four  to  sLx 

hats  on  raised  forms,  similar  in  construction  to  a hat 
trunk,  are  most  economical  of  space.  Usually  four  or 
five  rows  of  these  boxes  built  three  or  four  deep  are  ade- 
quate, and  provide  a space  each  of  about  20"  X 20"  X 20" 
inside  measurement. 

(c)  The  drawers  for  flat  work  offer  the  best  choice 
of  space  for  individual  lockers  and  students’  equipment 
boxes.  If  these  drawers  are  26"  Xi9"X6"  inside 
measurement,  they  are  found  to  be  satisfactory  for  a 
large  number  of  articles.  Enough  locked  drawers  should 
be  provided  so  that  each  student  may  have  one  for  her 
exclusive  use,  and  these  drawers  should  be  fitted  into 
the  spaces  under  the  sewing  table  during  the  progress 
of  the  lesson.  In  Figure  433  the  detail  of  an  economical 
and  complete  combination  of  these  cabinets  is  given. 

Dress  form  closet.  A closet  for  the  dress  forms  must 
be  provided,  and  this  is  perhaps  best  built  into  the  walls 
of  the  fitting  room.  Such  a closet  needs  to  be  5 feet 
6 inches  in  height  and  only  18  inches  deep  (5'  6"XiS"), 


Fig.  429. — Laundry  Laboratory,  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University. 


Page  505  Fig.  430.  — Laundry  Laboratory,  Grover  Cleveland  High- School,  St.  Louis,  Missouri. 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


5°6 


Mr.  Wm.  C.  Hays,  Architect. 

Fig.  431.  — Household  Arts  Classroom,  Lux  School,  San  Francisco,  California. 


if  sufficient  wall  space  is  available  to  store  the  forms  in  a 
single  row.  This  depth  must  be  doubled  or  trebled  if 
the  forms  must  be  stored  in  two  or  three  rows.  Sliding 
doors  or  a number  of  narrow  hinged  doors  are  necessary 
for  these  closets.  A shelf  cupboard  of  the  same  depth, 
but  3 feet  high,  built  over  the  flat-work  drawer  cabinet 
serves  to  hold  the  waist  forms. 

Tables.  Sewing-tables  may  be  provided  large  enough 
to  accommodate  x to  6 students,  but  usually  individual 
or  double  tables  are  chosen  if  space  is  available.  Single 
tables  should  be  3,X5/,  and  2'  6"  high,  double  tables 
6'X$',  or  more  economically  made  up  of  two  single 
tables.  If  a drop  leaf  2 feet  long  be  hinged  to  the 
narrow  end  of  the  tables  so  arranged  that  when  the  leaf 
is  raised  a single  long  table  is  constructed  from  each  row, 
the  best  possible  cutting  table  will  be  provided.  (See 
Figure  436.)  The  sewing-tables  are  easily  constructed  of 
sugar  pine,  maple,  birch  or  other  semi-hard  wood  and 
should  be  finished  with  a stain  to  match  the  wood  trim 
or  the  walls  of  the  room.  Spaces  for  the  insertion  of 
the  locked  individual  drawers  described  above  should  be 
provided  below  the  top  of  these  tables  and  opposite  each 
student’s  place.  During  the  lesson  the  drawer  may  be 


kept  conveniently  in  these  spaces,  and  stored  in  the  wall 
cabinet  at  other  times. 

Drafting  and  cutting  tables  X^,' X2' 8"  high  are 
sometimes  provided,  particularly  in  trade-sewing  rooms, 
but  for  most  schools  are  no  longer  considered  indis- 
pensable. If  such  a table  is  provided,  it  should  be 
equipped  with  sinks  and  gas  piping  for  use  in  textile 
testing,  as  previously  described. 

Mirrors.  Flat  wall  mirrors,  triple  full  length  movable 
mirrors,  4'  long,  are  usually  used  in  the  fitting-room  or 
in  a screened  corner  of  the  sewing-room.  Hand  mirrors 
and  small  triple  mirrors  should  be  provided  in  addition. 

Machines.  Both  single  and  double  thread  sewing 
machines  and  at  least  one  with  electric  motor  should  be 
available.  Electric  wall  plugs  should  be  convenient 
to  all  machines.  Five  or  six  machines  are  usually 
sufficient  for  any  ordinary-sized  sewing  class,  that  is, 
one  machine  to  three  or  four  students. 

Chairs.  Bent-wood  chairs  with  cane  seats  are  the 
favorite  choice  for  the  sewing-roonx  because  of  their 
lightness  and  durability.  Any  light  wooden  chairs, 
stained  to  match  the  tables,  may  be  used. 

One  or  two  ironing-boards,  hinged  to  the  wall  inside 


THE  HOME  ECONOMICS  DEPARTMENT 


5°7 


Fig.  432.  — Teachers’  Rest  Room,  Lux  School,  San  Francisco,  California. 


a shallow  cupboard  or  supported  on  a stout  collapsible 
frame  and  adjacent  to  electric  outlets  equipped  with  a 
red  incandescent  light  as  current  indicator,  must  be 
specified.  Electric  irons  of  varying  weights  may  be 
stored  when  not  in  use  in  these  same  shallow  cupboards. 
A two-burner  gas  plate  and  sink  near  the  ironing-board 
are  convenient  for  many  fitting,  cleaning,  dyeing,  and 
pressing  purposes. 

A generous-sized  blackboard,  bulletin  board,  pinking 
machine,  burlap  demonstration  frame,  teacher’s  desk, 
bookshelf  or  bookcase,  paper  roller,  and  a folding  screen 
or  two  complete  the  list  of  the  larger  appliances  neces- 
sary in  the  sewing-room.  Such  small  articles  as  tape 
measures,  yardsticks,  skirt  rules,  thimbles,  tracing  wheels, 
wire  cutters,  etc.,  either  are  assigned  to  students  to  be 
kept  in  individual  lockers  or  are  stored  when  not  in  use 
in  drawers  under  the  sewing-table  tops  or  in  wall  cup- 
boards. 

The  fitting-room.  If  a separate  fitting-room  can  be 


provided,  considerable  extra  convenience  and  value  will 
be  attained.  Sometimes  a fitting-room  may  be  econom- 
ically planned  to  occupy  the  space  between  two  sewing- 
rooms.  If  no  fitting-room  is  allowed,  a corner  of  the 
sewing-room  must  be  screened  off  for  this  purpose.  One 
or  two  fitting  pedestals,  a screen,  a triple  wall  or  movable 
mirror,  a flat  wall  mirror,  one  or  two  chairs  or  benches 
are  all  the  furnishing  necessary.  In  Figures  403,  433, 
436  the  details  of  convenient  fitting-rooms  are  shown. 
The  dress-form  closet  is  often  conveniently  built  into 
the  walls  of  this  room.1 

Trade-Sewing  Equipment.  If  vocational  or  Smith- 
Hughes  trade-sewing  classes  are  organized  in  the  school, 
a separate  classroom  should  be  planned  for  them,  if 
possible.  Since  this  work  is  treated  in  detail  in  the 
chapter  on  Vocational  Education  (Chapter  VIII),  but 
few  comments  need  to  be  made  upon  it  here. 

The  trade-sewing  room  should  be  equipped  with  a 
shaft  supplying  power  to  four  or  five  sewing  machines, 


1 For  further  details  of  the  Equipment  and  Use  of  the  Clothing  Unit,  see  Domestic  Art  in  Woman’s  Education,  by  Anna  M.  Cooley, 
Scribner,  1911. 


CORRIDOR. 


MODESTO,  CALIFORNIA 


THE  HOME  ECONOMICS  DEPARTMENT 


5°9 


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Mr.  Wm.  C.  Hays,  Architect. 

Fig.  434.  — Household  Arts  Drawing  Room,  Lux  School,  San  Francisco,  California. 


with  individual  wall  or  floor  electric  outlets  for  the  power 
machines,  hemstitching,  and  finishing  machines.  Large 
cutting  tables,  comfortable  chairs,  and  carefully  ad- 
justed lighting  fixtures  are  also  necessary  parts  of  this 
equipment.  It  is  desirable  here  to  duplicate  the  gar- 
ment-making trade  conditions,  so  far  as  can  be  done 
without  sacrifice  of  comfort  and  efficiency  in  teaching. 
Figure  437  shows  an  excellent  type  of  sewing- room 


adapted  to  school  conditions,  yet  providing  all  the 
appliances  for  trade  training. 

It  is  understood,  of  course,  that  all  the  equipment 
previously  described  as  indispensable  for  general  sewing 
and  clothing  construction  teaching  should  be  accessible 
to  the  trade  classes,  since  the  manipulation  of  the  power 
machines  must  be  considered  merely  one  important 
detail  in  the  trade-sewing  instruction. 


SCHOOL  A RCHI LECTURE 


5io 


Mr.  John  J.  Donovan,  Architect. 


Fig.  435.  — Costume  Designing  Classroom,  Oakland  Technical  High  School,  Oakland,  California. 


* AGNES  FAY  MORGAN  » 
» JOHN  J.  DONOVAN  ARCHI  » 
* COLLABORATORS  ‘ 


512 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Fig.  437. — Trade  Sewing-room,  Lincoln  High  School,  Los  Angeles,  California. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 


THE  CAFETERIA 

By  William  R.  Adams,  Engineer  of  Hotel  Equipment  Department,  Mangrum  Otter  Company,  Inc.,  San  Francisco, 

California 

I.  The  Kitchen,  (i)  The  Bake  Oven.  (2)  The  Range.  (3)  The  Cook’s  Table.  (4)  The  Saucepan  Rack.  (5)  The  Cook’s  Sink. 

(6)  The  Meat-cutting  Block.  (7)  The  Power  Food  Chopper.  (8)  The  Mixing  Machine.  (9)  The  Power  Vegetable-peeling  Machine. 

(10)  The  Vegetable  Preparation  Table,  (11)  The  Dish-washing  Machine.  (12)  The  Dish  Tables.  (13)  The  Pot  Sink.  (14)  The 
Tray  and  Glass-washing  Sink.  II.  The  Storeroom.  III.  The  Cold-storage  Room.  IV.  The  Dining-room,  fi)  The  Serving 
Counter.  (2)  The  Steam  Table.  (3)  The  Hot-water  Pan.  (4)  The  Dish-warming  Compartment.  (5)  The  Cold-drink  Section. 

(6)  The  Urn.  (7)  The  Tray  Slide.  (8)  The  Checking  Table,  (o)  The  Drinking-fountain. 


There  is  no  longer  any  question  of  the  necessity  of 
having  a lunch  room  in  an  up-to-date  high  school.  This 
is  especially  true  for  large  city  high  schools  and  for  union 
district  schools  to  which  the  students  come  from  long 
distances.  Nor  is  the  lunch  room  merely  a place  where 
cold  food  brought  from  home  may  be  eaten.  It  is  a 
department  of  the  school  organized  for  the  purpose  of 
maintaining  the  health  of  the  pupils  through  their  eat- 
ing, very  much  as  the  physical  education  department 
cares  for  their  health  through  exercise.  It  must  be  a 
place  where  the  student  can  obtain  warm,  wholesome 
food,  served  in  an  appetizing  manner  and  at  a reason- 
able price.  Its  construction  must  provide  for  pleasant 
surroundings  and  proper  ventilation.  The  best  arrange- 
ment to  meet  all  these  conditions  is  the  cafeteria,  or,  as 
it  might  be  termed,  the  self-serving  lunch  room. 

In  order  to  provide  good  food  at  a price  as  near  as 
possible  the  actual  cost,  it  is  necessary  to  cut  down 
to  a minimum  the  amount  of  paid  help.  It  is  possible 
to  do  this  under  the  cafeteria  system  because,  in  the 
first  place,  each  individual  serves  himself,  and  secondly, 
student  helpers  can  be  employed  in  assisting  behind  the 
serving  counter  and  in  returning  soiled  dishes  to  the 
dish-washer.  The  work  of  the  student  helpers  will  cost 
only  the  price  of  their  meals.  Thus  the  paid  help  for 
a school  of  about  eighteen  hundred  students  can  be 
reduced  to  about  five  in  the  kitchen  and  four  in  the 
dining-room.  Those  in  the  kitchen  should  consist  of 
the  cook  and  his  assistant,  the  baker,  the  dish-washer, 
and  the  general  utility  man.  The  four  in  the  dining- 
room should  be  occupied  mostly  with  the  serving  counter. 

In  the  designing  of  the  cafeteria  and  in  the  manufac- 
ture and  installation  of  its  various  fixtures,  there  are 
many  things  that  must  be  constantly  in  mind,  the 


combination  of  which,  if  properly  designed,  will  mean  a 
perfect  working  system.  First,  and  above  all,  proper 
sanitation  must  be  obtained  both  in  fixtures  themselves 
and  in  the  general  arrangement  of  the  fixtures.  There 
must  be  ample  space  around  each  one  of  them  to  allow 
for  thorough  cleaning  of  the  floor  and  wall.  The  sinks 
and  other  equipment  that  are  set  against  the  walls 
should  be  so  placed  that  there  can  be  no  pockets  for  the 
accumulation  of  dirt.  Second,  the  whole  arrangement 
must  be  pleasing  to  the  eye.  Third,  the  plant  must  be 
efficient ; there  must  be  no  loss  of  labor,  food,  or  fuel. 

The  dining-room  should  be  large  enough  to  accom- 
modate the  maximum  number  of  persons  to  be  served, 
that  is,  from  one-third  to  one-half  of  the  school  enroll- 
ment. In  form  (see  Figures  438,  439,  440,  and  441)  it 
should  be  either  rectangular  or  square.  If  the  maximum 
number  of  persons  to  be  served  at  one  sitting  is  six  hun- 
dred, the  room  should  have  the  dimensions  of  90/Xioo/, 
including  the  space  required  for  the  traffic  aisles  and  the 
serving  counter.  Access  to  the  serving  counters  should 
be  had  by  means  of  traffic  aisles,  leading  directly  from 
the  entrance  door,  past  the  food,  to  the  checker’s  sta- 
tion. These  traffic  aisles  should  be  4 in  width,  and 
should,  of  course,  be  railed  off  from  the  dining-room 
proper. 

The  Kitchen.  — The  kitchen,  if  it  is  to  be  really 
serviceable,  will  be  found  in  a position  adjoining  the 
dining-room,  somewhere  to  the  rear  of  the  serving 
counters,  and  located  centrally  if  possible.  Passage 
between  the  dining-room  and  the  kitchen  can  be  pro- 
vided by  means  of  large  double  swinging  doors  of  size 
3'  6".  These  will  permit  the  moving  of  trucks  in  and 
out  without  any  danger  of  jamming.  The  kitchen  should 
be  large  enough  to  accommodate  without  congestion 


513 


1 a r o ~a.  y 


Page  57.-;  Fig.  438. 


THE  CAFETERIA 


5i5 


all  the  fixtures  necessary  in  carrying  on  the  work.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  should  not  be  so  large  that  it  will  re- 
quire any  unnecessary  labor  in  the  preparation  of  the 
food.  Proper  lighting  must  be  secured  either  by  well- 
placed  windows  or  by  skylights.  All  windows  and 
doors  opening  into  the  kitchen  should  be  of  the  self- 
closing type,  and  they  should  be  thoroughly  protected 
against  flies  and  dust.  When  fly  screens  are  used,  the 
screen  should  consist  of  about  196  squares  to  a square 
inch.  Thorough  ventilation  must  be  provided,  by 
mechanical  means  when  the  ordinary  natural  method 
is  not  satisfactory. 

It  is  good  practice  to  keep  all  the  kitchen  work,  in- 
cluding vegetable  preparation  and  dish-washing,  in  one 
room,  thereby  doing  away  with  all  partitions,  elimi- 
nating ugly  corners  and  dirt  pockets,  and  keeping  the 
whole  system  under  the  eye  of  the  chef,  who  should  be 
in  full  charge  of  the  kitchen  work,  and  responsible  for 
its  neatness. 

The  kitchen  equipment  should  include  the  following : 
bake  oven,  range,  ventilating  canopy,  cook’s  table, 
pot  rack,  cook’s  sink,  cutting  block,  power  food  chopper, 
power  vegetable  peeler,  power  mixing  machine,  vege- 
table preparation  table  and  sink,  dish-washing  ma- 
chine with  scrapping  and  clean-dish  tables,  pot  sink, 
tray,  and  glass-washing  sink. 


The  Bake  Oven.  — The  bake  oven  should  be  of  the 
portable  type  and  capable  of  turning  out  about  100 
1 -pound  loaves  of  bread  per  baking.  This  type  of  oven 
can  be  obtained  to  burn  gas,  wood,  or  coal. 

The  Range.  — The  range  should  be  about  io'  long 
and  of  a type  best  adapted  to  burn  the  cheapest  and 
easiest  obtainable  fuel.  Gas  is  the  most  commonly 
used  fuel,  but  there  are  localities  where  coal,  wood, 
or  fuel  oil  is  used  exclusively.  The  range  should  have 
three  ovens,  each  capable  of  accommodating  two  22" X 
22"  roast  pans,  one  on  bottom  and  one  on  shelf.  If 
there  is  no  hot-water  system  provided,  hot  water  maybe 
obtained  by  fitting  the  range  with  a water  back  and  con- 
necting the  latter  to  a hot-water  storage  tank.  This 
means  of  heating  should  not,  however,  be  resorted  to 
unless  it  is  absolutely  necessary,  as  it  has  not  been  found 
entirely  satisfactory. 

The  canopy  over  the  range  should  be  made  of  iron, 
galvanized  iron  preferred,  and  should  extend  at  least  i' 
beyond  the  front  and  ends  of  range.  It  should  be  about 
30"  high,  with  the  lower  edge  of  the  front  and  ends 
6 ' 4"  in  clear  from  the  floor.  A ventilating  stack  made 
of  galvanized  iron  should  extend  from  the  center  of  the 
top  of  the  canopy  to  a proper  height  above  the  roof  of 
the  building,  and  there  be  fitted  with  a cap.  This  stack 
should  be  about  16"  diameter.  If  mechanical  means  of 


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Fig.  439. 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


5I& 


Fig.  440.  — Grover  Cleveland  High  School,  St.  Louis,  Missouri. 


Mr.  Wm.  B.  IUncr,  Architect. 


ventilation  are  used,  a pipe  12"  in  diameter  will  be 
sufficient.  Whenever  the  pipe  runs  near  woodwork, 
precaution  should  be  taken  to  insure  against  fire,  as  the 
accumulation  of  grease  in  such  pipes  is  very  inflammable 
and  might  cause  serious  results  should  it  become  ig- 
nited. 

The  Cook’s  Table.  — The  cook’s  table  is  placed  about 
\ in  front  of  the  range.  It  should  be  about  i2,X4/  X34", 
with  the  top  made  of  the  best  grade  of  selected  ash, 
set  together  and  held  tight  with  glued-in  wooden  dowels. 
A “bain  marie”  about  4/X2o'/X9//,  set  into  the  top, 
is  a very  handy  arrangement  for  keeping  the  food  at 
the  proper  temperature,  until  it  is  carried  to  the  serv- 
ing table  in  the  dining-room.  This  pan  should  be  made 
of  either  heavy  cold  rolled  copper  or  of  No.  16  galvanized 
iron.  It  should  have  a perforated  false  bottom,  made 
of  the  same  material  and  set  1"  clear  of  the  bottom  so 
that  the  food  utensils  will  have  a free  circulation  of  hot 
water  all  around.  The  water  should  be  kept  at  a proper 
temperature,  using  either  steam  heating  coils,  set  into 
the  pan,  or  gas  burners  of  proper  size  placed  under  the 
pan.  There  should  be  a hot-water  inlet  for  filling, 
and  i\"  standing  waste  outlet  for  draining. 


The  cook’s  side  of  table  should  be  provided  with 
drawers  for  the  cook’s  tools,  etc.  A galvanized  iron 
latticed  shelf,  placed  under  the  table  and  10”  clear  of 
floor,  is  convenient  for  the  accommodation  of  reserve 
pots  and  pans. 

The  Saucepan  Rack.  — The  saucepan  rack  of  di- 
mensions 8'  o"X2'  o”  should  be  constructed  of 
iron  bars  and  suspended  from  the  ceiling  about  5'  o" 
above  the  cook’s  table.  The  best  style  of  rack  is  the 
triple  bar  type,  with  the  center  bar  inclined  ; the  higher 
end  being  level  with  the  side  members,  and  the  lower  end 
about  1'  o"  belowc  The  pan  hooks  are  riveted  on,  about 
T o”  apart.  The  hangers  should  be  well  cross-braced 
to  prevent  swaying. 

The  Cook’s  Sink. — -The  cook’s  sink  must  be  placed 
in  a location  convenient  for  the  cook’s  use,  preferably 
at  one  end  of  the  cook’s  table.  The  sink  should  be  made 
of  galvanized  iron  not  fighter  than  No.  14  gauge ; its 
dimensions  are  about  3o''X24”X33,/  with  a depth  of  16”. 
All  joints  should  be  well  riveted,  soldered,  and  scraped 
smooth.  The  top  edges  of  the  sink  should  have  a half 
oval  galvanized  iron  band  or  a w'rought  iron  riveted 
and  soldered  thereto ; the  inside  must  be  provided  with 


THE  CAFETERIA 


5i7 


Messrs.  Perkins,  Fellows  & Hamilton,  Architects. 

Fig.  441. — New  Trier  Township  High  School,  Kenilworth,  Illinois. 


a standing  overflow  waste  outlet,  protected  by  a remov- 
able corner  strainer  made  of  the  same  material  as  the 
sink ; this  strainer  prevents  the  food  scraps  from  enter- 
ing and  clogging  the  sewer.  The  sink  should  have  four 
galvanized  wrought-iron  legs  riveted  to  each  corner 
and  extending  to  floor. 

The  Meat-cutting  Bloch.  — The  meat-cutting  block 
should  be  located  near  the  meat  compartment  of  the 
refrigerator,  so  that  meat  can  be  cut  to  suit  needs  and 
returned  without  permitting  it  to  become  warm.  This 
block  is  made  in  standard  sizes,  but  30"  X 30"  X 17^ 
is  about  the  right  size.  It  consists  of  a series  of  maple 
strips  placed  vertically,  well  glued  and  held  together 
by  iron  rods  running  through  and  drawn  up  tight  with 
nuts.  The  block  is  supported  by  four  turned  legs. 

The  Power  Food  Chopper.  - — The  power  food  chopper 
(Figure  442)  is  placed  near  the  meat  block.  This  machine 
is  a very  convenient  article  of  equipment  and  relieves 
the  cook  of  the  labor  of  chopping  all  meats  and  vege- 
tables ; in  fact  he  is  able  to  go  on  with  his  other  work 
while  the  chopping  is  being  done. 

The  Mixing  Machine.  — The  mixing  machine  (Figure 
443)  might  be  termed  a machine  for  all  work,  and,  be- 
cause of  its  general  use,  it  should  be  placed  at  a point 


easily  accessible  from  all  parts  of  the  kitchen.  It  is 
used  for  the  mixing  of  pastry,  mashing  of  potatoes  and 
other  vegetables,  straining  of  soups,  and  for  many  other 
things.  An  attachment  is  furnished  for  each  different 
operation,  together  with  two  one-piece,  tinned  mixing 
bowls  of  about  30  and  80  quart  capacity  respectively. 

The  Power  Vegetable-peeling  Machine.  — The  power 
vegetable-peeling  machine  (Figure  444)  should  have  a ca- 
pacity of  about  30  pounds  of  potatoes  at  one  charge ; 
this  machine  should  be  set  near  the  vegetable  compart- 
ment of  the  refrigerator  and  also  near  the  vegetable 
table  and  sink.  As  water  is  constantly  sprayed  over 
the  vegetables  while  they  are  being  peeled,  care  must 
be  taken  to  protect  the  electric  motor.  The  machine 
must  be  equipped  with  a special  guard  for  this  purpose, 
or  the  motor  must  be  set  above  and  out  of  reach  of  water. 
This  machine  is  provided  with  a waste  outlet,  but  it  is  a 
better  practice  to  have  the  discharge  go  into  an  open 
hopper  rather  than  directly  into  the  sewer.  This  ar- 
rangement eliminates  the  chance  of  sewer  gas  entering 
and  mixing  with  the  vegetables. 

The  Vegetable  Preparation  Table.  — The  vegetable 
preparation  table  should  be  placed  adjacent  to  the 
peeling  machine  and  should  be  about  8'  o"X2r  o". 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


5i8 


Fig.  442.  — Power  Food  Chopper. 

Heavy  galvanized  iron  with  edges  turned  down  all  around 
makes  a very  satisfactory  and  sanitary  top.  The  legs 
can  be  made  of  either  galvanized  wrought  iron  or  gal- 
vanized pipe  with  flange  at  the  bottom  as  desired.  A 
removable  ash  cutting  board  should  be  provided  for  the 
cutting  of  vegetables  and  a sink  with  dimensions  of 
about  24"  X 21"  X 10"  should  be  set  flush 
with  table  top.  Both  sink  and  top  should 
be  of  the  same  material. 

The  Dish-washing  Machine.  — The 
washing  and  sterilizing  of  dishes  and 
glasses  is  one  feature  of  the  whole  system 
that  should  be  given  a great  deal  of  con- 
sideration because  of  the  danger  of  the 
spreading  of  disease  if  this  work  is  not 
properly  done.  In  fact,  in  many  localities 
there  are  laws  which  require  that  the 
dishes  and  glasses  used  in  restaurants  and 
cafeterias  be  properly  sterilized.  The  dish- 
washing machine  (Figures  445  and  446) 
with  the  accompanying  tubs  should  be 
set  as  near  as  possible  to  the  exit  door 
from  the  dining-room  into  the  kitchen,  so 
that  soiled  dishes  can  be  immediately 
unloaded  without  having  to  cross  the 
kitchen.  This  arrangement  also  leaves 
the  clean  dishes  in  a handy  location  for 
easy  delivery  to  the  serving  tables. 

There  are  a number  of  dish-washing 


machines  which  are  found  to  be  very  satisfactory,  the 
inclosed  stationary-dish  type  having  perhaps  more  ad- 
vantages than  the  open  submerging  type,  as  the  break- 
age of  dishes  in  the  former  is  reduced  to  a very  small 
percentage.  This  absence  of  breakage  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  dishes  are  placed  in  wooden  racks  which 
hold  them  away  from  each  other,  the  water  being  forced 
over  them  through  washing  jets.  The  water  is  supplied 
by  means  of  a powerful  electrically  driven  pump  which 
is  part  of  the  machine.  The  rinsing  is  accomplished 
by  use  of  spraying  jets  placed  in  such  position  that 
fresh  water,  direct  from  the  boiler,  is  sprayed  on  the 
dishes  from  all  points. 

The  Dish  Tables.  • — - The  soiled-  and  clean-dish  tables 
(Figure  447)  should  be  set  up  and  connected  to  the  dish- 
washing machine,  one  on  each  end ; the  connection 
must  be  made  watertight  so  that  no  leakage  will  occur 
at  the  junction.  The  clean-dish  table  should  be  so  set 
that  it  will  drain  back  into  the  machine.  The  soiled-dish 
table  drain  to  a 2"  waste  outlet  at  some  convenient  point 
in  order  to  allow  the  liquids  from  the  dishes  to  separate 
from  the  solid  matter.  A 6"  rubber  top  scrapping  ring 
plug  should  be  fitted  into  a hole  at  proper  location  in  this 
table  to  take  care  of  solid  matter.  This  ring  plug  should 
extend  above  the  table  top  to  prevent  the  silver  from  fall- 
ing through  into  the  garbage  receptacle  below.  These 
tables  should  both  be  supported  by  1"  galvanized  pipe 
legs  with  floor  flanges. 

The  Pot  Sink.  — The  pot  sink  should  be  made  of  No. 
12  or  No.  14  galvanized  iron,  having  one  washing  and 


Fig.  443.  — Mixing  Machine 


THE  CAFETERIA 


Fig.  444.  — Vegetable-peeling  Machine. 

Two  drain  tables,  one  on  each  end  and  about  24" 
long  and  the  width  of  the  sink,  should  be  rigidly  con- 
nected thereto.  The  sink  and  drains  should  have  a 10" 
high  splash  back  at  the  wall,  and  the  drains  should  be 
turned  up  4"  at  the  front  and  ends.  The  front  of  the 
drains  and  the  sink  should  be  reinforced  by  having  a 
\ oval  galvanized  iron  band  riveted  and  soldered  to  the 
top  edge.  The  sink  should  be  supported  by  galvanized 
wrought  iron  legs. 

The  dish-washing  machine,  the  soiled-dish  table,  and 


Fig.  445.  — Small  Dish-washing  Machine. 

terial  as  the  pot  sink  and  should  be  constructed  on  the 
same  plan,  except  that,  instead  of  using  a standing 
overflow  waste  plug  in  each  compartment,  a ground 
plug  and  chain  should  be  fitted.  The  size  of  each  com- 
partment should  be  about  24"  X 24"  X 17",  this  being 
of  proper  size  to  accommodate  the  i7"X22//  trays, 
which  is  the  size  commonly  used. 

The  Storeroom. — The  storeroom  should  be  placed 
adjacent  to  the  kitchen.  It  should  be  of  sufficient 
size  to  store  all  supplies  necessary  for  a period  of  at 


one  rinsing  compartment,  each  30"  X 24"  X 16",  fitted 
with  a 2"  standing  overflow  waste  outlet.  Each  waste 
outlet  should  be  protected  by  a sliding  removable  cor- 
ner strainer  made  of  same  material  as  the  sink ; this 
protects  the  waste  lines  from  being  clogged  when  the 
standing  overflow  plug  is  removed.  A removable 
sliding  pot  rack  should  be  furnished  with  the  sink  so 
that  pots  can  be  handled  above  the  water  line  for  the 
purpose  of  scraping. 


the  pot  sink  should  be  connected  to  a water-cooled 
grease  trap  designed  to  catch  the  grease  and  allowing 
it  to  congeal  therein  instead  of  in  the  sewer  pipes,  thus 
reducing  the  danger  of  having  them  stopped  up. 

The  Tray  and  Glass-washing  Sink.- — The  tray  and 
glass-washing  sink  should  be  made  of  the  same  ma- 


520 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


least  thirty  days,  except  those  articles  which  can  be 
taken  care  of  in  the  refrigerator.  A storeroom  of  this 
kind  should  be  about  30'  X 30k  It  should  be  well  venti- 
lated and,  if  possible,  lighted  by  natural  light.  The 
walls  and  ceiling  should  be  finished  in  hard  wall  plaster 
or  like  material,  and  the  floor  finished  in  white  tile  or 
cement  with  a sanitary  base.  A line  of  shelves  20" 
wide  should  extend  from  the  ceiling  down  each  side  of 


Fig.  446.  — Large  Dish- washing  Machine. 


the  room,  and  another  line  down  the  center.  Under 
each  set  of  shelves  and  32"  from  floor  should  be  placed  a 
counter  top  about  T 6"  wide,  under  which  it  is  a good 
practice  to  accommodate  a number  of  portable  bins 
for  the  storing  of  loose  cereals,  beans,  peas,  etc.  These 
bins  are  made  of  either  galvanized  iron  or  wood,  and  are 
equipped  with  rubber-tired  wheels  so  that  they  may  be 
rolled  out  to  any  location  when  it  is  found  necessary  to 
refill  them  or  to  scrub  the  floor. 

The  Cold-storage  Room.  — This  room  should  be 
roomy  enough  to  store  supplies  for  about  three  days, 
and  should  be  divided  into  three  compartments : one 


for  meats,  one  for  dairy  products,  and  one  for  fruits 
and  vegetables.  The  meat  compartment  is  usually 
of  dimensions  about  8'  6"X6'  o"x6'  6";  the  other  two 
compartments  about  5'  o"x6'  o"  X6'  6".  The  three 
should  be  finished  on  the  inside  with  a good  grade  of 
cement  or  white  glazed  tile.  When  these  materials 
are  not  available,  a suitable  interior  may  be  had  by 
using  a good  grade  of  white  spruce,  T and  G,  giving  it 
three  coats  of  boiled  linseed  oil  and  rubbing  it  well  be- 
tween the  coats.  The  meat  compartment  should  be 
fitted  on  two  sides  with  14"  wide  removable  latticed 
shelves  and  on  the  other  side  with  a double  row  of  re- 
movable tinned  meat  hooks.  The  other  compartments 
should  be  fitted  with  removable  latticed  shelves  on 
one  side  only,  leaving  the  other  sides  free  for  the  storing 
of  boxes,  etc.  The  ice  compartment  should  occupy 
all  the  space  above  the  food  compartments.  Behind 
the  refrigerator,  there  should  extend  a hallway  into 
which  the  door  of  the  compartment  should  open,  thus 
eliminating  the  necessity  of  carrying  ice  through  the 
kitchen.  An  iron  hook,  fixed  in  the  ceiling  above  the 
ice  compartment  door,  makes  a very  convenient  arrange- 
ment to  which  the  iceman  may  attach  his  tackle  in 
raising  the  blocks  of  ice. 

The  front  of  the  cold  storage  room  should  be  built 
flush  with  the  kitchen  wall  and  access  be  made  possible 
by  means  of  doors  opening  through  the  wall  into  the 
kitchen.  The  floor  should  be  laid  6"  higher  than  that 
of  the  kitchen  to  prevent  water  from  entering  the  food 
compartments  should  any  of  the  doors  be  left  open 
when  the  kitchen  is  being  scrubbed.  The  room  should 
be  located  as  far  as  is  conveniently  possible  from  the 
range  and  other  cooking  equipment.  The  outside  of  the 
refrigerator  may  be  finished  to  match  the  kitchen  and 
hallway  walls,  or  in  natural  woods. 

The  Dining-room.  — The  food,  after  being  prepared 
in  the  kitchen,  is  transferred  to  the  steam  table  in  set 
pots  and  pans,  which  are  made  of  various  sizes  and  shapes 
best  adapted  to  the  food  to  be  served.  These  insets 
are  then  placed  in  the  steam  table  in  the  dining-room, 
where  the  food  is  kept  at  the  proper  temperature  dur- 
ing mealtime.  This  equipment  is  necessary,  for  a 
good  meal  can  very  easily  become  unpalatable  if  it  is 
allowed  to  cool  so  that  it  will  have  to  be  reheated. 
Trucks  for  the  delivery  of  food  to  the  dining-room  and 
for  the  return  of  soiled  dishes  are  found  very  useful  in 
many  of  the  larger  cafeterias. 

The  Serving  Counter.  — The  serving  counter  should 
be  about  50'  long  X29"  wide,  and  should  be  arranged 
to  contain  the  following  sections,  beginning  at  the 
traffic  entry : tray  and  silver  table,  bread  and  butter 
table,  salad  table,  steam  table,  dessert  table,  cold-drink 
table,  and  last  the  hot-drink  table. 


THE  CAFETERIA 


521 


To  construct  the  best  type  of  serving  counter  for  all 
sections  except  the  steam  table  and  cold-drink  table,  a 
frame  of  wood  or  iron  should  be  erected  in  the  proper 
location,  and  covered  on  the  top  and  front  with  3" X6 " 
white  glazed  wall  tile,  laid  in  cement  on  wire  lath  con- 
struction. The  server’s  side  of  the  counter  should  be 
left  open  and  should  be  fitted  underneath  with  a shelf 
for  the  use  of  the  servers. 

The  Steam  Table.  — The  steam-table 
section  should  be  about  re/  long  and  set 
with  the  top  flush  with  the  other  sections, 
the  front  to  be  so  constructed  that  the 
tile  will  show  an  unbroken  line  with  the 
other  sections  throughout.  The  top 
should  be  made  of  No.  12  or  No.  14 
galvanized  iron,  into  which  are  cut  the 
openings  for  the  insets  required  by  the 
service.  The  iron  top  should  be  covered 
with  polished  nickel  silver  with  the  edges 
well  turned  under  to  prevent  it  from 
buckling  and  twisting. 

The  Hot-water  Pan.  — The  hot-water 
pan  should  be  about  8"  deep  and  should 
extend  the  full  length  and  width  of  the 
top.  The  pan  should  be  made  of  cold 
rolled  copper  weighing  about  2 pounds 
per  square  foot.  Under  the  water  pan  is 
constructed  a compartment  for  the  warm- 
ing of  dishes.  This  compartment  and 
the  water  pan  should  be  heated  by  either 
gas  burners  of  proper  size  or  by  steam 
coils  as  the  case  may  be. 

The  Dish-warming  Compartment.  — - 
The  dish-warming  compartment  should 
be  provided  with  tight-fitting  doors  in 
order  to  keep  the  heat  in  and  exclude  the 
dust. 

The  Cold-drink  Section.  — The  cold- 
drink  section  is  constructed  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  other  tiled  top  sections, 
except  that  the  top  should  be  countersunk  about  8" 
deep,  forming  a pan  about  3'  o"  longX22"  wide.  This 
is  for  the  purpose  of  holding  ice  on  to  which  the  milk 
bottles,  etc.,  are  placed.  There  should  be  a 1"  waste 
outlet  and  strainer  set  into  bottom  to  drain  off  the 
water. 

The  Urn.- — Coffee  is  not  as  a rule  served  in  school 
cafeterias  except  to  the  teachers,  chocolate  taking  its 
place.  It  is  therefore  desirable  to  have  an  urn  from 
which  can  be  served  coffee  and  also  hot  water  for  the 
mixing  of  chocolate.  This  urn  should  contain  about  4 
gallons  of  coffee  and  10  gallons  of  hot  water. 

The  urn  should  be  placed  on  a combination  urn  stand 


and  cup  warmer.  The  top  is  constructed  the  same  as 
the  steam-table  top,  except  that  the  edges  are  turned 
up  1"  high  all  around  to  prevent  dripping  to  floor. 
The  warming  compartment  is  constructed  the  same 
as  the  steam  table  and  is  heated  in  the  same  manner. 
A gas  burner  is  brought  through  the  top  to  heat  the  urn, 
care  being  taken  to  properly  ferrule  the  opening  in 
order  to  prevent  leakage  into  the  cups. 


The  Tray  Slide.  — The  whole  serving  counter  must 
have  a tray  slide  about  8"  wide  bracketed  to  the  counter 
front  about  8"  above  the  top.  This  rail  and  bracket, 
if  constructed  of  dark  mahogany,  makes  a very  pleasing 
combination  with  the  white  tile. 

The  Checking  Table.  — - The  checking  table,  containing 
the  checking  machine  or  cash  register,  is  located  beyond 
the  end  of  the  serving  counter  and  so  placed  that  food  can 
be  handily  checked  as  it  is  being  taken  from  the  service. 
This  table  should  also  be  made  of  dark  mahogany  to 
match  the  rails  and  bracket  of  the  serving  counter. 

The  Drinking- fountain.  — A drinking-fountain  at 
which  the  pupils  may  obtain  their  drinking  water  should 


Fig.  447.  — Arrangement  or  Dish  Tables  with  Dish-washing  Machines. 


522 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


be  placed  at  a convenient  point  in  the  dining-room  not  the  general  refrigerator,  or  a special  ice  box  can  be 
too  far  from  the  checker.  It  should  be  fitted  with  a provided.  Each  entire  service  must  be  identical  in  de- 
quick-opening and  self-closing  faucet  of  a type  which  sign  and  equipment,  and  the  traffic  aisles  should  each 
requires  only  one  hand  to  operate.  If  desired  the  water  be  fenced  off  from  seating  rooms.  The  fence  should 
can  be  cooled  by  connecting  the  pipes  to  coils  placed  in  correspond  to  the  other  wood  construction. 


CHAPTER  XXV 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATING 

By  Mr.  George  E.  Reed,  M.E. 

I.  Introduction.  II.  Standard  of  Purity.  III.  Ozonating.  IV.  Air  Filters.  V.  Humidity.  VI.  Air  Volumes.  VII.  Cost  of 
Ventilation.  VIII.  Window  Ventilation.  IX.  Open-air  Rooms.  X.  Stoves,  (i)  Jacketed  Stoves.  XI.  Furnaces,  (i)  Defects 
of  Gravity  Furnace  Systems.  (2)  Gravity-indirect  Steam.  (3)  Aspirating  Coils.  (4)  Defects  of  Gravity-indirect,  (s')  Types  of 
Modern  Plants.  (6)  Furnace  Plants  in  General.  XII.  Steam  Systems.  (1;  One-pipe  Gravity  Steam.  (2)  Two-pipe  Gravity  Steam. 
(3)  Vacuum  Return  Systems.  XIII.  Hot-water  Systems.  (1)  Forced  Hot  Water.  XIV.  Apparatus  and  Design  of  Plant. 
XV.  Boilers.  (1)  Boiler  Supports  and  Settings.  (2)  Boiler  Furnaces.  (3)  Smokeless  Boilers.  (4)  Boiler  Location.  (5)  Smokestack. 
(6)  Oil  Fuel.  (7)  Boiler  Room,  Piping.  (8)  Boiler  Feed  Pumps.  (9)  Vacuum  Pumps.  (10)  Lubricators,  (n)  Exhaust  Steam. 
Danger  from  Oil.  (12)  Domestic  Hot-water  Heaters.  XVI.  The  Heating  and  Ventilating  Plant.  (1)  Heating  of  Special  Rooms. 
(2)  The  Indirect  System.  (3)  Air  Intake.  (4)  Intake  Dampers.  (5)  Heating  Coils.  (6)  Fans.  (7)  Motors.  (8)  Air  Washers. 
(9)  Fan  and  Coil  Connections.  (10)  Plenum  Chambers,  (n)  The  Duct  System.  (12)  Air  Inlet  Heads.  (13)  Grilles  and  Deflectors, 


Vent  Openings.  (14)  Vent  Flues.  (15)  Roof  Ventilators.  (1 
(19)  Temperature  Control. 

Introduction.  — During  the  past  few  years  mechanical 
ventilation,  particularly  as  applied  to  schools  and  other 
public  buildings,  has  been  the  object  of  rather  severe 
condemnation.  A return  to  the  old  system  of  window- 
ventilation  is  advocated  by  many,  some  of  these  ad- 
vocates being  men  of  the  medical  profession ; some  are 
persons  with  no  actual  knowledge  of  the  matter,  and 
there  are  those  sincere  faddists  who  cheerfully  follow 
any  leader  in  any  direction. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  cause  for  complaint  exists. 
Not  all  plants  are  well  designed,  and  in  addition  they 
may  be  antiquated  and  incompetently  operated.  Nat- 
urally but  little  should  be  expected  from  them.  Many 
engineers  charged  with  the  design  of  plants  are  never 
brought  into  very  intimate  contact  with  the  installa- 
tions after  completion  and  acceptance  by  the  owner, 
and  it  frequently  may  happen  that  operation  faults 
develop,  which  are  either  not  rectified  at  all,  or  some 
makeshift  is  attempted  without  a real  study  of  the 
trouble.  Sometimes  the  owner  or  the  architect,  from 
mistaken  ideas  of  economy,  will  not  make  the  proper 
provision  financially  for  an  adequate  equipment.  An- 
other source  of  trouble,  and  a very  great  one,  has  been 
the  lack  of  interest  in  the  results  to  be  accomplished, 
but  even  when  the  interest  is  present  it  is  not  an  easy 
matter  to  investigate,  follow  up,  and  check  the  results, 
especially  in  the  classroom  containing  numerous  occu- 
pants in  varying  states  of  health,  dress,  and  cleanliness. 
Investigations  and  research  work  are  expensive  and 
involve  more  time  and  money  than  is  available  to  the 


Roof  Dampers.  (17)  Exhaust  Fans.  (18)  Toilet  Ventilation. 

average  engineer.  There  is  no  doubt  that  our  present 
systems  of  ventilation  were  evolved  after  the  inadequacy 
of  window  methods  had  been  demonstrated,  and  as  the 
majority  of  the  authorities  apparently  agree  that  the 
new  systems  are  at  least  an  improvement  over  the  old, 
it  would  seem  logical  to  continue  as  we  are,  improving 
the  systems  as  better  methods  are  made  available. 

Taking  the  question  of  ventilation  as  a whole,  al- 
though the  great  majority  of  authorities  are  quite 
agreed  that  artificial  ventilation  is  beneficial,  they  all 
hold  to  widely  varying  theories  as  to  the  actual  effect 
heating  has  upon  the  air  itself,  and  the  hygienic  effect 
of  dry  or  artificially  humidified  air,  of  different  humid- 
ities at  different  temperatures,  of  dust,  air  currents, 
quantities,  carbon  dioxide,  etc.  All  these  points  should 
be  considered  in  relation  to  their  effects,  but  since  there 
is  no  agreement  among  authorities,  any  definite  the- 
oretical working  basis  is  manifestly  impossible,  and  of 
necessity  the  plant  in  question  must  be  designed  along 
its  mechanical  phases,  and  in  the  light  of  the  designer’s 
experience,  past  failures,  and  personal  bias. 

The  comment  might  be  made  here  that  nearly  all 
of  the  most  adverse  criticism  is  centered  about  public 
and  semi-public  buildings.  It  is  probably  justified. 
Take  two  heating  plants  each  equally  good  in  design  and 
material,  one  in  a school,  the  other  privately  owned,  and 
better  results  will  be  had  from  the  latter.  One  does 
not  have  to  go  far  for  the  reason.  It  is  because  im- 
properly operated  private  plants  are  simply  not  good 
business  ; they  do  not  pay. 


524 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Very  large  industrial  organizations  have  investigated 
the  subjects  of  heating  and  ventilating  in  all  their 
branches  and  by  “ stop-watch  ” efficiency  tests  have 
decided  what  method  is  best  adapted  to  each  given 
condition.  Having  decided  what  system  is  required, 
it  is  then  designed  with  a definite  end  in  view,  and  it  is 
afterward  operated  so  as  to  achieve  that  result. 

The  Ford  Motor  Company  installed  fan  ventilation 
in  their  great  Detroit  plant  simply  and  solely  because 
it  increased  factory  output  and  consequently  enhanced 
earnings.  It  is  not  probable  that  periodically  the  ques- 
tion is  raised  as  to  whether  the  system  is  good  or  bad. 
The  company  knew  before  it  was  installed. 

Silk  mills,  match  factories,  and  munition  plants  all 
have  to  be  provided  with  some  form  of  artificial  hu- 
midity control  and  certain  departments  must  be  regu- 
lated with  extreme  nicety,  and  it  is  done. 

Schools  are  very  remiss  in  this  particular.  Even  if 
the  plant  is  provided  with  all  the  necessary  refinements, 
use  may  not  be  made  of  them.  The  man  who  designs 
the  school  heating  system  has  certain  things  in  mind  at 
the  time,  but  unfortunately  his  connection  often  termi- 
nates with  the  completion  of  the  building,  if  not  at  the 
time  the  contract  is  awarded.  The  result  is  that  the 
actual  operating  supervision  is  left  to  the  business 
office,  and  all  the  aims  and  purposes  of  the  designer  are 
lost  sight  of. 

Air  is  a mechanical  mixture  containing  approximately 
21  per  cent  of  oxygen,  the  balance  being  composed 
principally  of  nitrogen  with  small  amounts  of  several 
rare  gases  and  metals.  Air  as  exhaled  contains  about  16 
per  cent  of  oxygen,  the  difference  being  represented  by 
products  of  combustion  within  the  body,  C02  (car- 
bon dioxide)  and  water ; it  also  contains  various  debris 
from  the  tissues. 

Standard  of  Purity.  — The  presence  of  not  more 
than  six  parts  C02  in  10,000  parts  of  air  has  been  for 
years,  and  still  is,  quite  generally  considered  the  proper 
standard  of  purity  for  air  in  most  ventilating  problems, 
the  CO-2  having  been  held  to  be  very  injurious.  The 
idea  that  C02  is  in  itself  actually  poisonous  is  now 
generally  discarded  in  all  well-informed  quarters.  The 
old  standard  of  six  parts  in  10,000  is,  however,  almost 
universally  retained,  as  it  happens  that  an  air  supply 
sufficient  to  maintain  this  standard  with  the  outside  air 
at  three  parts,  is  about  enough  to  carry  off  the  bodily 
heat  and  dilute  the  various  objectionable  matters  and 
odors.  In  other  words,  C02  is  really  taken  as  an  index 
to  the  condition  of  the  air  in  other  respects.  The  pres- 
ence of  carbon  monoxide,  however,  is  distinctly  another 
matter.  It  is  doubtless  unnecessary  to  state  that 
carbon  dioxide  is  the  resultant  gas  obtained  by  the 
complete  combustion  of  carbon  and  oxygen,  while 


carbon  monoxide  is  produced  by  the  incomplete  com- 
bustion of  these  two  elements.  Monoxide  is  com- 
bustible, having  power  to  unite  with  more  oxygen,  then 
becoming,  of  course,  carbon  dioxide.  The  system  in 
the  course  of  its  normal  functions  is  constantly  giving 
off  dioxide  as  one  of  the  products  of  the  combustion 
of  the  fuels  within  the  body,  and  even  if  inhaled  it  is 
gotten  rid  of  with  comparative  ease.  Carbon  monoxide, 
however,  is  a deadly  poison.  It  forms  a large  propor- 
tion of  illuminating  gas,  and  is  the  real  cause  of  the  so- 
called  “ motor  disease  ” which  has  recently  achieved 
some  little  press  prominence.  The  action  of  carbon 
monoxide  is  very  destructive,  it  breaks  down  the  hemo- 
globin of  the  blood  which  constitutes  the  solid  structure 
of  the  coloring  matter  of  the  red  corpuscles  and  which 
is  the  oxygen  carrier  of  the  blood. 

Ozonating.  — Ozone  has  been  advocated  quite  ex- 
tensively, and  excellent  results  are  claimed  by  some  who 
maintain  that  practically  all  refuse  organic  matter  is 
oxidized  by  it.  The  opponents  insist  that  ozonating 
air  merely  covers  one  odor  with  another,  and  that  if 
enough  ozone  be  admitted  actually  to  oxidize  the  ob- 
jectionable substances  then  the  odor  would  not  only  be 
unbearable  but  there  would  be  actual  danger  of  the 
formation  of  nitrous  compounds.  Quite  a variety  of 
apparatus  is  manufactured  and  sold  regularly  by  very 
reliable  electrical  concerns,  but  in  spite  of  this  it  is 
difficult  to  find  warrant  for  the  general  adoption  of 
ozonating  apparatus  in  connection  with  ventilating 
problems. 

Just  what  effect  upon  the  health  is  produced  by  the 
various  excreta  contained  in  exhaled  air  is  not  yet  es- 
tablished. It  is  held  by  some  that  they  are  positively 
harmful,  while  others  claim  that  they  have  no  effect 
whatever,  barring,  of  course,  direct  infection  by  germs. 
On  the  whole,  it  may  be  safe  to  assert  that  if  the  relative 
humidity  and  temperature  be  maintained  at  the  proper 
points,  no  danger  has  yet  been  proven  to  exist.  The 
actual  cause  of  “ crowd  poison  ” seems  to  be  the  high 
temperature  and  high  relative  humidity  produced  by 
massing  people  in  small  spaces  or  limited  areas,  either 
indoors  or  out.  It  should  be  remembered  that  the 
temperature  of  the  body  must  be  kept  normal  and  all 
heat  generated  by  the  various  processes  must  be  dissi- 
pated, and  when  the  temperature  of  the  surrounding 
air  is  equal  to  or  above  that  of  the  body  all  this  heat 
must  be  dissipated  by  the  evaporation  of  water  from  the 
surface  of  the  skin.  If  the  air  becomes  saturated  to 
such  a degree  that  evaporation  does  not  take  place  with 
sufficient  rapidity,  then  the  temperature  of  the  body 
will  rise  and  general  disorder  will  ensue. 

Air  Filters.  — Dust  is  objectionable  in  various  ways 
as  a carrier  of  disease  germs,  as  an  irritant  to  the  mem 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATING 


525 


branes,  and  if  carried  into  buildings  it  soils  walls,  furni- 
ture, etc.  Dust  can  be  readily  removed  by  means  of 
air  washers  if  desired.  Air  filters,  composed  of  a filter- 
ing material  of  coarse  texture,  either  wet  or  dry,  have 
been  extensively  used  in  the  past,  but  are  now  quite 
generally  abandoned  on  account  of  their  inefficiency, 
liability  to  clog  with  dust,  and  the  excessive  resistance 
offered  to  the  flow  of  air  when  fouled. 

Humidity.  — The  question  of  humidity  is  important 
but  difficult  to  solve.  The  term  “ humidity  ” as  used 
is  taken  to  mean  relative  humidity  expressed  in  per 
cent  of  saturation.  The  capacity  of  air  to  absorb  and 
hold  water  varies  with  the  temperature,  and  increases 
with  the  temperature.  Assuming  that  the  cold  outside 
air  be  at  or  near  saturation  and  that  it  be  passed  over 
the  heating  surfaces  without  having  moisture  added  to 
it,  the  capacity  for  the  absorption  of  water  will  be  in- 
creased, depending  upon  the  final  temperature.  Since 
the  air  after  heating  has  this  increased  power  for  hold- 
ing water,  it  will  take  it  from  all  available  sources ; 
from  the  mucous  membranes,  the  linings  of  the  nose, 
throat  and  nasal  passages,  and  from  the  eyes.  This 
naturally  leads  to  inflamed  eyes,  sore  throats,  and  in- 
creased liability  to  cold  infections,  due  to  the  parched 


condition  of  the  membranes.  Another  effect  of  low 
humidity  is  to  increase  the  rate  of  evaporation  from  the 
skin,  with  the  result  that  a temperature  of  70  degrees, 
or  even  72  degrees,  may  not  feel  as  “ comfortably  ” 
warm  as  a lower  temperature  and  higher  humidity. 
Although  lower  temperature  could  be  maintained  with 
comfort  in  humidified  buildings,  there  would  be  no  sav- 
ing in  fuel,  since  what  would  be  saved  by  operating  on  a 
lower  temperature  would  be  more  than  offset  by  the 
amount  of  heat  required  to  evaporate  the  necessary 
amount  of  water  to  raise  the  humidity.  If  humidifying 
is  undertaken,  it  should  be  with  the  anticipation  that 
it  will  be  an  added  expense  and  in  no  way  a saving. 

It  is  not  easy  to  effect  a lower  room  temperature. 
Many  persons  are  governed  by  the  thermometer  and 
not  by  their  own  sensations,  and  it  might  be  predicted 
with  a reasonable  degree  of  accuracy  that  were  all  heated 
spaces  lowered  in  temperature  to  say  64  degrees,  many 
of  the  occupants  would  feel  chilly  as  soon  as  they  viewed 
the  thermometer,  regardless  of  the  degree  of  relative 
humidity.  Humidifying  is  not  easy  in  practice.  The 
best  percentage  has  not  been  agreed  upon,  and  there  are 
some  natural  difficulties.  In  cold  weather  the  windows 
are  liable  to  become  foggy,  due  to  condensation,  the 


CfeofqqE,  t.  Kixd  Af, 


Fig.  448. 


526 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


books  and  papers  get  wet  and  clammy,  and  blackboards 
slippery.  While  the  average  degree  of  humidity  is  much 
higher  in  Portland,  Oregon,  than  in  some  of  the  eastern 
cities,  there  are  periods  when  it  becomes  very  low, 
readings  sometimes  showing  as  low  as  20  per  cent. 

Air  Volume.  — Air  volume  and  the  location  of  air 
inlets  are  of  great  importance,  as  well  as  the  design  of 
the  inlet  heads  themselves.  From  25  to  30  cubic  feet 
of  air  per  minute  per  occupant  is  about  the  amount 
required  to  maintain  a standard  of  purity  of  6 parts 
C02  in  10,000  parts  of  air,  and  this  is  the  amount  usu- 
ally required  by  city  ordinance  where  such  obtains. 
In  the  schools  of  Portland  40  cubic  feet  per  pupil 
is  the  standard,  for  the  reason  that  while  a smaller 
amount  will  maintain  the  standard  of  purity,  it  will 
not  keep  the  odors  down.  Air  movement  is  of  impor- 
tance, but  hard  to  control.  The  warm  air  entering  the 
room  naturally  rises,  traverses  the  room  more  or  less 
uniformly,  cools,  and  drops,  passing  back  through  the 
breathing  zone  and  out  through  a vent  opening  near 
the  floor,  located  in  the  same  wall  as  the  heat  inlet. 
Little  trouble  is  experienced  while  the  incoming  air  is 
warm,  but  as  soon  as  the  problem  becomes  one  of  cool- 
ing instead  of  heating,  the  entering  air  may  fall  more  or 


less  compactly  within  limited  areas  near  the  inlet,  re- 
sulting in  “ drafts.”  The  personal  equation  compli- 
cates the  situation,  because  if  the  air  movement  is  not 
perceptible  some  persons  will  complain  that  the  room  is 
stuffy,  while  others  will  complain  of  draft  if  they  feel 
any  movement  of  the  air  whatever. 

Cost  of  Ventilation. — Ventilation  is  expensive  — it 
takes  as  much  and  sometimes  more  fuel  to  heat  to  room 
temperature  the  air  required  for  ventilation  than  to 
supply  the  actual  heat  losses  due  to  transmission  through 
walls  and  glass.  The  cost  of  ventilation  can  be  reduced 
by  recirculating  a part  of  the  air,  always  adding  some 
fresh  from  outside,  say  one-fourth  to  one-third  of  the 
total  amount,  and  if  the  recirculated  air  is  washed,  very 
economical  and  satisfactory  results  can  be  obtained. 
Recirculating  is  very  generally  done  in  industrial  plants, 
but  it  is  out  of  the  question  in  schools,  for  psychological 
reasons,  if  for  no  other. 

Window  Ventilation.  — Window  ventilation  for  schools 
has  been  strongly  urged,  but  for  reasons  which  should 
be  obvious  it  can  hardly  be  expected  to  supplant  the 
forced  system.  In  the  first  place,  it  would  be  very 
difficult  to  get  enough  direct  radiation  in  a classroom 
to  take  care  of  the  heat  losses  and  also  heat  the  proper 


of  ror/y/icf  r=  &ETr//yG- 


d£t,»/lo  or  wrp/r  cpatao- 


BOlUfL  JLTTI1VGS ■ CtORGZ  Z.AjJLD  M-L 


Fig.  449. 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATING 


527 


amount  of  air  for  ventilation.  Few  classrooms  can, 
for  hygienic  reasons,  have  windows  on  more  than  one 
side  of  the  room,  and  any  circulation  of  air  through  the 
room  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible.  On  windy  days 
there  will  be  too  much  air  admitted  and  the  seats  near 
the  open  windows  will  be  cold  and  those  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  room  too  hot.  The  leeward  side  of  the  build- 
ing can  get  no  ventilation  whatever,  due  to  the  fact 
that  it  is  in  a zone  of  negative  pressure,  and  if  it  does 
get  any  air  it  is  certain  to  be  vitiated  air  from 
some  other  more  fortunately  located  portion  of 
the  building.  Another  difficulty  is  the  preven- 
tion of  the  entrance  of  snow  and  rain  through 
open  windows,  and  in  very  inclement  weather 
the  windows  are  not  opened  at  all  and  there 
can  then  be  no  ventilation  except  leakage. 

Much  opposition  among  occupants  of  artificially 
ventilated  rooms  comes  from  the  fact  that  they 
are  not  supposed  to  open  windows.  In  a 
properly  designed  plant  the  opening  of  a few 
windows  will  do  no  particular  harm  except  to 
waste  fuel,  and  it  generally  does  no  good  except 
to  the  imagination.  No  air  can  come  in,  as  the 
room  is  under  a plenum  of  pressure,  and  all  air 
movement  will  be  outward  unless  there  is  wind 
enough  to  overcome  the  fan  pressure. 

No  control  of  humidity  and  poor  control  of 
temperature  will  be  achieved  in  a room  heated 
entirely  by  direct  radiation.  It  can  also  be 
demonstrated  that  a plant  composed  entirely 
of  direct  radiation  is  not  cheaper  to  install,  if 
the  same  results  and  capacities  are  actually  pro 
vided.  The  usual  comparison  is  that  of  a direct 
system  providing  for  the  heat  loss  plus  about 
three  to  four  changes  of  air  per  hour,  as  against 
an  indirect  system  with  from  six  to  seven 
changes,  in  other  words,  a little  over  one-half 
the  capacity. 

Open-air  Rooms.  — Open-air  rooms  and  the 
frank  abandonment  of  any  artificial  means  of 
heating  or  ventilating  reached  a spectacular 
climax  of  popularity  a couple  of  years  ago, 
but  much  less  is  heard  of  it  to-day.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  open-air  rooms  have  their  place,  which  is 
to  care  for  special  cases.  Open-air  work  should  be 
done  by  specialists,  and  the  children  constantly  kept 
under  proper  supervision  as  regards  dress,  diet,  etc. 
It  should  be  noted  that  open-air  schoolrooms  were 
originally  applied  to  children  sub-normal  in  a physical 
sense,  and  while  excellent  results  were  obtained,  it 
does  not  follow  that  like  benefits  would  be  achieved  by 
the  indiscriminate  application  of  the  principle  to  all 
schools  by  the  general  teaching  staff  and  without  es- 


pecial medical  supervision,  which  would,  of  course, 
be  prohibitive  in  cost  on  so  large  a scale.  It  is  impos- 
sible to  find  any  record  of  the  scientific  application  of 
open-air  work  to  normal  children,  and  it  no  more  follows 
that  much  good  would  result  than  that  the  indiscriminate 
application  of  hospital  methods  to  healthy  persons  would 
prove  particularly  beneficial.  The  various  agitations 
of  the  past  few  years  have  not  been  barren  of  results. 
There  is  an  awakening  both  among  laymen  and  among 


engineers,  many  of  the  latter  having  been  in  a some- 
what comatose  state,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  many 
of  the  worst  features  of  our  systems  will  be  eradicated 
or  at  least  improved  upon. 

Stoves.  — The  stove  as  a heating  appliance  is  so  simple 
and  so  familiar  to  almost  everyone  that  it  is  perhaps 
superfluous  to  touch  upon  it  in  this  chapter.  Twenty- 
five  or  thirty  years  ago  it  was  in  very  general  use  in  pub- 
lic buildings  and  homes  alike,  and  to-day  it  is  by  no 
means  uncommon  in  the  country.  It  is  found  in  the 
portable  schoolhouses  of  the  city,  usually  in  the  modi- 


528 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Mr.  Floyd  A.  Naramore,  Architect,  Mr.  Geo.  E.  Reed.  Mechanical  Engineer 


Fig.  451. — -Benson  Polytechnic  High  School,  Portland,  Oregon. 


lied  form  known  as  the  jacketed  stove.  As  a means  of 
heating,  the  stove  is  a decided  success,  particularly  in 
its  immediate  neighborhood,  but  inherent  limitations 
confine  its  use  to  the  very  smallest  and  crudest  of  school 
structures. 

Jacketed  Stoves.  — The  jacketed  stove,  in  addition  to 
its  ability  to  heat,  possesses  some  powers  of  ventilation. 
It  consists  of  a simple  heater  inclosed  in  a metal  casing, 
the  space  between  the  stove  proper  and  the  casing  being 
connected  to  the  outdoor  air  by  means  of  a fresh  air  duct. 
The  general  arrangement  is  that  of  a small  house-heating 
furnace  with  the  top  and  ducts  removed.  The  actual 
ventilating  capacity  of  a jacketed  heater  is  not  great,  but 
as  the  usual  portable  is  not  a very  tight  structure  and  is 
exposed  on  at  least  three  sides,  infiltration  and  leakage 
are  sufficient  to  keep  the  quality  of  the  air  fairly  good. 

The  jacketed  stove  is  a great  improvement  over  the 
naked  heater.  The  casing  serves  as  a guard  against 
accident  by  protecting  the  very  hot  surfaces,  and  less 
discomfort  is  experienced  in  seats  near  it. 


Furnaces.  — The  greatest  single  improvement  over 
the  stove  in  its  elementary  state  was  the  invention  of 
the  furnace.  All  the  fires  were  removed  from  the  several 
rooms  and  centrally  located  in  the  basement  near  the 
fuel  supply  and  where  the  firing,  cleaning,  and  removal 
of  ashes  could  be  accomplished  more  satisfactorily. 
The  concentration  of  a number  of  small  heating  units 
into  a single  large  one  resulted  in  fuel  economy,  less 
labor  and  attention,  better  control,  and  all  the  opera- 
tions could  be  carried  on  without  entering  the  classrooms. 
The  fire  hazard  was  also  greatly  reduced.  The  furnace 
in  one  form  or  another  is  more  generally  used  than  any 
other  form  of  heating  appliance.  It  is  comparatively 
inexpensive  to  install  and  is  especially  suitable  for 
small  buildings  since  it  requires  the  minimum  of  skill  in 
operation.  The  furnace  is  a variation  of  the  jacketed 
stove  and  is  wholly  desirable  in  its  proper  field. 

Defects  of  Gravity  Furnace  Systems.  — Furnace  sys- 
tems are  usually  of  the  “ gravity  ” type.  All  air  move- 
ment is  produced  by  the  tendency  of  the  heated  air  to 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATING 


529 


Fig.  452.  — 


Mr.  Floyd  A.  Naramore , Architect , Mr.  George  E.  Reed,  M.  E. 

Boiler  Room,  Main  Steam  Piping,  Benson  Polytechnic  High  School,  Portland,  Oregon. 


rise,  and  this  tendency  of  necessity  varies  with  the  de- 
gree to  which  the  air  is  heated,  and  with  temperature  of 
the  outdoor  air.  The  greater  the  difference  between 
the  temperature  in  the  heating  risers  and  the  outside, 
the  more  will  be  the  air  delivery.  Long  horizontal 
ducts  between  the  furnace  and  bases  of  risers  affect  the 
air  flow  unfavorably  and  the  direction  of  wind  is  a factor 
as  well.  In  a still  day  the  system  may  act  perfectly,  — 
given  a strong  wind  blowing  directly  into  the  fresh  air 
intake,  gusts  of  cool  air  are  sometimes  felt  at  the  heat 
registers,  having  passed  through  the  furnace  so  rapidly 
that  they  were  not  heated.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the 
wind  is  in  such  a direction  that  the  intake  is  located  on 
the  lee  side,  the  proper  air  movement  may  be  reversed 
and  the  warm  air  pulled  out  of  the  building  through  the 
cold  air  connections.  These  characteristics  are  prob- 
ably familiar  to  all  who  have  ever  operated  the  average 
house-heating  furnace. 

Since  the  ventilating  effect  is  a direct  result  of  tem- 
perature difference  within  and  without  the  heating  riser, 


it  should  be  apparent  that  in  mild  and  warm  weather 
this  effect  will  be  slight  or  nil.  In  other  words,  a gravity 
furnace  will  heat  and  ventilate  in  cold  weather,  it  will 
warm  the  building  when  it  is  mild  outdoors,  but  in 
warm  weather  it  is  of  no  avail  for  ventilation. 

This  shortcoming  of  the  system  being  recognized, 
the  next  step  was  to  provide  some  means  of  removing 
the  air  from  the  building,  which  would  be  independent 
of  external  conditions  and  of  the  main  heating  plant 
proper. 

The  earliest  attempt  within  the  recollection  of  the 
writer  was  in  a school  which  he  attended  in  Massachu- 
setts some  twenty-five  or  thirty  years  ago.  This  build- 
ing was  provided  with  a large  exterior  brick  stack,  at  the 
bottom  of  which  a coal  fire  was  constantly  burning, 
which  created  a strong  natural  draft.  The  vent  flues 
from  the  classrooms  were  connected  to  the  stack,  and  the 
rooms  could  be  more  or  less  ventilated  at  all  times. 
This  system  was  extremely  wasteful  of  fuel,  and  the 
fires  in  the  vent  stack  consumed  as  much  as,  if  not  more 


53° 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Mr.  Floyd  .4.  Naramore  Architect,  Mr.  Geo.  E.  Reed,  Mechanical  Engineer. 


Fig.  453.  — Boiler  Room,  Metering  Heater,  Benson  Polytechnic  High  School,  Portland,  Oregon. 


fuel  than  those  on  the  grates  of  the  furnaces  which  did 
the  heating  of  the  building.  This  method  of  air  re- 
moval was  the  forerunner  of  the  “ aspirating  coil,”  and 
neither  should  be  recommended  on  account  of  high  fuel 
consumption. 

As  the  iron  and  steel  industry  developed,  boilers 
came  into  general  use,  steam  and  hot  water  became 
very  strong  competitors  of  the  furnace,  and  finally  elimi- 
nated it  altogether  except  for  small  buildings  or  those 
where  low  first  cost  predominates.  This  was  due  in 
the  main  to  two  reasons.  In  the  first  place,  a furnace 
must  be  absolutely  tight  in  all  its  joints,  else  trouble 
will  be  experienced  from  smoke  and  dust  finding  their 
way  into  the  air  passages  and  thence  to  the  building. 
It  is  next  to  impossible  to  construct  a furnace  so  that 
it  will  neither  burn  through  if  of  steel,  nor  crack  and 
warp  if  of  cast  iron.  In  either  case  the  result  is  a leaking 
furnace  and  soiled  building  wall  surfaces.  The  second 
reason  for  steam  supplanting  furnace  heat  was  that  the 
rooms,  if  heated  by  steam,  could  be  located  within  any 


reasonable  distance  from  the  heater,  while  with  furnaces 
long  horizontal  ducts  meant  bad  air  distribution. 

Gravity-indirect  Steam.  (See  Figure  448.) — The 
earlier  steam  ventilating  plants  usually  consisted  of 
some  form  of  radiation,  and  differed  from  the  furnace 
installation  in  that  the  hot-air  furnace  was  dispensed 
with  and  radiators  were  placed  in  the  ducts  themselves. 
Sometimes  each  riser  would  have  its  own  individual 
heater,  and  frequently  a number  of  rooms  would  be 
heated  by  a bank  of  radiators,  each  group  having  its 
own  fresh  air  intake. 

Aspirating  Coils.  — To  remove  the  air  from  the 
rooms  when  the  heating  coils  were  not  in  operation 
the  vent  flues  were  each  provided  with  a so-called  “ as- 
pirating coil.”  (See  Figure  448.)  This  coil  served  to 
heat  the  air  in  the  vent  riser  duct,  causing  it  to  rise  and 
make  its  way  to  the  atmosphere.  This  system,  com- 
monly known  as  the  “ gravity-indirect,”  was  exten- 
sively used  before  the  application  of  the  fan  to  heat- 
ing problems,  and  occasionally  it  is  installed  to-day. 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATING 


53i 


Defects  of  Gravity-indirect.  — The  “ gravity-indirect  ” 
system  is  faulty  in  some  very  vital  points.  Being 
based  wholly  on  the  gravity  principle,  its  operation  is 
often  hampered  by  adverse  weather  conditions,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  gravity  furnace.  The  movement  of  air 
by  means  of  heat  applied  directly  to  the  air  itself  is  very 
costly  when  compared  with  moving  the  same  amount 
by  mechanical  methods  such  as  engine  or  motor  driven 
fans.  A serious  defect,  though  one  of  operation  and 
avoidable,  is  that  the  air  valves  and  traps  on  the  “ as- 
pirating ” coils  may  become  clogged  and  the  coils  air- 
bound.  In  this  case,  and  it  is  not  an  infrequent  one, 
the  coils  do  not  heat,  and  the  room  is  consequently 
not  ventilated.  Fans  had  been  in  use  many  years  for 
ventilating  mines,  and  after  going  through  various 
stages  of  development,  their  application  to  building 
problems  became  more  and  more  general. 

Types  of  Modern  Plants.  — Modern  school  heating 
systems  in  general  are  divided  into  three  classes,  fur- 
nace, steam,  and  hot  water,  each  having  its  own  pe- 
culiarities, advantages,  and  disadvantages. 

Furnace  Plants  in  General.  — As  stated  above,  the  fur- 
nace plant  is  cheaper  to  install,  somewhat  more  simple 
in  operation,  and  may  be  slightly  more  economical 
from  a fuel  standpoint.  In  addition  to  liability  of 
dust,  smoke,  and  gases  from  cracked  or  burned  furnace 
sections  and  leaking  joints,  it  is  difficult  to  heat  small 
service  and  special  rooms  without  heating  the  entire 
building  at  the  same  time.  This  fact  often  offsets  any 
fuel  economy  the  plant  may  otherwise  attain.  In  ex- 
treme weather  the  whole  building  may  have  to  be  heated 
in  order  to  protect  plumbing  pipes  and  fixtures,  all  of 
which  may  be  located  in  a few  rooms. 

In  case  the  building  is  too  large  for  one  furnace,  two 
or  more  are  assembled  in  battery.  This  presents  diffi- 
culties in  the  way  of  even  distribution  of  heat  to  different 
rooms.  No  trouble  is  experienced  when  the  weather 
is  cold,  as  there  is  then  a fire  in  each  furnace.  In  mild 
weather,  however,  all  the  fires  will  not  be  lighted,  and 
those  rooms  will  not  be  heated  which  receive  their  air 
supply  from  ducts  leading  out  from  near  the  cold 
furnaces,  while  the  other  rooms  may  be  too  warm. 

This  is  a condition  which  can  be  remedied  in  a degree 
by  the  installation  of  “ baffles  ” and  deflectors,  but  not 
satisfactorily.  The  janitor  may  forget  the  arrangement 
and  location  of  these  “ baffles,”  and  light  furnaces  which 
should  not  be  lighted,  or  repairs  may  necessitate  a dif- 
ferent arrangement  from  that  obtaining  before. 

Complaint  is  often  made  of  the  very  dry  and  “ burned  ” 
condition  of  the  air  from  furnaces.  There  is  probably 
just  basis  for  it,  but  the  reason  has  not  yet  been  accu- 
rately determined.  It  is  possible  that  the  extremely 
hot  surfaces  of  the  furnace  radiators  burn  the  impuri- 


ties in  the  air  or  perhaps  change  in  an  unknown  way 
some  of  the  vital  qualities  of  the  air  itself.  The  writer 
is  of  the  opinion  that  low  relative  humidity  is  the  cause 
of  most  of  the  discomfort. 

Steam  Systems. — -The  steam  system  is  somewhat 
more  expensive  to  install,  and  requires  a higher  grade 
of  operating  ability.  Special  rooms,  corridors,  offices, 
and  toilets  can  be  warmed  by  direct  radiation  (see 
Figure  460),  making  these  rooms  available  outside  of 
school  hours  and  also  permitting  the  heating  of  just 
those  portions  of  the  building  necessary  for  the  protec- 
tion of  plumbing  against  freezing,  all  at  a minimum  fuel 
expenditure. 

One-pipe  Gravity  Steam.  — The  simplest  form  of  steam 
is  the  one-p:pe  gravity,  which  is  usually  operated  at 
pressures  up  to  twenty  to  twenty-five  pounds  per 
square  inch. 

For  all  but  the  very  largest  buildings,  where  problems 
of  drainage  and  pipe  sizes  would  render  one-pipe  gravity 
undesirable,  this  system  is  probably  the  best-fitted  for 
school  work.  It  is  comparatively  cheap  to  install,  and 
its  simplicity  of  construction  makes  operation  easy. 
It  requires  little  by  way  of  maintenance  and  is  efficient. 

The  “ one-pipe  gravity  ” system  is  so  called  because 
the  steam  and  water  of  condensation  are  both  con- 
veyed through  a single  pipe.  For  this  reason  the  pip- 
ing system  has  to  be  large  and  high  steam  velocities 
avoided.  In  a horizontal  pipe,  for  instance,  the  steam 
flows  away  from  the  boiler  and  the  water  toward  it. 
If  the  pipe  is  too  long  or  not  sufficiently  large  or  if  the 
grade  too  low,  the  steam  may  impede  or  even  stop  the 
flow  of  water,  resulting  in  “ water  hammer,”  broken 
fittings,  and  split  pipe,  with  consequent  damage  to 
building  and  fixtures. 

Two-pipe  Gravity  Steam.  — Two-pipe  gravity  systems 
are  sometimes  installed,  in  which  case,  separate  returns 
are  taken  back  to  the  boiler  from  the  radiators. 

V acuum  Return  Systems.  — The  vacuum  system  is  a 
modification  of  the  two-pipe  gravity.  This  system  gives 
good  results  if  properly  designed  and  constructed. 
There  are  several  vacuum  appliances  on  the  market, 
differing  only  in  detail,  workmanship,  and  cost.  They 
are  practically  alike  in  principle. 

An  important  advantage  of  the  vacuum  system  is  that 
the  pitch  of  piping  can  be  reduced  to  less  than  that  of  the 
gravity,  and  the  returns  can  be  made  higher  than  the 
radiators  if  absolutely  necessary ; but  this  is  bad  practice. 
There  are  no  air  valves  on  the  radiators  to  spit  water, 
and  much  better  control  is  possible,  since  the  radiator 
valve  may  be  partly  open  in  any  position. 

Hot-water  Systems.— Hot-water  heating  systems  may 
be  either  forced  or  gravity.  In  the  former  the  water  is 
circulated  by  means  of  a pump,  and  in  the  latter  circu- 


532 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Fig 


Mr.  Floyd  Narainore,  Architect,  Mr.  Geo.  E.  Reed,  Mechanical  Engineer. 

454.  — Engine  Room,  Benson  Polytechnic  High,  School  Portland,  Oregon. 


lation  is  produced  by  the  tendency  of  the  hot  water  to 
rise.  The  gravity  hot-water  system  is  admirably 
adapted  for  house  heating,  but  it  has  limitations  which 
prevent  its  being  of  much  utility  in  schools.  It  will  not 
be  considered  in  this  chapter. 

Forced  Hot  Water.  — Forced  hot  water  is  a most 
satisfactory  heating  medium.  It  is  agreeable,  very 
flexible  and  easy  to  control.  It  is  peculiarly  adapted 
to  the  heating  of  scattered  buildings.  Where  the 
ground  is  very  uneven  and  the  buildings  are  on  different 
elevations,  forced  hot  water  conforms  readily  to  the 
conditions,  as  the  piping  can  follow  the  contour. 

This  system  is  relatively  expensive,  although  not 
excessively  so:  The  cost  of  a forced  hot-water  installa- 
tion should  not  exceed  that  of  first  class  vacuum  work. 
Forced  hot  water  requires  more  attention  in  design 
of  plant  and  especially  of  distribution.  The  pipe 
sizes,  in  general,  of  a forced  hot-water  system  will 
usually  be  about  the  same  as  for  vacuum  under  the 
same  conditions.  The  actual  sizes  depend  entirely  upon 


the  limit  of  friction  against  which  it  is  desired  to  pump 
the  circulating  water. 

Each  and  every  main  and  branch  should  be  figured 
as  an  hydraulic  problem,  and  the  nearest  size  of  commer- 
cial pipe  selected.  The  too  common  practice  of  estimat- 
ing pipe  sizes  by  some  rough  and  ready  rule  and  then 
filling  the  system  up  with  so-called  “ chokers  ” should 
be  condemned.  Like  everything  else  in  the  scheme  of 
things  “ chokers  ” have  their  place,  but  to  install  a 
four-inch  heating  main  and  then  close  it  off  with  a 
“ choker  ” having  a two-inch  orifice  is  anything  but  good 
engineering  practice.  Better  and  cheaper  to  install 
smaller  pipe. 

Great  care  is  necessary  in  the  design  of  hot-water 
plants,  to  the  end  that  no  portion  of  the  piping  is  exposed 
in  such  a way  as  to  cause  freezing.  This  can  be  pre- 
vented without  difficulty. 

Apparatus  and  Design  of  Plant.  — - It  might  be  stated 
here  that  there  is  nothing  in  the  design  of  a heating 
plant,  of  whatever  type,  which  goes  further  towards 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATING 


533 


Mr.  Floyd  A.  Naramore,  Architect,  Mr.  Geo.  E.  Reed,  Mechanical  Engineer. 


Fig.  455.  — Engine  Room,  Benson  Polytechnic  High  School,  Portland,  Oregon. 


promoting  satisfaction  all  around,  as  well  as  economy, 
than  simplicity  and  the  elimination  of  every  needless 
complication.  Too  many  engineers  inject  all  sorts  of 
unnecessary  apparatus  into  the  plants  intrusted  to  them 
for  design,  with  the  result  that  the  operating  history 
of  an  installation  is  one  of  repairs,  renewals,  and  general 
expense  to  the  owner.  In  general,  the  simpler  a plant 
is  the  more  efficient  it  probably  will  be. 

The  inclusion  of  the  many  patent  devices  calculated 
to  remove  all  necessity  for  brains  on  the  part  of  the 
attendant,  or  to  perform  miracles  in  fuel  conservation, 
should  be  avoided.  Many  of  these  contrivances  are 
sold  with  guarantees  which  are  very  broad  and  binding, 
but  often  valueless.  Not  infrequently  the  maker  or 
agent  will  have  gone  out  of  business  before  the  buyer 
discovers  that  the  mechanical  wonder  does  not  function. 

The  selection  of  the  various  apparatus  of  the  school 
plant  is  a question  of  vital  importance,  and  one  that 
never  should  be  left  to  anyone  having  an  interest  in  the 
sale  of  the  equipment,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  or 


the  results  may  be  bad.  Every  item  included  in  the 
heating  installation  should  be  of  high  grade  and  of 
standard  make. 

Boilers.  — The  boiler  best  suited  to  general  heating 
work  is  the  horizontal-return  tubular,  with  the  excep- 
tions that  below  forty  horse  power,  a firebox  boiler  is 
equally  good  and  cheaper,  and  for  sizes  of  one  hundred 
and  seventy-five  horse  power  and  over,  water-tube 
boilers  are  to  be  preferred.  The  return  tubular  boiler 
should  be  designed  for  a working  pressure  of  one  hundred 
and  fifty  pounds  per  square  inch,  with  double  butt- 
strapped  joints  and  charcoal  iron  tubes.  These  last 
two  details  in  normal  times  cost  but  little  more  as  com- 
pared with  a standard  boiler,  and  add  greatly  to  the  life 
and  safety  of  the  installation. 

Boiler  Supports  and  Settings.  (See  Figure  449.)  — All 
boilers  above  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  horse  power 
should  be  provided  with  a gallows  frame,  half  or  full 
suspension.  The  practice  of  carrying  all  the  weight  of  a 
heavy  boiler  on  the  boiler  brickwork  is  a bad  one.  It 


534 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


inevitably  results  in  cracked  and  broken  settings  with 
lowered  efficiency  due  to  air  leakage,  and  is  apt  to  be 
productive  of  bad  strains  in  the  boiler  itself  as  a result 
of  uneven  support. 

The  boiler  should  be  inclosed  in  brickwork  composed 
of  the  very  best  of  materials,  installed  by  men  skilled  in 
this  particular  branch  of  masonry.  Every  attention 
should  be  paid  to  the  proper  air  spaces,  linings,  and  the 
protection  of  structural  members  and  supports  from  heat. 

Boiler  Furnaces.  — As  regards  importance  of  function, 
the  furnace  ranks  second  to  no  other  part  of  the  plant, 
but  it  is  too  seldom  that  much  thought  is  given  it.  It 
can  be  stated  that,  as  a rule,  the  furnaces  are  not  large 
enough  as  regards  combustion  space,  and  it  is  not 
often  that  they  are  designed  with  any  particular  fuel  in 
view. 

The  greatest  fault  is  that  the  boilers  are  contracted 
for  with  standard  settings,  and  they  are  altogether  too 
low  for  the  economical  or  smokeless  use  of  fuel.  The 
combustion  chamber  should  be  increased  in  height 
by  one  to  three  and  one-half  feet  in  addition  to  the 
standard  height.  How  much  they  should  be  raised 
depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  fuel  and  the  size  and 
type  of  boiler. 

Smokeless  Boilers.  — Smokeless  operation  is  prac- 
tically impossible  unless  the  boilers  are  equipped  with 
“ smokeless  ” settings  or  down-draft  grates.  Both 
of  these,  for  application  to  the  ordinary-sized  plant, 
have  been  worked  out  to  a high  degree  of  perfection, 
especially  in  Chicago.  “ Smokeless  ” settings  and  down- 
draft  grates,  however,  achieve  their  purpose  at  some 
cost  to  boiler  capacity. 

Boiler  Location.  — If  possible  the  boilers  should  be 
located  outside  the  building  proper,  for  considerations 
of  safety  and  to  facilitate  the  handling  of  fuel,  ashes,  and 
supplies. 

Smokestack.  — - The  breeching  and  stack  are  of  prime 
importance.  Both  should  be  of  ample  size  to  carry  off 
the  waste  gases,  and  the  stack  should  be  high  enough  to 
produce  and  maintain  the  draft  pressure  necessary 
for  good  combustion.  No  hard  and  fast  rule  can  be 
laid  down  for  the  stack  design  which  will  be  applicable 
for  all  conditions  and  fuels,  since  the  requirements  will 
vary  widely.  A low-draft  pressure  would  be  satisfactory 
for  fuel  oil,  but  higher  pressures  must  be  had  if  coal 
is  used  and  particularly  a strong  coking  coal.  The 
stacks  of  school  plants  are  too  often  not  high  enough  for 
good  results.  This  is  frequently  due  to  bad  design  as 
well  as  to  limitations  imposed  by  the  architect. 

Oil  Fuel.  — - Crude  oil  is  an  ideal  fuel,  from  the  stand- 
point of  cleanliness  and  ease  of  operation.  It  is  economi- 
cal if  the  equipment  is  properly  selected  and  installed, 
but  its  use  is  limited  to  a comparatively  few  localities. 


Boiler  Room.  Piping.  — Everything  in  and  about  the 
boiler  room  should  be  heavy,  and  securely  installed.  All 
boiler-feed  and  blow-off  piping  and  all  other  boiler 
piping  up  to  the  first  valve  should  be  extra  heavy.  It 
is  good  practice  to  make  all  valves  and  fittings  in  the 
boiler  room  extra  heavy,  since  it  is  here  that  the  greatest 
strains  occur.  Ample  provision  for  expansion  and 
contraction  is  a requisite  throughout  the  entire  system, 
but  it  is  especially  so  in  the  boiler  room. 

Boiler  Feed  Pumps.  — Boiler  feed  pumps  of  the  out- 
side packed  plunger  type  are  the  most  desirable,  since 
any  leakage  is  instantly  visible,  which  is  not  the  case 
with  piston-packed  pumps ; however,  piston-packed 
pumps  are  satisfactory  for  small  plants.  Boiler  feed 
pumps  should  be  installed  in  duplicate,  each  pump  large 
enough  to  handle  the  entire  plant  under  maximum  load. 
This  will  insure  low  piston  speeds,  few  packing  troubles, 
and  long  life. 

Vacuum  Pumps.  — Vacuum  pumps  having  a rated 
capacity  of  one-third  to  one-half  in  excess  of  maximum 
figured  requirements  is  good  practice  and  the  pumps 
should  be  equipped  with  suction  strainers  to  prevent 
the  entry  of  dirt  and  scale  with  consequent  injury  to 
valves  and  cylinders. 

Lubricators.  — Forced-feed  lubricators  are  a necessity 
in  all  pump  installations.  The  action  of  boiler  feeders 
and  vacuum  pumps  is  intermittent  and  the  forced-feed 
lubricator  supplies  oil  only  when  the  pump  operates, 
consequently  reducing  the  cost  of  lubrication.  The 
less  oil  is  fed  into  the  system,  the  less  has  to  be  eliminated. 
Sight  feed  lubricators  should  be  installed,  however, 
in  addition  to  the  mechanical  ones,  as  a precaution 
against  breakdown. 

Exhaust  Steam.  Danger  from  Oil.  — The  exhaust 
from  the  steam-actuated  auxiliaries  may  be  utilized  in 
the  heating  system,  provided  proper  means  are  adapted 
to  remove  all  lubricants.  Oil  in  boilers  is  a very  serious 
matter,  burned  and  bulged  plates  can  very  easily  be 
the  result,  and  it  requires  but  little  oil  to  do  a great  deal 
of  damage. 

Domestic  Hot-water  Heaters.  — Provision  for  heating 
water  must  be  made,  and  the  quantity  to  be  heated  will 
vary  with  the  school,  but  for  the  average  elementary 
school  with  eight  hundred  pupils,  a two-hundred  gallon 
tank  containing  from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  of  two-inch 
brass  pipe  is  ample.  Schools  having  pools  or  large  shower 
rooms,  high  schools  and  trade  schools,  present  problems 
of  their  own. 

In  schools  having  steam-actuated  auxiliaries,  it  is 
not  a bad  idea  to  arrange  the  piping  so  that  the  exhaust 
can  be  utilized  in  the  heaters  exclusively,  and  the  con- 
densation wasted  to  the  blow-off  tank  or  the  sewer. 
This  means  some  loss  of  heat  with  the  condensation,  but 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATING 


535 


Mr.  Floyd  A.  Naramore,  Architect , Mr.  Geo.  E.  Reed , Mechanical  Engineer. 

Fig.  456.  — Fan  Room,  Benson  Polytechnic  High  School,  Portland,  Oregon. 


it  is  probably  offset  by  the  increased  efficiency  of  the 
clean  boilers. 

The  Heating  and  Ventilating  Plant.  — The  portion 
of  the  system  most  intimately  related  to  the  occupants 
of  the  building  as  regards  health  and  comfort  is  the 
heating  and  ventilating  plant  proper.  Generally  speak- 
ing, there  are  two  distinct  methods ; one  consists  of  the 
supplying  of  all  wall  and  glass  losses  by  means  of  direct 
radiation  in  conjunction  with  a fan  system  arranged 
to  ventilate  only,  by  supplying  air  at  or  a little  below 
room  temperature.  (See  Figure  448.)  The  other  system 
eliminates  the  radiators  and  delivers  air  to  the  rooms  at 
a temperature  high  enough  to  make  up  for  the  heat  loss 
through  walls  and  windows.  (See  Figure  448.) 

The  first  system  is  more  expensive  to  install,  but  is 
better  adapted  to  very  low  temperatures  and  is  other- 
wise desirable.  Any  room  can  be  used  after  school 
hours,  for  community  purposes,  for  instance,  without 
operating  the  fans.  The  second  system  costs  less  to 
install,  is  more  simple  of  operation,  and  is  particularly 


adapted  to  those  localities  not  liable  to  extremes  of  cold 
weather. 

Heating  of  Special  Rooms.  — In  either  case  corridors, 
toilets,  rest,  and  emergency  rooms,  principal’s  office,  and 
other  special  service  rooms,  should  be  fitted  with  direct 
radiation  hung  on  concealed  brackets,  and  where  the 
radiator  is  not  located  under  a window,  provided  with  a 
metal  shield  placed  behind  it  to  protect  the  walls  from 
discoloration. 

The  Indirect  System.  — The  indirect,  or  fan  system, 
comprises  tempering  and  reheating  coils,  fans,  air  washer, 
galvanized  iron  ducts,  inlets  with  grilles  or  deflectors  and 
an  appropriate  system  of  vent  flues  for  the  removal  of 
the  vitiated  air  from  the  building. 

Air  Intake.  — - The  air  should  be  brought  into  the 
building  through  a fresh-air  intake,  with  its  inlet  not 
lower  than  the  second  story  and  at  a velocity  not  higher 
than  eight  hundred  feet  per  minute..  The  intake 
opening  should  be  provided  with  fixed  louvers  for  the 
exclusion  of  rain  and  snow,  and  a wire  screen.  The  net 


536 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Mr.  Floyd  A.  Naramore,  Architect,  Mr.  Geo.  E.  Reed,  Mechanical  Engineer. 

Fig.  457.  — Fan  Room,  Tempering  Coils,  Plumbing  Manifold,  Benson  Polytechnic  High  School,  Portland,  Oregon. 


area  through  these  louvers  should  never  be  less  than  the 
area  of  the  intake  itself.  This  is  an  important  detail, 
and  one  that  is  often  overlooked  in  the  drafting  room. 

Intake  Dampers.  — Louver  dampers  in  the  intake  are 
a necessity,  and  they  may  be  arranged  for  manual  con- 
trol or  by  means  of  an  air  switch  in  connection  with  the 
thermostat  air  compressor;  provision  should  also  be  made 
for  recirculating  air  when  heating  up  the  building,  as 
this  means  economy. 

Heating  Coils.  — The  heating  coils  may  be  either  of 
pipe  or  of  cast  iron.  Under  normal  conditions  they 
cost  practically  the  same,  and  foot  for  foot  there  is  no 
difference  in  efficiency,  but  the  cast-iron  heaters  present 
certain  inherent  advantages.  They  can  be  installed 
in  either  a horizontal  or  a vertical  position  and  can  be 
assembled  in  various  desired  combinations.  The  most 
widely  used  cast-iron  heater  is  the  American  Radiator 
Company’s  “ Vento.”  It  is  conservatively  rated  by 
the  manufacturers  and  can  be  obtained  in  sizes  to  suit 
any  condition. 


Fans.  — There  are  many  makes  of  fans  in  vogue,  but 
they  may  all  be  roughly  divided  into  three  groups,  steel 
plate  or  “ paddle-wheel,”  multiblade,  and  some  form 
of  disc  or  propeller.  The  disc  or  propeller  fan  is  not 
broadly  adapted  to  heating  work,  although  in  small 
plants  and  where  the  resistance  is  low  it  answers  the 
purpose.  The  steel  plate  fan  has  been  practically  elimi- 
nated from  the  heating  field  by  the  multiblade,  not 
because  it  is  less  efficient  necessarily,  but  because  the 
latter  is  smaller  for  a given  amount  of  air  and  possesses 
totally  different  characteristics,  which  better  fit  it  for 
use  in  heating  and  ventilating. 

Substantially  all  the  multiblade  fans  are  developments 
of  the  Davison  fan;  they  differ  only  as  to  details  of 
workmanship  and  material.  There  is  one  departure, 
however,  in  the  Buffalo  Concidal,  which  has  been  de- 
veloped along  lines  entirely  distinct  from  any  other. 
It  is  very  conservatively  rated,  possesses  a very  uniform 
delivery  of  air  over  the  entire  outlet,  and  is  quiet  in 
operation.  No  fan,  however,  can  be  quiet  if  the  system 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATING 


537 


Mr.  Floyd.  A.  Naramore,  Architect,  Mr.  Geo.  E.  Reed , Mechanical  Engineer. 


Fig.  458.  — Boiler  Room,  Franklin  High  School,  Portland,  Oregon. 


is  improperly  designed.  The  velocity  through  the 
outlet  of  the  fan  should  not  exceed  from  twelve  hundred 
to  fifteen  hundred  feet  per  minute,  and  the  total  pressure 
of  the  fans  should  not  be  more  than  one  and  one-eighth 
inch  water  pressure. 

Motors.  — Motors  should  be  selected  with  relatively 
j low  relative  speeds  to  insure  quiet  running  and  long  life. 
Motor  pulleys  should  be  one  size  larger  in  diameter  than 
the  standard  pulleys  regularly  fitted  to  prevent  belt 
; slipping ; this  is  particularly  applicable  to  alternating- 
current  motors. 

Air  Washers.  — Air  washers  are  a necessity  in  all 
localities  where  the  air  is  smoky  or  dusty,  such  as  in 
the  congested  districts  of  cities.  Country  schools,  or 
those  located  in  outlying  city  districts,  need  them  less, 
as  a rule.  An  air  washer  reduced  to  its  prime  essentials 
consists  of  a tank  for  holding  the  water,  a series  of 
nozzles  for  producing  a spray,  a set  of  eliminating 
plates  for  the  removal  of  entrained  water,  and  a circulat- 
ing pump.  When  in  operation,  the  pump  draws  water 


from  the  tank,  forces  it  through  the  nozzles,  where  it  is 
broken  up  into  a very  fine  mist-like  spray  through  which 
the  air  is  drawn  in  the  process  of  washing,  thus  removing 
practically  all  solid  matter.  After  leaving  the  nozzles 
the  water  falls  to  the  tank  or  is  caught  on  the  eliminating 
plates  and  is  recirculated. 

The  washer  maybe  fitted  with  a humidifying  apparatus 
consisting  of  some  means  of  heating  the  washing  water, 
thus  raising  the  humidity  of  the  air,  which  is  under 
control  of  a humidistat.  This  heating  may  be  accom- 
plished directly  by  means  of  a steam  jet,  or  the  water 
may  be  heated  in  a closed  heater. 

For  good  results  the  velocity  of  the  air  through  the 
washer  should  not  exceed  four  hundred  and  fifty  feet 
per  minute,  and  the  washer  should  always  be  placed  on 
the  suction  side  of  the  fan  and  never  on  the  fan  outlet, 
as  there  is  then  liability  of  producing  “ blow  holes  ” 
through  the  mist  and  considerable  quantity  of  the  air 
will  go  through  unwashed. 

Fan  and  Coil  Connections.  — - Good  judgment  and 


538 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Mr.  Floyd  A.  Naramore,  Architect,  Mr.  Geo.  E.  Reed,  Mechanical  Engineer. 

Fig.  459.  — Boiler  Room,  Circulating  Pumps  lor  Forced  Hot-water  Heating  System,  Franklin  High  School,  Portland,  Oregon. 


experience  are  necessary  in  the  selection  of  fans,  coils, 
washers,  etc.,  also  determining  their  relation  to  each 
other,  and  to  the  duct  system.  The  most  prevalent 
fault  is  short  connections  between  the  several  compo- 
nent parts.  All  connections  should  be  long  enough  to 
permit  of  easy  air  flow,  especially  the  connection  between 
the  fan  and  the  reheating  coils.  If  this  connection  is  too 
short  there  will  be  an  area  of  high  pressure  in  the  plenum 
chambers  directly  in  front  of  the  fan  outlet,  which  will 
tend  to  force  heated  air  back  through  the  coils  at  the  ends 
into  the  tempered  air  chamber  and  upset  the  temper- 
ature control.  This  is  the  usual  cause  of  “ back  lash.” 

Plenum  Chambers.  — The  plenum  chambers  should 
be  as  nearly  square  as  possible,  and  the  velocity  across  its 
cross  section  should  not  exceed  three  hundred  feet  per 
minute. 

The  Duel  System. — No  part  of  the  plant  requires 
more  skill  in  design  than  the  duct  system.  It  may  be 
of  galvanized  iron,  tile,  or  cement,  or  in  part  of  all  three. 
Such  parts  as  may  be  of  tile  or  cement  should  be  ample 


in  cross-section,  and  all  interior  surfaces  of  concrete 
ducts  should  be  plastered,  sharp  turns  should  be  avoided, 
and  except  where  proper  provision  has  been  made  for 
them,  heating  and  plumbing  pipes  and  electric  conduits 
should  be  vigorously  excluded  from  all  ducts.  The 
duct  system  deserves,  but  does  not  always  get,  close 
supervision  during  construction.  It  is  not  an  uncommon 
occurrence  that  a good  layout  is  destroyed  by  poor  instal- 
lation. High  velocities  in  the  duct  systems  should  be 
avoided.  One  thousand  feet  in  horizontals  and  four 
hundred  feet  in  vertical  risers  is  excellent, .but  not  always 
possible.  Each  branch  or  duct  should  be  provided  with 
a damper  to  balance  and  control  properly  the  flow  of  air. 

Air  Inlet  Heads.  — Air  inlet  heads  should  be  located 
at  such  height  that  their  tops  will  be  about  six  inches 
below  the  ceiling,  and  it  is  advantageous  if  they  be  pro- 
vided with  air  splits  and  deflectors  to  deliver  the  air 
uniformly  into  the  room.  (See  Figure  450.)  It  not  infre- 
quently happens  that  full  duct  velocity  will  be  found 
over  an  area  of  from  one-half  or  less  of  the  inlet,  and  zero 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATING 


539 


Mr.  Floyd  A.  Naramore,  Architect,  Mr.  Geo.  E.  Reed,  Mechanical  Engineer. 


Fig.  460.  — Fan  Installation  during  Construction,  New  Couch  School,  Portland,  Oregon. 


or  negative  velocity  over  the  remainder.  A velocity 
of  three  hundred  feet  per  minute  should  not  be  exceeded 
through  the  air  inlets. 

Grilles  and  Deflectors.  Vent  Openings.—-  Except  where 
reasons  of  design  render  grilles  desirable,  their  use  has 
been  abandoned  by  the  Portland  public  schools,  either 
for  supply  or  vent  openings.  In  this  place  it  is  now 
customary  to  install  adjustable  exterior  deflector  blades 
on  the  air  inlets,  as  they  permit  of  a much  better 
distribution  of  the  incoming  air.  The  vent  openings 
are  brought  to  the  floor  line  and  are  neatly  finished  by 
running  the  wall  and  base  around  the  back  of  the  vent 
and  laying  the  regular  flooring  on  the  bottom.  The 
usual  grille  presents  an  unnecessary  amount  of  friction 
to  the  egress  of  the  air  and  it  is  difficult  to  prevent  the 
accumulation  of  dirt  in  the  space  behind  it,  while  the 
open  vent  is  easily  kept  clean.  The  open  vent  is  liable 
to  this  objection,  however,  that  unless  rules  are  made 
and  enforced,  it  is  liable  to  become  a favorite  storage 
space  for  the  waste-paper  basket,  lunch  boxes,  books,  etc. 


V ent  Flues.  — Gravity  vent  flues  should  never  be 
smaller  than  the  corresponding  supply  risers  of  the 
rooms  to  which  they  are  connected,  and  it  is  better,  but 
not  always  possible,  to  construct  them  one-fourth  to  one- 
third  larger  in  area.  They  should  be  run  without  bends 
or  offsets  direct  to  the  roof  ventilators.  The  practice 
of  terminating  room  vents  in  the  attic  spaces  and  then 
providing  one  or  more  large  ventilators  for  the  attic  has 
nothing  to  commend  it.  Nine  times  out  of  ten  it  will 
be  found  that  if  a corridor  door  or  window  is  opened 
in  a room,  the  air  will  promptly  back  down  through  the 
vent  into  the  room  concerned. 

Roof  Ventilators.  — - In  the  Portland  schools  the  vents 
are  run  separately  through  the  roof,  with  the  provision, 
however,  that  where  two  or  more  vents  are  located  side 
by  side,  they  may  be  terminated  in  a single  ventilator, 
but  in  all  cases  the  ducts  themselves  are  kept  separate 
all  the  way  up.  Vents  from  toilets  are  never  combined 
with  any  other  vents,  but  are  provided  with  their  own 
independent  roof  ventilators. 


540 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


■ J BHPkagsJfl 

/ f 

A/r.  FZoyd  A.  Naramore,  Architect,  Mr.  Geo.  E.  Heed,  Mechanical  Engineer. 


Fig.  461.  — Fan  Installation  during  Construction,  New  Couch  School,  Portland,  Oregon. 


Roof  Dampers.  — - Every  roof  ventilator  is  provided 
with  a damper  having  compressed  air  control  from  the 
engine  room,  except  those  from  toilets  which  are  pro- 
vided with  neither  dampers  nor  controls.  Dampers  in 
the  roof  ventilators  are  a necessity,  and  when  used  in 
conjunction  with  the  louver  dampers  in  the  fresh  air 
intake,  the  combination  permits  of  keeping  the  building 
much  warmer  overnight  and  facilitates  quick  warming  in 
the  morning.  If  air  is  recirculated  while  heating  up 
these  dampers  for  closing,  the  room  vents  are  a necessity. 

Exhaust  Fans.  — Exhaust  fans  are  limited  in  their 
application  to  the  school  building.  They  should  be 
installed,  however,  in  connection  with  toilet  rooms, 
swimming-tank  and  locker  rooms,  and  sometimes  the 
auditorium.  The  extension  of  the  exhaust  system  de- 
pends upon  the  space  for  vents  in  the  departments  and 
facility  for  running  the  vent  flues  to  the  roof. 

Toilet  Ventilation.  — The  best  way  to  ventilate  the 
main  toilet  rooms  is  through  the  plumbing  fixtures  by 
means  of  the  local  vent,  sometimes  called  the  “ Boston  ” 


vent.  In  this  system  an  air  chamber  is  provided  behind 
each  bank  of  toilets  and  urinals,  from  which  the  air  is 
continually  exhausted  by  a fan.  A connection  is  made 
between  each  fixture  and  the  vent  space,  and  the  fixtures 
are  provided  with  air  openings  through  which  the  air 
passes.  With  this  type  of  installation  there  need  be  no 
odor  whatever  in  any  toilet  room.  It  might  be  said  in 
passing  that  any  attempt  to  accomplish  this  by  con- 
necting the  vent  chamber  with  the  chimney  space  is 
doomed  to  certain  failure,  for  it  will  not  work. 

Temperature  Control.  — Automatic  temperature  regu- 
lation is  a necessity  in  the  modern  school.  It  promotes 
the  health  and  comfort  of  the  occupants  and  conserves 
fuel.  Any  form  of  hand  control  is  a failure.  If  it  is 
attempted  it  can  lead  to  but  two  results.  Either  the 
person  to  whom  the  hand  operation  of  such  control  is 
intrusted  will  manipulate  it  for  his  or  her  own  personal 
comfort,  or  else  it  will  be  neglected  in  the  press  of  other 
duties.  In  either  case  the  results  are  bound  to  be  un- 
satisfactory. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 


PLUMBING 

By  George  E.  Reed,  M.E.,  Member  of  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers 

I.  Introduction.  II.  Mains.  III.  Excavation.  IV.  Main  Soil  Pipe.  V.  Cesspools.  VI.  Septic  Tanks.  VII.  Roof  Drains. 
VIII.  Temporary  Toilet  Facilities.  IX.  Materials.  X.  Underground  Pipes.  XI.  Constant  Inspection.  XII.  Union  Connections. 
XIII.  Valves.  XIV.  Wall  and  Floor  Plates.  XV.  Floor  Drains.  XVI.  Testing.  XVII.  Water  Supply.  XVIII.  Water  Distribu- 
tion. XIX.  Hot- water  Circulation.  XX.  Fire  Protection.  XXI.  Standpipes  and  Fire  Hose.  XXII.  Pipe  Covering.  XXIII.  Plumb- 
ing Fixtures. 


.Introduction.  — The  plumbing  system  of  a modern 
building  is  far  from  being  the  simple  affair  it  was  twenty 
years  ago,  although  there  is  nothing  involved  in  it  that 
could  not  be  readily  understood  by  anyone  of  ordinary 
intelligence.  It  is  probably  true  that  less  care  is  taken 
in  the  design  of  a plumbing  installation  than  is  the  case 
with  almost  any  other  branch  of  the  mechanical  equip- 
ment. In  the  olden  days  of  lead  plumbing  and  wiped 
joints,  the  plumbers’  trade,  as  it  is  to-day  to  a less  extent, 
was  a closely  regulated  one,  and  the  journeyman  did 
not  divulge  much  information  regarding  his  art  to  the 
layman.  City  ordinances  and  regulations  generally 
have  never  permitted  anyone  not  duly  licensed  to  do 
any  plumbing  work  extending  beyond  very  minor 
repairs,  and  every  plumbing  installation  is  subject  to 
strict  inspection  by  the  city  authority.  This  is  per- 
fectly right  and  proper,  but  it  has  resulted  in  making 
engineers  and  architects  careless  in  regard  to  plumbing 
plans  and  plumbing  specifications.  Very  often,  even 
for  large  buildings,  no  plans  for  the  work  are  prepared, 
and  the  specifications  are  the  flimsiest  sort  of  a pretext. 
Rambling  through  page  after  page  of  semi-technical 
text,  describing  weight  and  quality  of  material,  how  to 
make  and  calk  joints  in  cast-iron  pipe,  how  to  join 
wrought  to  cast-iron  pipe,  etc.,  the  specifications  will 
set  forth  two  things : that  the  entire  system  must 
comply  with  city  ordinances,  and  it  will  include  with 
some  certainty  a list  of  plumbing  fixtures. 

There  are  many  things  that  can  make  or  mar  a plumb- 
ing installation,  and  the  specifications  and  plans  should 
be  so  contrived  that  the  former  will  be  included,  and  the 
latter  excluded.  It  is  very  easy  for  a plumbing  con- 
tractor to  comply  with  both  the  city  ordinance  and  the 
contract  documents,  and  yet  skimp  the  work  in  many 
ways,  that  is,  unless  it  has  been  definitely  planned  before- 
hand and  what  was  wanted  explicitly  shown  or  stated. 


Usually  the  plumbing  codes  do  not  embrace  anything 
outside  the  sanitary  system  proper,  and  the  entire  water 
distribution,  which  is  vital  to  its  satisfactory  operation, 
is  left  to  the  contractor. 

The  defects  which  will  make  themselves  known  after 
work  is  done  under  these  conditions  and  a strong  com- 
petitive system  are  too  many  to  be  enumerated  here ; 
their  name  is  legion.  The  chief  one  is  inadequate  water 
supply  to  fixtures ; sometimes  twenty  to  twenty -five 
flushometer  valves  will  be  supplied  through  a i\"  pipe 
run  a long  distance  from  the  main. 

It  is  not  the  intention  of  this  chapter  to  enter  into 
a history  of  the  development  of  plumbing  as  a science 
nor  to  include  all  the  data  necessary  for  the  design  of 
plumbing  installations  in  general,  but  rather  to  emphasize 
those  details  which  are  most  frequently  overlooked  or 
which  may  not  be  regulated  by  law. 

Mains.  — - The  first  requisite  in  the  intelligent  plan- 
ning of  a plumbing  layout  is  an  accurate  survey  of 
the  building  site.  This  should  show  all  the  adjacent 
sewers,  water  and  gas  mains,  their  respective  sizes, 
distances  from  curb  and  lot  lines,  manholes,  elevations 
referred  to  official  datum,  and  if  possible,  the  location 
of  all  stubs  and  branches.  Where  there  are  buildings 
on  the  site  having  connections  to  sewer,  water,  or  gas,  and 
which  will  be  moved  or  demolished  to  make  room  for 
the  new  structure,  provision  should  be  made  for  discon- 
nection and  removal  of  all  old  service  pipes  and  for 
sealing  of  openings  in  street  mains.  This  is  not  unim- 
portant, particularly  with  hard  surface  streets.  It  may 
save  an  extra  expense  caused  by  having  to  do  it  after 
the  building  is  well  under  way  or  completed  and  all 
other  street  work  done. 

Excavation.  — - Excavation  for  the  underground  system 
is  usually  done  by  the  plumbing  contractor,  and  care 
should  be  exercised  that  no  trench  or  other  excavation 


S4i 


542 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


is  made  close  enough  to  footings  or  bearing  walls  to 
affect  them. 

Main  Soil  Pipe.  — The  main  soil  pipe  and  branches 
should  be  run  with  standard  pitch,  which  is  usually 
one-quarter  inch  per  foot.  The  fall  can  be  reduced  to 
one-eighth  or  one-tenth  inch  per  foot,  provided  that 
permission  can  be  obtained  from  the  proper  authorities. 
This  expedient,  however,  should  never  be  resorted  to 
unless  absolutely  necessary  on  account  of  high  sewer 
elevations.  It  should  never  be  done  merely  for  the 
sake  of  connecting  to  a conveniently  located  sewer,  and 
at  its  highest  part  or  start,  the  top  of  the  drain  pipe 
should  not  be  less  than  one  foot  below  the  bottom  of  the 
floor  slab. 

The  Portland  Public  Schools  invariably  connect  to 
the  sewer  wherever  there  is  any  possibility  of  so  doing, 
even  though  it  entails  considerable  cost.  In  one  school 
a distance  of  about  eight  blocks  was  traversed  before 
establishing  sewer  connection.  Neither  a cesspool 
nor  septic  tank  is  installed  except  as  a last  resort.  If 
the  sewer  is  so  far  away  or  its  elevation  such  that 
connection  to  it  is  impossible,  then  one  or  the  other  may 
have  to  be  constructed. 

Cesspools.  — If  there  is  a good  depth  of  gravel,  and 
if  the  surface  water -stands  well  below  the  grade,  a cesspool 


is  the  better,  otherwise  a septic  tank  with  loose  joints 
subsoil  drain.  Cesspools  are  five  feet  in  diameter  and 
range  anywhere  from  twenty-five  to  fifty  feet  in  depth. 
They  are  lined  with  brick  laid  without  mortar,  the  tops 
being  arched  over. 

Septic  Tanks.  - — - Septic  tanks  are  used  where  neither 
sewers  nor  cesspools  are  practicable.  A septic  tank 
based  on  seventy  gallons  per  day  per  person  and  an 
actual  capacity  of  one  cubic  foot  for  every  twenty 
gallons  is  usually  sufficient.  The  depth  of  liquid  and 
width  of  tank  may  be  made  roughly  equal,  and  the 
length  twice  the  width.  The  depth  of  liquid  should  not 
be  less  than  five  feet. 

Roof  Drains.  — Roof  drains  should  never  be  connected 
into  the  septic  tank,  but  rather  to  dry  wells  if  possible. 
In  fact,  the  rain-water  system  and  the  house  drainage 
system  should  always  be  kept  entirely  independent 
one  from  the  other.  Even  where  there  are  sewer  facili- 
ties, all  roof  drains,  except  for  small  buildings,  should 
go  to  the  sewer  direct.  If  the  downspouts  connect 
to  the  house  drainage  system,  there  is  liability  of  backing 
up  at  the  floor  drains  during  a heavy  downpour,  and  in 
case  the  building  connects  to  a septic  tank  the  sudden 
high  rate  of  flow  may  entirely  displace  the  contents  of 
the  tank,  thus  interfering  with  septic  action.  If  the 


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Fig.  462. 


PLUMBING 


543 


Fig.  463.  — Clawson  Elementary  School,  Oakland,  Callfornia, 


Mr.  John  J.  Donovan,  Architect. 


outflow  from  the  septic  tank  be  discharged  on  the  surface, 
the  contents  thus  ejected  may  cause  trouble.  A case  in 
point  was  one  where,  pending  sewer  construction,  the 
writer  installed  a septic  tank  for  a group  of  buildings 
comprising  a large  institution.  The  roof  and  drainage 
area  were  considerable,  and  the  tank  discharged  on  the 
surface.  The  roof  drains  were  connected,  without  per- 
mission, into  the  house  system,  and  during  a very  heavy 
rain,  the  septic  tank  was  scoured  out  and  the  contents 
distributed  upon  adjacent  property  with  the  result 
that  claim  was  made  for  damage.  Roof  water  from 
large  buildings  should  not  be  conveyed  to  the  cesspool, 
on  account  of  liability  of  overflowing  the  cesspool  and 
backing  up  through  the  basement  floor  drains. 

Temporary  Toilet  Facilities.  ■ — - Wherever  possible  it  is 
desirable  to  have  the  plumbing  contractors  make  sewer 
and  water  connections  and  install  temporary  toilet 
facilities  for  the  workmen  employed  on  the  building. 
There  is  generally  little  excuse  for  the  latrine  so 
commonly  employed  on  construction  work. 

Materials.  — All  the  material  entering  into  the 
school  plumbing  installation  should  be  of  high  grade, 


and  as  it  is  liable  to  be  subjected  to  hard  usage,  every- 
thing should  be  heavy  and  substantial.  Many  cities 
require  by  code  that  all  the  underground  drainage 
system  beneath  the  building  be  of  extra  heavy  cast- 
iron  pipe.  From  five  feet  beyond  the  building  line  to 
the  sewer,  salt-glazed  vitrified  terra  cotta  pipe  with 
cemented  joints  may  be  employed.  The  “ Durham  ” 
system  of  piping  with  galvanized  wrought-iron  pipe  and 
recessed  drainage  fittings  is  best  adapted  to  all  portions 
of  the  sanitary  system.  Cast  iron  is  sometimes  employed 
throughout  on  account  of  lower  cost,  but  it  is  more 
bulky,  and  the  saving  usually  is  not  worth  the  sacrifice 
in  space  and  appearance. 

Naturally  galvanized-iron  pipe  should  be  used  through- 
out for  all  water  piping,  and  malleable  iron,  beaded, 
and  galvanized  fittings  should  be  employed.  Gas  and 
vacuum  sweeper  piping  require  black  pipe,  uncoated 
drainage  fittings  for  the  vacuum,  and  malleable  iron 
for  gas. 

Underground  Pipes.  — Under  no  circumstances  should 
wrought  pipe,  either  black  or  galvanized,  be  laid  under- 
ground, particularly  within  the  confines  of  the  building. 


544 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Air.  John  J.  Donovan,  Architect. 


Fig.  464.  — Boys’  Toilet  Room,  Showing  Urinals,  Clawson  School,  Oakland,  California. 


It  will  invariably  result  in  early  failure  of  the  pipe  so 
installed,  and  then  will  arise  the  necessity  of  digging 
up  the  basement  floor  to  locate  and  repair  leaks.  If 
natural  causes  do  not  combine  to  destroy  the  pipes,  then 
electrolysis,  present  in  every  city,  will  do  it. 

The  entire  water  distribution  system,  both  hot  and 
cold,  fire  protection  piping,  and  gas  should  be  run  above 
ground,  exposed  if  necessary.  Something  may  have 
to  be  sacrificed  in  appearance,  but  it  will  pay  in  the  end. 
In  case,  however,  that  a water  supply  main  be  four  inches 
or  more  in  diameter  it  may  then  be  of  cast  iron  and  laid 
underground.  An  added  advantage  of  having  the 
piping  installed  as  above  indicated  is  that  the  runs  of 
all  pipes  are  readily  followed,  and  in  case  of  alterations, 
connection  can  be  made  at  any  time. 

Constant  Inspection.  - — Constant  inspection  should 
be  maintained  to  prevent  haphazard  installation  of 
pipes.  Plumbers  in  the  usual  pursuit  of  their  trade 
employ  a great  many  forty-five  and  sixty  degree  fittings, 
and  unless  prevented,  these  may  be  too  freely  installed,  to 


the  detriment  of  an  otherwise  neat  installation.  These 
angle  fittings  are  a logical  and  necessary  part  of  the 
drainage  system,  but  their  use  in  other  parts  of  the  plant 
can  easily  be  abused.  For  instance,  if  the  work  does  not 
“ line  up  ” properly  at  some  point  it  can  be  made  to  do 
so  by  “ two  forty-fives  ” and  the  result  is  a “ skewed  ” 
run  of  pipe.  Pipe  runs  should  be  run  parallel  to  walls 
or  ceilings  unless  there  are  good  reasons  to  do  otherwise. 

Union  Connections.  — The  use  of  “ long  screws  ’’ 
with  running  threads  and  lock  nuts  is  not  permitted 
in  the  Portland  schools.  They  do  not  make  a satisfac- 
tory nor  permanently  strong  joint.  Except  on  large 
sizes  of  pipe,  and  at  apparatus  which  might  require 
disconnection  at  any  time,  right  and  left  couplings 
are  insisted  upon.  On  apparatus,  railroad  unions  are 
installed,  or  flanged  unions  in  the  case  of  large  piping. 
No  slip  joints  are  permitted  on  supplies  to  fixtures,  but 
ground  seat  unions  are  used  instead. 

Valves.  — Valves  of  good  material  and  manufacture 
should  be  insisted  upon  and  provision  should  be  made 


PLUMBING 


54-5 


to  the  end  that  every  valve  installed  have  its  stem  packed 
with  some  high  grade  lubricated  stem  packing.  Too 
many  installations  are  left  with  the  valves  packed  with 
lamp  wick.  This  swells  when  wet,  making  it  next  to 
impossible  to  operate  the  valves,  especially  large  ones. 
Each  valve  should  be  plainly  marked  with  a brass  tag 
secured  to  its  wheel  with  a brass  chain,  and  a chart  should 
be  prepared  listing  all  such  valves,  together  with  the 
location  and  duty  of  each.  One  chart  may  be  provided 
at  the  building  and  one  should  be  filed  at  headquarters. 
If  any  valve  is  so  located  as  to  be  inside  any  wall  or  in 
the  floor,  a metal  box  with  frame  and  cover,  all  prefer- 
ably of  brass,  should  be  provided  with  it. 

Wall  and  Floor  Plates.  — Where  piping  passes  through 
finished  walls,  floors,  or  ceilings,  nickel-plated  plates 
should  be  installed,  and  these  plates  should  in  no  case  be 
of  light  spun  material,  but  of  cast  metal  secured  in  place 
with  set  screws. 

Floor  Drains.  — The  floor  drains  in  all  cases  should 
be  heavy,  with  galvanized  iron  body  and  brass  ring  and 
cover ; the  cover  not  less  than  one-eighth  inch  in  thick- 
ness, and  removable.  Hinged  covers  not  secured  by 
screws  should  be  avoided.  They  are  apt  to  become 
knocked  open,  and  injury  result  from  some  one’s  being 
tripped  up.  Considerable  annoyance  is  frequently 
experienced  in  setting  and  maintaining  floor  drains  in 
their  proper  positions  during  building  operations.  A 
very  good  method  is  to  rough  in  for  the  drain  and  plug 
the  outlet,  then  set  a sheet  metal  form  around  it  against 
which  the  concrete  floor  is  stopped.  After  the  floor  is 
finished  the  floor  drain  fixture  can  be  set  and  leveled, 
and  the  hole  filled  with  concrete.  This  is  also  applicable 
to  cleanouts. 

Testing.  — Great  care  should  be  exercised  to  make 
sure  that  the  drainage  system  is  tight  in  all  its  parts, 
and  no  piping  should  be  covered  up  until  it  has  been 
tested.  The  methods  to  be  employed  in  testing  are 
usually  prescribed  by  law  in  cities  of  any  size.  One  as 
good  as  any  is  to  plug  all  openings  and  fill  the  system 
with  water  to  the  top  level  of  the  vents,  and  watch  for 
any  settlement.  If  the  water  holds  its  level  for  thirty 
minutes  the  system  may  be  declared  tight,  otherwise 
not.  Smoke  or  air  tests  may  be  made  where  very  low 
temperatures  might  cause  freezing. 

Water  Supply.  — It  goes  without  saying  that  an  ade- 
quate water  supply  should  be  provided  for  all  buildings. 
The  water  pressure  in  the  main  to  which  the  service  is 
to  be  connected  should  be  ascertained  ; also  whether  the 
pressure  is  subject  to  fluctuations,  within  what  ranges,  etc. 

Having  the  water  pressure  in  view,  the  service  and 
distribution  system  should  be  designed  accordingly. 
Generally  speaking,  a high  school  will  require  a smaller 
service  line  than  an  elementary  school.  A grade  school 


with  morning  and  afternoon  recess,  at  which  times 
several  hundred  pupils  may  all  be  released  at  once,  will 
produce  a very  high  peak  in  water  consumption.  With 
seat-operating  flushometers  this  is  particularly  so,  and 
with  some  types  of  valve  the  pressure  at  the  fixtures 
may  be  reduced  by  excessive  demand  so  that  no  flush- 
ing effect  is  accomplished,  after  the  procession  is  well 
under  way.  With  manually  operated  valves  or  with 
tanks  the  result  will  be  the  same.  In  the  case  of  tanks 
there  would  not  be  time  for  them  to  fill  up  enough  to 
flush  the  bowl  out  after  use.  The  writer  has  timed  toilet 
use  during  recess  in  grade  schools  and  has  observed  a 
flushing  rate  as  high  as  once  every  eleven  seconds  per 
bowl,  and  that  in  schools  by  no  means  inadequately 
equipped  with  toilet  facilities. 

A common  fault  in  the  water  distribution  of  many 
schools  is  badly  regulated  pressure  and  lack  of  means 
to  shut  off  or  control  fixtures  or  groups  of  them.  The 
main  water  service  of  course  should  have  a valve  at  the 
curb  or  elsewhere  outside  the  building ; this  feature  is 
included  in  the  regulations  of  most  serving  companies. 
The  water  supply  line  should  be  brought  to  some  readily 
accessible  location,  the  boiler  room  by  preference,  and 
it  should  there  terminate  in  a manifold  having  separate 
valved  branches  to  supply  the  various  building  require- 
ments. Every  branch  leading  from  the  manifold 
should  have  a valve  and  drain;  the  manifold  should 
be  drained  as  well  as  the  supply  pipe  leading  to  it.  It  is 
excellent  practice  to  collect  all  these  drains  together  and 
arrange  the  piping  so  that  the  discharge  will  be  visible. 
This  will  guard  against  accidentally  leaving  any  drain 
valve  open  and  wasting  of  water,  — a good  point  if  the 
water  is  metered. 

Water  Distribution.  — It  is  generally  sufficient  if 
branches  be  taken  from  the  manifold  as  follows,  one 
each : boys’  toilet,  girls’  toilet,  boiler  room,  and  heating 
plant,  sill  cocks,  and  general  building  water  supply ; 
the  last  supplying  fountains,  isolated  fixtures  through- 
out the  building,  such  as  offices,  emergency  rooms, 
teachers’  rest  room,  etc.  The  hot  water  may  also  be 
included.  This  branch  should  be  provided  with  a pres- 
sure regulating  valve.  If  this  is  done  less  trouble  will 
be  experienced  with  fixtures,  and  the  pressure  at  the 
fountains  will  be  constant,  or  practically  so,  at  all  times. 
If  no  provision  is  made  for  maintaining  a uniform  pres- 
sure at  drinking  fountains,  constant  changes  in  adjustment 
will  be  necessary , and  even  then  the  results  will  be  far  from 
satisfactory.  If  regulation  is  made  in  the  cups  so  as  to 
prevent  spouting  during  periods  of  high  pressure,  the  flow 
will  be  so  small  during  recess,  when  the  toilets  are  in 
full  blast,  that  the  drinkers  will  be  obliged  to  touch  the 
cups  with  their  mouths  in  order  to  drink,  and  direct 
contagion  is  possible. 


'O 


PLUMBING 


547 


Mr.  Floyd  A.  Naramore,  Architect. 

Fig.  466.  — - Toilet  Rooms,  Franklin  High  School,  Portland,  Oregon. 


Supply  pipes  to  fixtures  and  banks  of  fixtures  should  be 
proportioned  to  supply  them  adequately  without  undue 
pressure  drop,  and  the  distribution  system  ought  to  have 
the  same  care  in  design  as  would  be  exercised  in  laying 
out  any  other  kind  of  piping  installation. 

For  reasons  of  strength,  and  on  account  of  smaller 
sizes  fouling  easily,  three-quarters  inch  is  the  least 
allowable  diameter  for  branches.  Every  branch  should 
be  valved,  and  a valve  should  be  provided  for  each 
group  of  fixtures  exceeding  two  in  number.  This  will 
be  appreciated  in  case  of  accident,  or  if  renewals  and 
repairs  are  made  to  the  system.  In  addition  to  the 
above,  no  hot-water  pipe  should  be  less  than  ten  inches 
from  cold-water  piping.  Low  pockets  should  not  be 
permitted  unless  a drain  is  installed,  and  every  part 
of  the  system  should  be  so  arranged  that  it  can  be 
readily  drained  clear  of  water. 

Hot-water  Circulation.  — In  most  buildings  a cir- 
culating system  is  a necessity  to  insure  hot  water  at 
the  fixtures  promptly  without  waste  of  water.  Usually 
these  circulating  systems  consist  of  a series  of  circulating 


returns  brought  back  to  the  hot-water  tank.  There 
are  two  things  to  avoid  in  installing  a circulating  hot- 
water  system,  — one  is  a long  run  of  horizontal  pipe  be- 
tween the  tank  and  riser,  the  other  is  a check  valve  in 
the  return  at  the  tank;  poor  or  no  circulation  will  be 
the  result  from  either.  The  main  hot-water  riser  should 
be  carried  up  in  a location  as  near  the  tank  as  possible, 
so  that  the  flow  will  be  vigorous. 

Fire  Protection.  — The  details  of  the  fire  protection 
system  are  regulated  by  law  in  many  cities  ; but  whether 
this  be  the  case  or  not,  the  installation  should  be  in- 
stalled in  such  a way  as  to  meet  with  the  approval  of  the 
fire  department. 

Fire  protection  in  most  schools  is  limited  to  stand- 
pipes and  fire  hose,  although  some  are  equipped  through- 
out with  automatic  sprinklers.  The  installation  of 
sprinkler  systems  entails  a very  heavy  expense,  and  its 
advisability  is  open  to  question  in  the  majority  of  in- 
stances. Among  the  Portland  schools  there  are  but  two 
or  three  fully  equipped.  With  proper  supervision  of 
plant  the  hazard  from  internal  fire  should  be  very  small. 


S4§ 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Fig.  467.  — Clawson  Elementary  School,  Oakland,  California. 


Mr.  John  J.  Donovan,  Architect- 


Statistics  show  that  practically  all  school  fires  start  in 
or  about  the  heating  plant,  and  at  early  hours  in  the 
morning  during  cold  weather.  This  may  be  due  to 
defective  apparatus,  or  from  the  janitor’s  coming  on 
duty  late  and  attempting  to  heat  up  in  too  short  a time. 
Fuel,  especially  wood,  may  be  carelessly  stored  too  near 
smoke  pipes,  and  if  soft  coal,  lignite  for  instance,  is  the 
fuel,  the  fire  may  result  from  spontaneous  combustion. 

Most  of  the  older  schools  in  Portland  were  frame 
structures  with  hot-air  furnaces  and  fuel  storage  in  the 
basements,  in  some  cases  as  much  as  seventy-five  to  one 
hundred  cords  of  wood  being  stored  in  one  building. 
Having  been  built  before  the  days  of  competent  fire 
regulations,  many  of  these  plants  were  anything  but 
good  fire  risks.  In  1916,  however,  adequate  financial 
provision  was  made,  and  all  furnace  and  fuel  rooms  were 
thoroughly  fireproofed.  The  ceilings  were  protected 
by  metal  lath  and  plaster,  all  unnecessary  openings 
were  closed,  wood  partitions  removed  and  replaced  by 
tile.  The  doors  opening  into  the  space  occupied  by  the 
heating  plant  and  fuel  were  metal-covered,  and  air 
intakes,  wherever  they  were  of  inflammable  material, 
were  replaced  by  metal.  Finally,  the  heating  and  fuel 


spaces  were  equipped  with  automatic  sprinklers,  as  were 
various  out-of-the-way  closets,  storerooms,  and  in  most 
instances  the  domestic  science  and  manual  training 
rooms.  Each  installation  was  provided  with  a regula- 
tion automatic  alarm  valve  and  bell  on  the  outside  of 
the  building. 

Such  installations  go  far  to  promote  immunity  from 
fire,  contribute  much  to  the  safety  of  the  occupants, 
and  reduce  the  cost  of  insurance. 

Standpipes  and  Fire  Hose. — -Standpipes  and  fire 
hose  should  be  installed  so  that  any  portion  of  the  build- 
ing can  be  reached  by  a length  of  hose  not  exceeding 
seventy-five  feet.  Hose  should  be  provided  in  attic 
spaces  and  should  be  so  located  as  to  be  readily  accessible. 

The  hose  outlet  should  be  full  size,  two  and  one-half  inch, 
with  standard  fire  department  thread.  One  and  one-half 
inch  unlined  linen  hose  in  lengths  of  not  over  seventy- 
five  feet,  and  racks  which  allow  the  hose  to  hang  in  loops 
are  better  than  reels  for  holding  the  hose.  Racks  with 
a rated  capacity  of  twenty-five  feet  more  than  the  actual 
length  should  be  employed,  as  this  does  not  crowd  the 
hose  so  much  and  there  is  less  liability  of  its  coming 
loose.  It  is  understood  of  course  that  each  hose  outfit 


PLUMBING 


549 


requires  a hose  reducer  if  small  hose  is  used,  and  in  addi- 
tion, a spanner  and  two  extra  hose  gaskets  should  be 
secured  to  each  rack. 

Pipe  Covering.  — Some  form  of  non-conducting  cover- 
ing is  required  on  hot-water  piping.  It  is  usually  asbestos 
or  magnesia.  The  cold-water  should  be  covered  with 
felt  covering  to  prevent  the  drip  of  condensation  and 
reduce  liability  of  freezing.  In  some  localities  subject 
to  very  low  extremes  of  temperature,  covering  is  also 
extended  to  include  roof  conductors  in  cold  attics  and  to 
portions  of  the  drainage  piping. 

Plumbing  Fixtures.  — Plumbing  fixtures  should  be 
selected  with  all  due  regard  to  the  school  and  to  their 
particular  uses  within  the  school.  It  might  not  be  out 
of  place  to  state  here  that  range  closets  and  range 
urinals  have  no  place  in  any  building  making  any  pre- 
tense to  sanitation.  They  are  prohibited  by  law  in 
most  cities  and  should  be  in  all. 

No  attempt  will  be  made  here  to  state  what  the  best 
types  of  fixtures  are,  but  briefly  what  is  customary  in  the 
Portland  school  district. 

Water  closets  are  siphon-jet,  and  if  installed  in  main 
toilet  rooms,  they  are  provided  with  raised  rear  vents 
and  fan  exhaust  ventilation  — for  boys’  toilets  extended 
lip,  girls’  toilets  raised  front. 


Seat-action  closets  are  used  in  all  elementary  schools. 
This  is  open  to  discussion.  The  opponents  claim, 
among  other  things,  that  seat-action,  self-flushing  closets, 
tend  to  make  the  children  careless  at  home  and  else- 
where. 

Up  to  1916,  many  flushometer  valves  had  been  in- 
stalled, but  few  came  up  to  anything  like  expecta- 
tions. The  combination  giving  the  best  satisfaction 
is  a high  vitreous  tank  with  or  without  seat-action 
feature. 

For  elementary  schools  13-inch  bowls  are  specified, 
weighing  not  less  then  fifty-five  pounds  each.  For 
high  schools  and  trade  schools,  14-inch  bowls,  60  pounds. 

Buff  ware  vented  stall  urinals,  18"  wide  and  set  24" 
on  centers  with  one  five-gallon  vitreous  flushing  cistern 
for  each  four  urinals.  The  tanks  are  furnished  with 
automatic  flushing  mechanisms,  and  a separate  stop 
is  placed  hand  high  from  the  floor. 

Vitreous  lavatories  are  used,  and  are  provided  with 
self-closing  stops  of  the  very  best  quality. 

Porcelain  slop  sinks,  one  on  each  floor,  with  hose  bibb 
on  the  cold-water  side. 

No  porcelain  enameled  ware  is  used,  excepting  in 
sinks,  which  always  are  provided  with  roll  rims  and  with 
back. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 


ELECTRICAL  INSTALLATION  AND  ILLUMINATION 

By  Romaine  W.  Myers,  Consulting  Electrical  Engineer 

Kind  of  Electric  Service.  Electric  Lighting  of  Assembly  Halls.  Electricity  for  the  Different  Departments.  Science  Department 
Service.  Switchboards  and  Panel  Boards.  Clock  and  Program  Systems.  The  Telephone  System.  Lighting  of  Schools,  (i)  General 
Consideration.  Specific  Recommendations,  (i)  Natural  Lighting.  (2)  Artificial  Lighting.  (3)  Examples  of  Classroom  Lighting. 

Code  of  Lighting  School  Buildings  by  Illuminating  Engineering  Society.  Preface.  General  Requirements.  Intensity  of  Artificial 
Illumination.  Shading  of  Lamps.  Distribution  of  Light  on  the  Work.  Color  and  Finish  of  the  Interior.  Switching  and  Controlling 
Apparatus.  Emergency  Lighting.  Inspection  and  Maintenance. 

Daylight : Intensity  of  Daylight.  Direction  of  Light.  Window  Openings.  Lighting  Value  of  a Window.  Window  Shades. 
Light  Courts.  Maintenance. 

Artificial  Light : Systems  of  Lighting.  (1)  a Direct  Lighting  System ; (2)  a Semi-indirect  System ; (3)  an  Indirect  System.  Shad- 


ing of  Lamps.  Glossy  Surfaces  and  Eye-strain.  Color  of  Light, 
the  Lighting  of  Old  Buildings.  Maintenance. 

Kind  of  Electric  Service.  — In  planning  the  electrical 
installation  for  a school,  the  first  requirement  necessary 
after  a study  of  the  proposed  building  and  local  regula- 
tions, is  to  decide  upon  the  system,  that  is,  whether  to 
use  alternating  or  direct  current  and  the  voltage.  As  a 
rule  the  choice  is  limited  by  the  service  available  from 
the  power  company.  When  choice  is  not  thus  limited 
it  is  of  prime  importance  that  a decision  be  made  at 
once.  Very  often  the  power  and  light  are  taken  from  the 
same  service.  Where  a separate  power  service  is  not 
obtainable,  it  is  advantageous  to  install  separate  trans- 
formers, one  set  for  light  and  one  set  for  power.  This 
installation  will  eliminate  to  a great  extent  any  fluctua- 
tions of  voltage  that  would  otherwise  exist  in  lamps  if 
the  lighting  load  were  on  the  same  transformers  as  the 
motors. 

The  services  to  a school  building  should  preferably 
enter  underground  and  run  direct  to  a main  switchboard 
located  in  a switchboard  room.  This  room  should  be 
locked  and  only  authorized  persons  should  be  allowed  to 
enter.  The  size  of  the  services  will,  of  course,  depend 
upon  the  number  of  lights  and  motors  that  may  be  in 
the  building.  To  obtain  this  estimate,  it  is  necessary 
to  make  a complete  layout  of  the  proposed  installation 
A typical  plan  for  a grade  school  is  herewith  shown  in 
Figure  468.  First,  the  outlets  are  carefully  spaced  to  give 
a uniform  illumination,  the  wattage  being  obtained  by 
calculation.  The  next  step  is  to  circuit  these  outlets, 
placing  no  more  on  a circuit  than  are  permitted  by  the 
National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  or  by  the  local 
rules  and  regulations.  The  wiring  should  all  be  placed 


Design  of  Lighting  Installation.  Blackboards.  Rehabilitating 

in  conduit,  the  sizes  of  conduit  and  wrire  therein  should 
be  shown  on  the  plan  for  each  run.  The  circuit  runs 
terminate  in  stage  switchboards  or  panel  boards.  Figure 
469  shows  a typical  panel  board  of  a safety  type,  which  is 
strongly  recommended  for  all  school  work.  All  corridor 
and  exit  lights  should  be  connected  to  a separate  section 
in  the  panel  board.  They  should  be  fed  by  direct 
feeders  from  the  main  switchboard  and  connected  for 
emergency  lighting  to  another  meter  located  ahead  of 
the  regular  one.  Where  separate  service  is  available  it 
is  recommended  that  the  emergency  lighting  be  con- 
nected to  it.  All  circuit  runs  should  be  carefully  calcu- 
lated for  size  of  copper.  The  voltage  drop  should  not 
exceed  2 per  cent. 

Electric  Lighting  of  Assembly  Halls.  —The  assembly 
hall  and  stage  lighting  should  be  controlled  from  the 
stage  switchboard.  Figure  469  shows  diagram  of  con- 
nections for  a grade-school  stage  switchboard.  In 
Figure  470  is  shown  a diagram  of  connections  for  a high- 
school  stage  switchboard.  A front  view  of  this  board 
is  shown  in  Figure  471,  the  switches  being  all  of  the  dead 
front  safety  type.  A safety  switch  is  recommended  for 
all  switches  and  switchboards  that  are  not  locked  and 
under  the  exclusive  supervision  of  one  versed  in  electrical 
work.  Industrial  accident  commissions  in  several  states 
require  a switch  of  this  character.  A detail  of  the 
safety  switch  used  in  switchboard  (Figure  471)  is  shown 
in  Figure  472.  This  switch  has  an  iron  handle  similar 
to  that  of  an  oil  switch,  the  exterior  face  being  of  sheet 
metal.  On  the  lower  portion  of  this  face  is  a door, 
through  which  admission  to  the  fuses  may  be  obtained 


550 


TYP/CAL  PLAN  OP  ELECTRIC  WPP  ft  FOP  A GRADE  SC  WOOL. 

Page  551  Fig.  468. 


552 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


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iMEt  V. 

“r — 4“ "'L>  ('  | 

TYP/CAL  SAFETY  PA /VF L ~ 30 A RD 

Fig.  469. 

when  switch  is  not  in  contact.  The  switch  cannot  be 
closed  without  closing  the  fuse  door.  Thus  there  are 
exposed  no  live  parts  whereby  anyone  could  possibly 
receive  a shock.  In  Figures  470  and  471,  No.  1 is  the 
grand  master  (400  amp.  T.  P.  switch) ; No.  2 is  the  stage 
main  (400  amp.  T.  P.  switch)  ; No.  3 is  the  main  for  the 
assembly-hall  lights  (100  amp.  T.  P.  switch)  ; No.  4 is 
the  remote  control  switch  (xoo  amp.  T.  P.  switch) 
operated  from  push  button  No.  21  and  from  the  moving 
picture  operator’s  room  ; No.  5 is  the  assembly-hall  indi- 


vidual circuit  switches ; No.  6 is  the  white-light  master 
(100  amp.  T.  P.) ; No.  7 are  the  white  footlights,  first, 
second,  and  third  border  lights  through  dimmers  No.  16  ; 
No.  8 is  the  red-light  master  (60  amp.  T.  P.) ; No.  9 are 
the  red  footlights,  first,  second,  and  third  red  border 
lights  through  dimmers  No.  15;  No.  10  is  the  blue 
master  (60  amp.  T.  P.) ; No.  n are  the  blue  footlights, 
first,  secondhand  third  blue  border  lights  through  dimmers 
No.  17;  No.  12  is  the  A.  C.  pocket  master  (100  amp. 
T.  P.) ; No.  13  are  the  D.  P.  switches  to  pockets  through 
dimmers  No.  20  ; No.  14  are  D.  P.  switches  for  operation 
of  lights  in  assembly-hall  lights  ahead  of  remote  control 
switch  No.  4;  No.  18  is  the  direct  current  master  (100 
amp.  D.  P.)  which  controls  switches  No.  19  pockets  on 
stage.  At  the  ends  of  the  above  board  grill  doors  made 
of  iron  wire  (J")  mesh  should  be  provided. 

Direct  current  is  generally  obtained,  when  not  other- 
wise available,  by  the  installation  of  a motor  generator 
set  placed  in  the  physics  laboratory. 

In  any  school  with  a stage  of  sufficient  size  for  the 
production  of  plays  it  is  essential  that  an  equipment  as 
outlined  above  be  included. 

It  is  recommended  when  purchasing  a motion-picture 
projection  machine  that  one  be  obtained  that  is  equipped 
with  an  incandescent  lamp  for  motion-picture  projection 
service,  as  this  is  an  improvement  over  the  regular  arc 
lamp  type.  Its  simplicity  and  ease  of  operation  com- 
mends it  for  school  work.  In  providing  for  a motion- 
picture  projection  machine  it  is  necessary  to  make 
provision  for  sufficient  size  feeds  to  the  machine. 

Electricity  for  the  Different  Departments.  — In  a 
great  many  cities,  cooking  is  now  being  done  exclusively 
by  electricity;  this  method  is  rapidly  on  the  increase. 
In  building  a school,  the  domestic  science  department 
should  be  supplied  with  copper  feeds  of  sufficient  size 
to  take  care  of  several  complete  electric  ranges  and 
enough  individual  electric  plates  or  combination  cookers 
to  supply  the  class.  The  feeds  should  run  to  a central 
panel  located  in  the  department,  and  from  this  panel 
individual  circuits  can  be  run  to  each  operator;  each 
circuit  should  be  controlled  by  an  approved  indicating 
switch,  preferably  the  bull’s-eye  type. 

The  domestic  arts  department  should  be  provided 
with  a separate  panel  from  which  separate  circuits  can 
be  run  to  electric  irons,  mangles,  sewing  machines  and 
washing  machines. 

Science  Department  Service.  — The  science  depart- 
ment should  be  equipped  with  a special  switchboard  so 
that  current  of  various  voltages  and  character  can  be 
transmitted  at  will  to  the  labor atorv  tables  and  lecture 
rooms.  A switchboard  providing  these  functions  is 
shown  in  Figure  473.  The  diagram  of  connections  which 
are  self-explanatory  is  shown  in  Figure  474.  The 


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SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


direct  current  is  provided  from  an  outside  source  or 
from  a motor  generator.  The  low  voltage  is  provided 
by  a special  multi-voltage  motor  generator. 

Current  should  be  transmitted  to  each  department  in 
the  manual  training  shops  by  separate  feeders  from  the 
main  switchboard  to  a safety  panel  in  each  department. 
It  is  recommended  that  all  motors  be  individual  drive, 
as  this  has  proven  the  best  type.  Each  motor  should 
be  on  a separate  circuit  and  should  be  furnished  with  a 
safety  starter  equipped  with  overload  and  no  voltage 


release.  Motors  for  all  ventilating  fans,  etc.,  throughout 
should  be  controlled  and  equipped  with  a similar  starter. 

Switchboards  and  Panel  Boards.  — All  panel-board 
and  motor  feeders  should  run  to  the  main  switchboard, 
which  is  divided  into  two  parts,  power  and  light.  The 
switchboard  should  be  placed  in  a room  designed  ex- 
clusively for  it  and  should  be  under  the  supervision  of  a 
competent  authorized  person.  Figure  475  shows  a front 
view  of  a main  switchboard  for  a large  high  school. 
It  is  advisable  to  install  a graphic  wattmeter  on  the 


/JT  /6  /7  20 


STAGE  S W/TC//EOAED  E0E  A LAE6E  A//SE6CW0L 


5 CAL  E 


Fig.  471. 


ELECTRICAL  INSTALLATION  AND  ILLUMINATION 


555 


lighting  load  and  one  also  on  the  power,  as  these  will 
give  on  paper  a daily  record  of  the  current  consumed, 
thereby  acting  as  a check  on  the  consumption  of  current 
for  any  given  time. 

Clock  and  Program  Systems.  — In  any  building  or 
group  of  buildings  where  two  or  more  clocks  are  used, 
the  importance  of  having  all  clocks  exactly  alike  cannot 
be  overestimated.  There  is  nothing  more  annoying 
than  to  find  a difference  of  several  minutes  between 
two  clocks,  possibly  in  adjoining  rooms ; and  the  only 
way  to  avoid  such  confusion  is  to  install  a high-grade, 
accurate  master  electric  clock,  carefully  regulated,  and 
then  from  it  to  control  electrically  all  the  other  clocks. 
There  are  two  kinds  of  secondary  clocks : first,  those 
operated  by  an  ordinary  clock  movement  and  syn- 
chronized once  an  hour  by  the  master  clock;  second, 
electric  dials,  which  are  operated  directly  by  the  master 
clock.  These  are  sometimes  called  minute  jumpers, 
on  account  of  the  fact  that  the  hands  are  moved  once  a 
minute  only,  instead  of  continuously  as  in  an  ordinary 


clock.  Where  the  secondary  clocks  will  not  be  subjected 
to  much  vibration,  a synchronized  system  is  usually 
preferred,  but  under  difficult  operating  conditions  the 
minute  jumpers  will  give  better  service,  as  they  have 
no  springs  or  gears  which  might  be  injured  by  vibra- 
tion. 

The  electric  program  clock  has  become  an  essential 
feature  of  the  equipment  of  the  modern  school.  In  a 
school  building  with  numerous  classrooms,  it  is  no  longer 
practicable  to  ring  the  signals  by  hand,  for  in  many 
cases  the  classes  are  held  at  different  periods,  requiring 
a complex  schedule  of  signals.  The  possibilities  of  a 
program  clock  will  be  readily  appreciated  when,  by 
means  of  such  a system,  signals  may  be  operated  at  any 
stated  hour,  day  or  night,  on  one  or  more  different 
schedules,  which  may  be  automatically  changed  each 
day  of  the  week,  if  necessary.  Figure  476  shows  a dia- 
gram of  master  clock,  secondary  clocks,  program  clock, 
program  bells,  yard  gong,  storage  batteries,  etc.  Refer 
to  Figure  468  as  to  their  location  in  a layout  of  a school. 


SAFETY  SWITCH  FOR  SWITCHBOARDS 


LABOR  A TOR  Y S WITCH  BOARD 


Scale 


Fig.  473. 


The  master  and  program  clock  is  usually  placed  in  the 
principal’s  office. 

A fire-alarm  system  should  be  installed  in  all  schools 
and  buildings.  This  usually  consists  of  break-glass 
stations  placed  in  the  corridors  as  noted  in  Figure  468. 
From  each  break-glass  station  wires  are  run  to  an  an- 
nunciator placed  in  the  principal’s  office.  If  the  glass 
is  broken  at  the  station  the  annunciator  drop  will  operate 
and  indicate  from  what  point  the  alarm  is  turned  in. 
For  periodical  testing  the  stations  should  be  designed 
to  permit  operation  by  a key.  Such  testing  should  be 
done  frequently. 

The  Telephone  System.  — A telephone  system  should 
be  installed  in  all  schools.  For  large  schools  such  as 
high  schools,  where  a secretary  is  employed,  it  is  recom- 
mended that  a regular  private  exchange  system  be 
installed  with  telephones  for  each  teacher.  Such  tele- 


phones should  be  of  desk  type  if  the  teacher  is  provided 
with  a separate  room  for  an  office. 

It  is  not  customary'  or  necessary'  to  connect  this 
exchange  to  outside  service,  as  considerable  expense  can 
be  eliminated  by  not  doing  so.  The  principal  usually 
has  in  addition  to  his  school  telephone  another  telephone 
with  connection  to  the  regular  telephone  company.  For 
grade  schools  it  is  recommended  that  a telephone  cabinet 
of  a type  that  can  be  placed  on  the  principal’s  desk  be 
installed  (i5"x6"X3").  The  cabinet  should  be  of  the 
key-switching  type  with  the  necessary'  number  of  line 
equipments  consisting  of  a visual  signal  with  associated 
ringing  and  listening  keys,  also  with  a general  call  button 
by  which  all  outlying  stations  may  be  called  simultane- 
ously. A night-bell  signal  should  also  be  provided. 
This  equipment  is  wired  so  that  upon  removing  the 
receiver  from  the  outlying  station,  the  visual  signal 


ELECTRICAL  INSTALLATION  AND  ILLUMINATION 


557 


associated  with  that  station  will  show  and  night-bell 
signal  operate.  To  answer  the  station  call,  the  listening 
key  on  the  cabinet  board  is  thrown  into  listening  posi- 
tion. The  visual  signal  remains  as  long  as  the  receiver 
of  the  outlying  station  is  off  the  hook.  In  calling  any 
or  several  stations,  the  respective  keys  are  first  thrown 
to  the  ringing  position  and  then  to  the  answering  or 
listening  position.  Except  when  the  general  call  button 
is  used,  keys  then  need  only  be  thrown  to  the  listening 


General  Consideration.  — The  lighting  of  a school  build- 
ing should  be  referred  to  a competent  expert  before  the 
plans  for  the  building  are  drawn.  The  importance  of 
doing  this  early  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  the  orienta- 
tion of  the  building  plays  an  important  part  in  the 
design  of  those  features  which  depend  upon  proper 
lighting  for  their  effectiveness. 

Minimum  intensity  of  illumination,  3.0  to  4.0  foot- 
candles  on  the  plane  of  the  desk  top. 


THAEE  PHASE- 220  VOLTS 


TH/TEE  wm  A C HO -ZAO  VOLTS 


Pah  el  B' 


CO/V7/HQL  A/AG  RAN 


Fig.  474. 


position.  The  wiring  between  the  cabinet  and  the  out- 
lying stations  consists  of  three  wires,  one  common  and 
two  individual.  This  telephone  system  requires  mini- 
mum number  of  batteries.  Classroom  telephones  should 
be  of  the  heavy  fool-proof  type,  with  receiver  connected 
to  the  instrument  by  short  flexible  steel  cable. 

Before  acceptance  is  made  all  apparatus  and  wiring 
connected  with  the  school  should  receive  a careful 
inspection  and  test  by  a competent  engineer. 

Lighting  of  Schools.  — The  following  brief  resume  of 
requirements  in  school  lighting  was  presented  to  the 
Committee  on  Lighting  Legislation  of  the  Illuminating 
Engineering  Society  for  use  as  a basis  in  formulating  a 
code  on  school  lighting. 


Polished  surfaces  such  as  blackboards,  glossy  paper, 
polished  desk  tops,  and  glazed  walls  should  be  avoided. 

Light  sources  (sky  or  artificial)  should  be  well  out  of 
the  ordinary  visual  field. 

Glare  from  blackboards  should  be  avoided.  This  can 
be  done  by  carefully  placing  them,  by  lighting  them 
artificially,  by  tilting  them,  and  by  having  the  surfaces 
of  a matte  finish.  They  should  never  be  placed  be- 
tween windows. 

Excessively  bright  contrasts  should  be  avoided.  A 
bright  source  should  not  be  viewed  against  a dark 
background.  The  walls  adjacent  to  a blackboard 
should  not  be  too  light  in  color. 

Surroundings  such  as  walls  and  ceiling  should  be,  in 


■3  d /9Z  f 


ELECTRICAL  INSTALLATION  AND  ILLUMINATION 


559 


general,  light  in  color.  Ceilings  and  frieze  should  be 
practically  white  (high  reflecting  power).  Walls  should 
be  reasonably  lighted.  Colors  used  should  be  white, 
gray,  or  tints  of  buff,  cream,  or  olive  green. 

Children  should  be  taught  how  to  safeguard  their 
vision,  that  is,  how  to  hold  their  books,  to  assume  a 
correct  position  relative  to  the  light  source,  to  complain 
of  glare  from  blackboards,  etc. 

Teachers  should  be  instructed  to  teach  these  funda- 
mentals to  children. 

Good  lighting  should  be  incorporated  in  every  course 
where  practicable,  especially  in  the  “ home-making 
course.” 

More  Specific  Recommendations.  Natural  Lighting. 
— The  glass  area  should  be  ample,  that  is,  an  appreciable 
percentage,  say  at  least  twenty  per  cent  (20%)  of  the 
floor  area. 

The  windows  should  preferably  be  located  on  one  side 
of  the  room,  to  the  left  of  the  student. 

A portion  of  the  sky  should  be  visible  from  every  desk 
top,  at  least  5 degrees  vertically. 

The  width  of  the  room  should  not  be  more  than  twice 
the  window  height  from  the  floor. 

The  windows  should  be  equipped  with  approved 
window  shades  for  controlling  the  light  and  excluding 
direct  sunlight. 

Prism  glass  should  be  used  in  extreme  conditions. 

Lighting  and  ventilating  courts  should  be  painted 
white. 

Minimum  illumination  on  desk  top,  3 to  4 foot-candles. 

Diversity  of  illumination  not  greater  than  100  to  1. 

I Artificial  Lighting.  — Ample  general  lighting  is  recom- 
mended. Local  units  subject  to  control  of  pupils  are 
condemned. 

Minimum  illumination  on  desk  top,  3 to  4 foot-candles. 
Light  sources  should  be  out  of  normal  visual  field  if 
possible. 

Light  sources  should  be  equipped  with  diffusing  glass- 
ware to  reduce  their  brightness  and  screen  the  source 
from  the  pupil’s  eyes. 

Highest  permissible  brightness,  3 candle  power  per 
square  inch  when  viewed  against  a light  background. 

Blackboards  should  be  lighted  by  properly  screened 
and  judiciously  placed  local  units. 

The  system  of  lighting  will  depend  upon  many  condi- 
tions; any  well-designed  system  is  satisfactory  in  its 
proper  place.  There  appears  to  be  a growing  tendency 
for  the  semi-indirect  system.  It  appears  more  generally 
satisfactory  for  classrooms,  reading  rooms,  etc.  In  the 
shops  a direct  system  is  advisable. 

No  local  units  should  be  used  unless  absolutely 
necessary. 


Examples  of  Classroom  Lighting,  etc.  — - Assuming  the 
usual  classroom  is  24^3  2',  Figure  477  shows  a light- 
ing . layout  with  semi-indirect  units.  Four  lighting 
units  are  supplied,  which  is  the  minimum  number  desir- 
able. Each  consists  of  a heavy  density  inverted  bowl  or 
reflector  with  200-watt  type  C lamp.  The  top  of  the 
glass  should  be  not  less  than  3 feet  from  the  ceiling  in 
rooms  having  ceiling  height  of  11  to  14  feet.  Light 
color  walls  and  light  color  ceiling  was  assumed  in  the 
above  example,  using  0.25  as  the  coefficient  of  utilization. 

Good  results  may  be  obtained  with  direct  lighting. 
Although  the  diffusion  is  not  so  good  as  with  well-de- 
signed semi-indirect,  a considerable  degree  is  obtained 
with  a white  ceiling,  and  the  lack  of  complete  diffusion 
is  compensated  for  by  so  placing  light  units  that  the 
light  is  received  on  each  desk  from  the  best  direction. 
Figure  478  shows  a lighting  layout  with  direct  units.  Six 
lighting  units  are  supplied.  Each  consists  of  a sym- 
metrical prismatic  reflector  with  150-watt  type  C bowl 
frosted  lamp.  The  reflectors  are  mounted  on  ceiling 
flanges  fastened  to  the  ceiling.  Light  color  walls  and 
light  color  ceiling  was  assumed  in  the  above  example,  using 
0.40  as  the  coefficient  of  utilization.  If  walls  and  ceilings 
are  darker,  larger  size  lamps  will,  of  course,  be  necessary. 

Auditoriums  and  assembly  halls  cannot  be  lighted 
according  to  definite  rules,  as  conditions  vary  and  the 
decorative  side  of  the  problem  is  important.  Efficiency 
in  this  case  is  not  important,  although  reasonable  uni- 
formity should  be  obtained.  Glare  in  any  form  should 
be  carefully  avoided,  and  the  soft  effect  obtained  by 
semi-indirect  or  indirect  lighting  is  recommended.  For 
low  ceilings,  for  instance  under  the  balcony,  bowls  or 
globes  of  heavy  density  glass  giving  a low  transmission 
of  light  are  advocated,  thus  insuring  a low  brilliancy  of 
surfaces  in  the  ordinary  range  of  vision. 

The  stage  of  auditorium  and  assembly  halls  should 
be  provided  with  footlights  and  overhead  lights  of 
sufficient  quantity  to  give  at  least  20  foot-candles  on 
the  subject.  In  the  larger  auditoriums  (high  schools) 
provisions  should  be  made  for  footlights,  border  lights, 
side  lights,  flood  lights,  and  spot  lights.  These  should 
be  connected  with  dimmers  so  that  gradation  in  intensity 
can  be  easily  obtained. 

CODE  OF  LIGHTING  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS’ 

Copyright  1918  by 
Illuminating  Engineering  Society 
29  West  39th  Street,  New  York  City 

PREFACE 

There  are  23,000,000  school  children  in  the  United 
States  who  are  devoting  several  hours  each  day  to  study 


1 Permission  to  use  granted  to  the  writer  and  the  cuts  furnish&d  by  the  Illuminating  Engineeiing  Society. 


56° 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


or  to  the  performance  of  other  work  equally  trying  to 
the  eyes.  According  to  the  available  statistics,  nearly 
io  per  cent  of  the  number  of  school  children  examined 
are  found  to  have  defective  vision. 

The  severe  requirements  imposed  upon  children’s 
eyes  by  modern  educational  methods  create  need  for 


the  best  of  working  conditions.  Among  these  conditions 
lighting  is  of  first  importance.  Improper  lighting  causes 
eye-strain,  resulting  in  functional  disorders,  near-sighted- 
ness and  other  defects  of  the  eyes. 

the  following  Code  of  Lighting  School  Buildings  has 
been  prepared  by  committees  of  the  Illuminating 


Engineering  Society  in  order  to  make  available  authori- 
tative information  for  legislative  bodies,  school  boards, 
and  others  who  are  interested  in  enactments,  rules  and 
regulations  for  better  lighting. 

The  requirements  of  the  code  as  set  forth  in  the 
Articles  are  based  upon  good  practice  at  the  present 

time.  Standards  of  illumi- 
nation and  other  require- 
ments are  subject  to  revision 
by  the  Society  with  advances 
in  the  art  of  lighting. 

While  the  code  is  intended 
primarily  as  an  aid  in  formu- 
lating legislation  relating  to 
the  lighting  of  school  build- 
ings, it  is  also  intended  for 
school  authorities  as  a guide 
in  individual  efforts  to  im- 
prove lighting  conditions. 

Acknowledgment  is  made 
of  the  valuable  cooperation 
of  many  members  and  non- 
members of  the  Society  in 
the  preparation  of  this  code. 

Further  information  on 
this  subject  may  be  obtained 
by  addressing  the  Illumi- 
nating Engineering  Society, 
29  West  39th  Street,  New 
York,  N.  Y. 

Article  I.  General  Re- 
quirements. — When  in  use, 
all  buildings  should  be  pro- 
vided. during  those  hours 
when  daylight  is  inadequate, 
with  artificial  light  accord- 
ing to  the  following  Articles. 

Buildings  hereafter  con- 
structed should  be  so  de- 
signed that  the  daylight  in 
the  work  space  is  reasonably 
uniform  and  the  darkest  part 
of  any  work  space  is  adequately  illuminated  under  normal 
exterior  daylight  conditions.1 

Article  II.  Intensity  of  Artificial  Illumination.  — The 
desirable  illumination  to  be  provided  and  the  mini- 
mum to  be  maintained  are  given  in  the  following 
table : 2 


TO  AC  LIN  E 


Fig.  476. 


Daylight  illumination  values  should  be  at  least  twice  the  values  given  in  the  Table,  Article  II,  for  artificial  lighting. 

I he  illumination  intensity  should  be  measured  on  the  important  plane,  which  may  be  the  desk-top,  blackboard,  etc. 
flie  method  of  computing  the  flux  of  light  (lumens)  required  to  do  any  desired  illumination  is  described  under  the  heading  “Design  of  Lighting 
Installation”  on  page  565. 

For  more  specific  information  regarding  the  lighting  of  shops,  see  “ Code  of  Lighting  Factories,  Mills  and  Other  IFor^  Places,”  issued  by  the  Illu- 
minating Engineering  Society. 


ELECTRICAL  INSTALLATION  AND  ILLUMINATION 


561 


Desirable  and  Minimum  Illumination 


Artificial  Lighting 
Foot-Candles  (Lumens  per 
Square  Foot)1  At  the  Work 

Minimum 

Ordinary 

Practice2 

Storage  spaces  

0.25 

0.5-  1.0 

Stairways,  corridors 

o-S 

1.0—  2.5 

Gymnasiums 

1.0 

2.0-  5.0 

Rough  shop  work 

1-25 

2.0-  4.0 

Auditoriums,  assembly  rooms 

i-5 

2.5-  4.0 

Classrooms,  study  rooms,  libraries,  labora- 
tories, blackboards 

3-o 

3-5“  6.0 

Fine  shop  work 

3-5 

4.0-  8.0 

Sewing,  drafting  rooms 

S-o 

6.0-12.0 

Article  III.  Shading  of  Lamps.  — Lamps  should  be 
suitably  shaded  to  minimize  glare.  Glare,  either  from 
lamps  or  from  unduly  bright  reflecting  surfaces,  produces 
eye-strain. 

Article  IV.  Distribution  of  Light  on  the  Work.  — 

Lamps  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  secure  a good  distribu- 


tion of  light  on  the  work,  avoiding  objectionable  shadows 
and  sharp  contrasts  of  intensities. 

Article  V.  Color  and  Finish  of  Interior.  — Walls 
should  have  a moderate  reflection  factor ; the  preferred 
colors  are  light  gray,  light  buff,  dark  cream  and  light 
olive  green.  Ceilings  and  friezes  should  have  a high 
reflection  factor;  the  preferred  colors  are  white  and 
light  cream.  Walls,  desk-tops  and  other  woodwork 
should  have  a dull  finish. 


Article  VI.  Switching  and  Controlling  Apparatus. 

Basements,  stairways,  storerooms,  and  other  parts  of  the 
building  where  required,  should  have  switches  or  con- 
trolling apparatus  at  point  of  entrance. 

Article  VII.  Emergency  Lighting.  — Emergency  light- 
ing should  be  provided  at  main  stairways  and  exits  to 
insure  reliable  operation  when,  through  accident  or 
other  cause,  the  regular  lighting  is  extinguished. 

Article  VIII.  Inspection  and  Maintenance. — All 
parts  of  the  lighting  system  should  be  properly  main- 
tained to  prevent  deterioration  due  to  dirt  accumulation, 
burned-out  lamps  and  other  causes.  To  insure  proper 
maintenance,  frequent  inspection  should  be  made  at 
regular  intervals. 

NOTES  — DATA  AND  RECOMMENDATIONS 

DAYLIGHT 

Intensity  of  Daylight.  — In  general,  the  minimum 
intensities  of  daylight  illumination  should  be  consider- 


* . 29-0' 


ably  greater  than  those  provided  in  artificial  lighting, 
owing  to  the  adaptation  of  the  eye  to  a much  higher 
level  of  illumination  (brightness)  in  the  daytime. 

Direction  of  Light.  — One  of  the  fundamental  rules 
for  proper  lighting  of  desks  is  to  have  the  preponderance 
of  light  come  from  the  left  side.  For  this  reason  many 
school  authorities  advocate  unilateral  lighting,  that  is, 
lighting  by  windows  located  on  one  side  of  the  room  only, 
especially  for  classrooms.  (See  Figure  479.)  This  method 


1 It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  intensity  of  illumination  is  only  one  of  the  factors  on  which  good  seeing  depends. 

2 Under  the  column  headed  “Ordinary  practice,”  the  upper  portion  of  the  range  of  intensities  is  preferable  to  the  lower;  where  economy  does  not 
prohibit,  even  higher  intensities  than  those  cited  are  often  desirable. 


562 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


of  lighting  is  recommended  where  the  rooms  do  not  ex- 
ceed about  24  feet  (7.9  m.)  in  width,  with  windows  about 
12  feet  (3.9  m.)  high.  If  the  rooms  are  much  wider  than 
this,  bilateral  lighting,  that  is,  lighting  by  windows  located 
on  two  sides  of  the  room,  may  be  required  in  order  to 
provide  sufficient  illumination  in  every  part  of  the  room 
and  at  the  same  time  to  prevent  too  great  a diversity  of 
contrast  in  the  intensity  of  light  on  the  work  spaces. 


To  secure  the  highest  lighting  value  it  is  recommended 
that  the  room  be  so  designed  that  no  working  location 
is  more  distant  from  a window  than  one  and  one-half 
times  the  height  of  the  top  of  the  window  from  the 
floor. 

Windows  at  the  left  and  rear  where  practicable  are 
preferable  to  those  on  the  left  and  right  sides  of  the  room, 
because  of  cross  shadows  created  by  the  latter  arrange- 
ment. Lighting  by  overhead  sources  of  natural  illumi- 
nation, although  sometimes  used  for  assembly  rooms, 
auditoriums  and  libraries,  with  relatively  high  ceilings, 
has  ordinarily  little  application  in  classrooms  and  has 
found  little  favor  in  practice. 

The  sky  as  seen  through  a window  is  a source  of  glare. 
For  this  reason  the  seating  arrangements  should  always 
be  such  that  the  occupants  (pupils)  of  the  room  do  not 
face  the  windows. 

Window  Openings.  — Tests  of  daylight  in  well-lighted 
school  buildings  indicate  that,  in  general,  the  glass  area 
does  not  fall  below  20  per  cent  of  the  floor  area. 

As  the  upper  part  of  the  window  is  more  effective  in 
lighting  the  interior  than  the  lower  part,  it  is  recom- 
mended that  the  windows  extend  as  close  to  the  ceiling 
as  practicable. 

Lighting  Value  of  a Window.  — The  lighting  value 
of  a window  at  any  given  location  in  the  room  will 
depend  upon  the  brightness  of  the  sky,  the  amount  of 
sky  visible  through  the  window  at  the  given  location 
in  the  room,  and  indirectly  upon  the  reflection  factor  of 
the  surroundings  and  the  dimensions  of  the  room. 

Observations  in  well-lighted  schoolrooms  having  a 
comparatively  unobstructed  horizon,  show  that  under 


Fig.  480. 


ELECTRICAL  INSTALLATION  AND  ILLUMINATION 


563 


, 


I 


Fig.  482. 


ARTIFICIAL  LIGHT 

Systems  of  Lighting.  - It  is  customary  to 
divide  the  systems  of  artificial  lighting  into  three 
classes,  namely,  direct,  semi-direct,  and  indirect. 
This  division  is  arbitrary  and  the  boundary  lines 
are  quite  indefinite. 

A direct  lighting  system  is  known  as  one  in 
which  most  of  the  light  reaches  the  work  plane 
directly  from  the  lighting  unit  including  the 
accessory  which  may  be  an  opaque  or  glass  re- 
flector or  a totally  inclosing  transparent  or  trans- 
lucent envelope.  Direct  lighting  systems  may 


normal  conditions  of  daylight,  satisfactory  illumi- 
nation is  usually  obtained  when  the  visible  sky 
subtends  a minimum  vertical  angle  of  5 0 at  any 
work  point  of  the  room. 

In  cases  in  which  the  horizon  is  obstructed, 
as  by  adjacent  high  buildings  or  by  high  trees, 
provision  should  be  made  for  a larger  window 
area  than  would  otherwise  be  required ; also  if 
need  be,  for  redirecting  the  light  into  the  room 
by  means  of  prismatic  glass  in  the  upper  sashes 
of  the  windows,  or  by  prismed  canopies  outside 
of  the  windows. 

Window  Shades.  — Although  direct  sunlight 
is  desirable  in  interiors  from  a hygienic  stand- 
point, it  is  often  necessary  to  exclude  or  diffuse 
it  by  means  of  shades.  These  shades  should 
perform  several  functions,  namely,  the  diffu- 
sion of  direct  sunlight,  the  control  of  illumination 
to  secure  reasonable  uniformity,  the  elimination  of 
glare  from  the  visible  sky  and  the  elimination  of  glare 
from  the  blackboards  wherever  possible.  These  require- 
ments make  it  desirable  to  equip  each  window,  especially 
in  classrooms,  with  two  shades  operated  by  double 
rollers  placed  near  the  level  of  the  meeting  rail.  The 
window  shades  may  thus  be  raised  or  lowered  from  the 
middle,  which  provides  the  maximum  elasticity  for 
shading  and  diffusing  the  light.  The  shades  should  be 
preferably  of  yellow-colored  material  that  is  sufficiently 
translucent  to  transmit  a considerable  percentage  of  the 
light  while  at  the  same  time  diffusing  it. 

A more  complete  control  of  the  light  may  be  obtained 
by  the  use  of  two  independent  sets  of  shades  at  each 
window.  Where  two  sets  of  shades  are  used,  one  should 


Fig.  481. 


be  preferably  a very  dark  green  of  heavy  material  that 
will  exclude  the  light  entirely,  and  the  other  preferably 
a yellow-colored  material  as  above  described. 

Different  views  of  a window  equipped  with  a single 
set  of  adjustable  shades  as  used  in  the  public  schools  of 
New  York  City  are  shown  in  Figure  480.  It  will  be 
noted  that  this  method  of  installation  permits  of  lowering 
the  window  from  the  top  or  raising  it  from  the  bottom 
without  interference  with  the  shades. 

Light  Courts.  — Reflection  of  light  from  the  walls  of 
courts  is  very  helpful  in  increasing  interior  illumination. 
Hence  the  walls  of  courts  should  have  high  reflection 
factors.  Dark  colors  should  be  avoided. 

Maintenance. — Windows  and  overhead  sources  of 
natural  light  (so-called  skylights)  should  be  washed  at 
frequent  intervals,  and  surfaces  such  as  ceilings  and  walls 
should  be  cleaned  and  refinished  sufficiently  often 
to  insure  their  efficiency  as  reflecting  surfaces. 
It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  maintenance 
of  adequate  daylight  indoors  is  also  dependent 
upon  various  external  factors,  such  as  the  future 
erection  of  buildings  and  the  growth  of  trees  or 
vines. 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


564 

be  further  classified  as  localized  and  general  or  distribut- 
ing. In  the  former  the  units  are  so  placed  as  to  light 
local  work  spaces,  and  in  the  latter  they  are  well  dis- 
tributed so  as  to  light  the  whole  area  more  or  less  uni- 
formly. 

A semi-indirect  system  is  known  as  one  in  which  a 
portion  of  the  light  reaches  the  work  plane  directly  from 
the  unit  and  a relatively  large  portion  reaches  the  work 


plane  indirectly,  by  reflection  from  the  ceiling  and  walls. 
The  accessory  is  usually  an  inverted  diffusing  bowl  or 
glass  reflector.  When  this  glass  has  a high  transmission 
factor  the  lighting  effect  approaches  that  of  ordinary 
direct  lighting,  and  when  of  low  transmission,  the  effect 
approaches  that  of  indirect  lighting. 

An  indirect  system  is  known  as  one  in  which  all  or 
practically  all  the  light  reaches  the  work  plane  indirectly 
after  reflection  from  the  ceiling  and  walls.  The  acces- 


sory is  usually  an  opaque  or  slightly  translucent  inverted 
bowl  or  shade  containing  a reflecting  medium. 

All  three  of  these  systems  of  lighting  (illustrated  in 
Figures  481, 482,  and  483)  are  in  successful  use  in  schools. 
There  has  been  a growing  preference  for  semi-indirect 
and  indirect  lighting,  especially  since  the  introduction 
of  modern  lamps  of  great  brilliancy.  Local  lighting  by 
lamps  placed  close  to  the  work  is  unsatisfactory  except 
for  special  cases  such  as  the  lighting  of  black- 
boards, maps,  charts,  etc.  Examples  of  bad 
lighting  are  shown  in  Figures  484,  485,  and  486. 

Shading  of  Lamps.  — Except  in  very  rare 
instances  bare  light  sources  should  not  be  ex- 
posed to  view.  They  should  always  be  ade- 
quately shaded  or  completely  hidden.  Even 
when  shaded  by  translucent  media,  such  as 
dense  glassware,  the  lighting  units  should  be 
placed  well  out  of  the  ordinary  range  of  vision ; 
in  other  words  it  is  recommended  that  lighting 
units  be  of  low  brightness,1  even  if  they  are  lo- 
cated high  in  the  field  of  view. 

The  maximum  brightness  contrast  of  juxta- 
posed surfaces  in  the  normal  visual  field  should 
be  preferably  not  greater  than  20  to  1 ; that  is 
to  say,  the  darkest  part  of  the  work  space  ob- 
served should  have  a brightness  preferably  not 
less  than  one-twentieth  of  that  of  the  brightest 
part. 

Glossy  Surfaces  and  Eye-strain.  — Glossy  surfaces  of 
paper,  woodwork,  desk-tops,  walls  and  blackboards  are 
likely  to  cause  eye-strain  because  of  specular  or  mirror- 
like reflection  of  images  of  light  sources,  especially  when 
artificial  light  is  used.  Matte  or  dull  finished  surfaces 
are  recommended.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  a high  reflec- 
tion factor  does  not  necessarily  imply  a polished  or  glazed 
surface. 

To  minimize  eye-strain  it  is  recommended  that  un- 


Fig.  483. 


1 Preferably  not  to  exceed  250  millilamberts.  A millilambert  is  equal  to  the  brightness  of  a perfectly  reflecting  and  diffusing  surface  illuminated 
to  an  intensity  of  0.929  foot-candle  (0.929  lumen  per  square  foot).  It  is  also  equal  to  0.202  candle  per  square  inch. 

The  following  table  shows  the  order  of  magnitude  of  the  brightness  of  some  light  sources  in  common  use  : 

Approximate  brightness 


Millilamberts 


Indirect  lighting : ceiling,  directly  above  the  lighting  unit  . 5.  to  75. 

Semi-indirect  lighting : heavy  density  glassware  ....  35.  to  100. 

light  density  glassware 200.  to  1,000. 

Direct  lighting:  10  in.  (25  cm.)  opal  glass  ball  containing 

100-watt  vacuum  tungsten  lamp  at  center  250.  to  500. 

vacuum  tungsten  lamp  (frosted),  in  open 

bottom  reflector 2000.  to  3000. 

Vacuum  tungsten  lamp,  filament  exposed  to  view  . . . 500000. 

Gas-filled  tungsten  lamp,  filament  exposed  to  view  . . . 2000000. 

Gas-mantle,  bare 15000. 

“ concealed  in  6 in.  (15  cm.)  opal  glass  globe  . 1000. 

Mercury  arc  tube  (glass) 8000. 

Daylight : clear  blue  skv 1000. 


Candles 
per  sq.  in. 
0.01  to  0.15 
0.07  to  0.2 
0.4  to  2.0 

0.5  to  1.0 

4.  to  6. 
1000. 

4000. 

30. 

2. 

16. 

2. 


ELECTRICAL  INSTALLATION  AND  ILLUMINATION 


565 


glazed  paper  and  large  plain  type  be  used  in 
school  books. 

Children  should  be  taught  to  hold  their 
books  properly,  to  assume  a correct  position 
relative  to  the  light  source,  and  to  safeguard 
their  vision. 

Color  of  Light.  — It  has  been  found  in  prac- 
tice that  the  admixture  of  daylight  and  arti- 
ficial light  is  not  satisfactory  unless  the  latter 
is  derived  from  lamps  designed  with  special 
reference  to  producing  daylight  color  values. 
Hence  in  waning  daylight  it  is  desirable  to 
shut  out  the  daylight  and  to  use  artificial  light 
exclusively  unless  the  lamps  are  of  the  type 
mentioned. 

Design  of  Lighting  Installation.  — The  illumi- 
nation intensity  on  the  horizontal  work  plane 
should  be  as  uniform  as  possible.  The  varia- 
tion should  not  be  greater  than  4 to  i.1 


Fig.  4S4. 


Approximate  Coefficients  of  Utilization  — Modern  Lighting 
Equipment 


Light  Color 
Walls 

Light  Color 
Celling 

Medium  Color 
Walls 

Light  Color 
Ceiling 

Small  Rooms  (offices,  corridors,  etc.). 

Direct  lighting;  dense  glass  (open  bottom 
reflectors) 

0.40 

0-35 

Semi-indirect  lighting ; dense  glass  . . . 

0.25 

0.22 

Indirect  lighting 

0.23 

0.20 

Medium  Sized  Rooms  (classrooms, 
Laboratories,  etc.). 

Direct  lighting ; dense  glass  (open  bottom 
reflectors)  

0.50 

0.4s 

Semi-indirect  lighting ; dense  glass  . . . 

o-3S 

0.30 

Indirect  lighting 

0.30 

0.25 

Large  Rooms  (Auditoriums,  etc.). 

Direct  lighting ; dense  glass  (open  bottom 
reflectors)  

0.62 

0.60 

Semi-indirect  lighting  ; dense  glass  . . . 

o-43 

O.4O 

Indirect  lighting 

0.40 

0.38 

The  chief  factors  which  must  be  considered  in  arriving 
at  the  size  and  number  of  lamps  to  be  used  in  a given 
room  are  (1)  the  floor  area;  (2)  the  total  luminous  flux2 
emitted  per  lamp,  and  (3)  coefficient  of  utilization  of  the 
particular  system  considered.  The  first  should  be 
measured  in  square  feet.  The  second  may  be  obtained 
from  a data  book  supplied  by  the  manufacturers  of 
lamps.  The  third  involves  many  factors,  such  as  the 


relative  dimensions  of  the  room,  the  reflection  factor  of 
the  surroundings,  the  number  of  lighting  units  and 
their  mounting  height,  and  the  system  of  lighting.  By 
coefficient  of  utilization  is  meant  the  proportion  of  the 
total  light  flux  emitted  by  the  lamps  which  is  effective 
on  the  work  plane.  In  the  accompanying  table  ap- 
proximate coefficients  of  utilization  for  modern  lighting 
equipment  are  given.  The  work  plane  in  this  case  is  a 
horizontal  plane  30  inches  (76  cm.)  above  the  floor. 
These  values  refer  to  the  initial  installation  without  any 
allowance  for  depreciation. 

For  determining  approximately  the  size  and  number 
of  lamps  to  be  used  in  a given  room  by  means  of  the 
coefficients  of  utilization  given  in  the  preceding  table, 
it  is  necessary  to  know  the  luminous  output  in  lumens 
per  watt  for  the  electric  lamps  considered  or  in  lumens 
per  cubic  foot  of  gas  consumed  per  hour  if  gas  lamps 
are  considered.  At  the  present  time  (1917)  the  light 
output  of  tungsten  filament  electric  incandescent  lamps, 
based  on  average  service  conditions  of  regularly  main- 
tained installations,  ranges  from  8 lumens  per  watt  for 
the  smaller  vacuum  tungsten  lamps  to  14  lumens  per 
watt  for  the  larger  gas-filled  tungsten  lamps  employed 
in  school  lighting.  For  incandescent  gas  systems  similar 
service  values  range  from  150  to  250  lumens  per  cubic 
foot  of  artificial  gas  consumed  per  hour.  The  computa- 
tion for  the  total  lumens  required  to  give  a certain 
illumination  intensity  in  foot-candles  is  as  follows : 


1 This  ratio  refers  to  the  light  received  by  the  object  illuminated  and  should  not  be  confused  with  the  ratio  of  20  to  1 for  brightness  contrast  pre- 
viously given  under  shading  of  lamps,  which  refers  to  the  light  radiated  by  the  object.  For  example,  a blackboard  and  a white  sheet  of  paper  on  it 
may  receive  the  same  amount  of  light,  but  the  latter  will  reflect  much  more  light  than  the  former,  thus  causing  a marked  brightness  contrast 

' between  the  two  surfaces. 

2 The  flux  is  measured  in  lumens.  A lumen  is  the  unit  of  light  flux  and  is  the  quantity  of  light  required  to  illuminate  1 square  foot  of  area  to  an 
average  intensity  of  1 foot-candle. 


566 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Fig.  48s. 


N = number  of  lamps. 

L = lumens  output  per  lamp. 

E = coefficient  of  utilization. 

A = area  of  floor  or  horizontal  work  plane  in  square  feet. 
I — illumination  intensity  in  foot-candles. 

NXLXE 

A 


that  is,  the  number  of  lamps  multiplied  by  the  output 
per  lamp  in  lumens,  multiplied  by  the  coefficient  of 


Fig.  487. 


utilization,  divided  by  the  area  of  the  horizontal  work 
plane  in  square  feet,  gives  the  illumination  intensity  in 
foot-candles. 


If  the  size  of  the  lamps  is  to  be  ascertained  the  compu- 
tation is  made  thus : 

L _ IXA 
NxE 

To  illustrate  by  an  example,  assume  a room  whose  floor 

(also  work  plane)  is  30  feet  by  18  feet  (9.1  m.  by  5.5  m.) 

to  be  lighted  by  a semi-indirect  system  from  six  fixtures 

containing  one  lamp  each.  It  will  also  be  assumed  that 

the  ceiling  is  highly  reflecting,  the  walls  moderately 

reflecting,  and  the  illumination  intensity  desired  is  5 

foot-candles.  The  luminous  output  required  of  each 

of  the  six  lamps  will  be  found  by  substituting  the  assumed 

values  in  the  equation,  thus : 

T 5X30X18  , 

L — —7— = 1 500  lumens 

6X0.30  J 

Allowing  a depreciation  factor  of  20  per  cent  as  represent- 
ing a well-maintained  installation,  the  lumens  actually 

required  would  be  I^°  = i875  lumens.  If  gas-filled 
0.8 

tungsten  lamps  are  considered,  whose  average  output 
under  service  conditions  is  12  lumens  per  watt,  it  is 


Fig.  486. 


seen  that  a 150-watt  lamp  in  each  fixture  will  give  the 
desired  results. 

If  gas-mantle  lamps  are  considered,  whose  average 
output  in  lumens  under  service  conditions  is  250  lumens 
per  cubic  foot  of  gas  consumed  per  hour,  it  is  seen  that 
a lamp  consuming  5 cubic  feet  of  artificial  gas  per  hour 
will  be  satisfactory  in  each  fixture. 

The  above  example  is  intended  solely  to  illustrate 
the  method  of  computation.  Estimates  of  the  illumina- 
tion intensity  obtained  from  an  actual  installation  may 
also  be  made  by  a similar  computation. 

Suitable  switching  and  controlling  arrangements  should 
be  made  to  permit  of  lighting  one  or  more  lamps  inde- 
pendently as  conditions  may  require. 


ELECTRICAL  INSTALLATION  AND  ILLUMINATION 


567 


The  teacher’s  desk  may  be  illuminated  by 
one  of  the  overhead  lighting  units,  or,  if  neces- 
sary, by  a desk  lamp. 

With  the  usual  lighting  equipments  the 
distance  between  the  units  should  not  exceed 
one  and  one-half  times  the  height  of  the  ap- 
parent source  of  illumination  above  the  work- 
ing level. 

Blackboards.  — - Blackboards  should  be  of 
minimum  size  practicable  and  should  not  be 
placed  between  windows.  Their  position  should  be  care- 
fully determined  so  as  to  eliminate  the  glare  due  to 
specular  reflection  of  images  of  either  artificial  or  natural 
light  sources  directly  into  the  eyes  of  occupants  of  the 


Fig.  489. 

room.  The  surface  of  blackboards  should  be  as  dull  as 
possible,  and  this  dullness  should  be  maintained. 

Glare,  due  to  specular  reflection  from  blackboards, 
may  be  reduced  or  eliminated  by  lighting  them  by  means 
of  properly  placed  and  well-shaded  local  artificial  light 
sources. 

In  Figure  487  are  shown  some  simple  graphical  consid- 
erations of  blackboard  lighting.  In  (a)  is  shown  a plan 
view  of  a room  with  windows  on  one  side.  Rays  of  light 
are  indicated  by  A,  B,  and  C in  a horizontal  projection. 
These  are  supposed  to  come  from  bright  sky.  By  the 
application  of  the  simple  optical  law  of  reflection  — the 
angle  of  incidence  is  equal  to  the  angle  of  reflection  — it 
is  seen  that  pupils  seated  in  the  shaded  area  will  ex- 
perience glare  from  the  blackboards  on  the  front  wall. 
In  (b)  is  shown  the  vertical  projection  of  the  foregoing 
condition.  It  will  be  apparent  from  this  graphical 
illustration  that  by  tilting  the  blackboard  away  from  the 
wall  at  the  top  edge,  the  pupils  in  the  back  part  of  the 
room  will  be  freed  from  the  present  glaring  condition. 
Whether  or  not  this  tilting  will  remedy  bad  conditions 
may  be  readily  determined  in  a given  case.  In  (b)  the 
effect  of  specular  reflection  of  the  image  of  an  artificial 
light  source  is  shown  by  D.  In  (e)  is  shown  a proper 
method  of  lighting  blackboards  by  means  of  artificial 
lighting  units.  This  will  often  remedy  bad  daylight  condi- 
tions, whether  due  to  an  insufficient  illumination  intensity 
of  daylight  or  due  to  reflected  images  of  a patch  of  sky. 


Fig.  488. 

In  order  to  avoid  excessive  brightness  contrast  which 
is  trying  to  the  eyes,  blackboards  should  not  be  placed 
on  a white  or  highly  reflecting  wall. 

Rehabilitating  the  Lighting  of  Old  Buildings.  — This 
will  be  illustrated  by  an  actual  case  where  the 
artificial  lighting  of  a classroom  was  made  satis- 
factory at  a small  expense.  In  Figure  488  is 
shown  an  elevation  of  a section  of  the  classroom 
showing  the  old  fixtures.  In  Figure  490  the 
circles  containing  crosses  © indicate  the  posi- 
tions of  the  two  old  fixtures  in  this  room.  The 
chief  objections  to  thisold  system  were  as  follows  : 

(1)  The  lighting  units  were  hung  too  low, 
so  that  eye-fatigue  resulted  from  the  bright 
sources  in  the  visual  field. 

(2)  The  light  sources  were  not  shielded  from  the 
pupils’  eyes. 

(3)  Two  fixtures  are  insufficient  to  provide  satisfactory 
illumination  over  the  entire  work  plane  in  a room  of 


1 1 

H 

1 1 

E2 

1 1 

H 

1 1 

1 

FPI 

1 1 

1 1 

□ 

a 

1 1 

□ 

1 1 
□ 

1 

a- 

-Q 

1 1 
1 1 

□ 

1 1 
1 ' 

H 

1 1 

1 1 
* 1 

H 


r~m 


□ □ 


1 1 1 

1 j I 


L±d 

1 1 
l 1 

□ 


FP1 


□ 


1 R' 
«o 


ns  ra 


□ 

ST 

I i 
□ 


■~Kr' 


“h* 
- ■ PI 


I I 


H-01 


Fig.  490. 


568 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


the  dimensions  shown.  This  unsatisfactory  condition 
was  remedied  by  means  of  six  fixtures  placed  as  indicated 
by  the  circles  D in  Figure  490. 

These  fixtures,  shown  in  elevation  in  Figure  489, 
consisted  of  inverted  diffusing  glass  shades  containing 
one  lamp  each.  The  dimensions  of  the  room  are  shown 
in  the  illustration. 

Maintenance.  — A systematic  maintenance  should  be 
provided  in  order  to  insure  against  depreciation  in  the 


illumination  intensity  due  to  burned-out  lamps,  broken 
gas  mantles,  discoloration,  etc.,  and  to  accumulations  of 
dirt  upon  the  lamps,  and  upon  the  surfaces  of  the 
reflecting  and  transmitting  media.  It  is  found  in 
practice  that  carelessness  in  this  respect  may  easily 
reduce  the  effective  illumination  by  50  per  cent,  espe- 
cially in  indirect  and  semi-indirect  lighting. 

Issued  April  30,  1918. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 

STANDARDS  OF  SCHOOLHOUSE  PLANNING 


By  Frank  Irving  Cooper,  Architect,  Chairman , National  Education  Committee  on  Standardization  of  Schoolhouse 

Planning  and  Construction 

General  Statement.  Rules  for  Measuring  and  Tabulating  Buildings.  Application  of  Measurements.  Division  of  Floor  Area. 
Functions  of  the  Divisions  of  Floor  Areas,  (i)  Administration.  (2)  Instruction.  (3)  Accessories.  (4)  Stairs  and  Corridors.  (5)  Flues. 

(6)  Walls  and  Partitions.  Results  from  Eighty  Buildings  Measured.  A Vision  of  the  Future.  Addenda:  Standard  Types  of  Construc- 
tion. 


General  Statement.  - - Changes  in  the  country’s  edu- 
cational program  are  creating  new  demands  in  school- 
house  construction.  To  satisfy  these  demands,  to  pro- 
duce schoolhouses  which  shall  meet  the  new  conditions, 
is  the  main  issue  now  confronting  the  architect. 

The  changes  in  education  are  due  to  economic  and 
academic  causes.  The  world  war  has  been  a factor  in 
both  these  phases.  From  a purely  economic  stand- 
point it  is  necessary  to  conserve.  The  architect  must 
be  sure  that  all  material  is  used,  and  all  energy  is  ex- 
pended, to  secure  the  greatest  net  result. 

The  world  war  has  accelerated  the  general  trend 
toward  a more  flexible  educational  system.  The  edu- 
cator considers  his  work  from  a new  point  of  view. 
The  old-fashioned  formal  program,  with  its  stereo- 
typed methods,  was  the  inevitable  product  of  an  age 
which  demanded  that  pupils  in  a given  grade  should, 
on  a given  day,  recite  practically  the  same  lesson  in 
standard  graded  schools  from  coast  to  coast. 

That  old  method  is  giving  way  to  a new  one,  one 
which  considers  the  pupil  who  may  have  only  a few 
school  years  in  which  to  prepare  for  his  life  work.  Uni- 
versalism  in  education  is  yielding  to  individualism, 
the  educational  program  which  caters  to  the  individual 
child. 

The  increasing  flexibility  of  educational  courses, 
the  changes  which  this  imposes  upon  schoolhouse  de- 
sign, and  the  economic  pressure,  all  emphasize  the 
imperative  need  of  basic  or  fundamental  standards 
in  schoolhouse  planning. 

The  architect  must  be  his  own  translator.  That  is, 
he  must  recognize  the  changes  in  educational  methods 
and  must  translate  the  new  terms  of  the  educational 
world  into  necessary  changes  in  his  own  architectural 
world. 

To  guide  him  in  this  translation  he  must  work  or 


build  upon  a secure  foundation.  That  foundation  is 
made  up  of  certain  standards  of  construction  and  de- 
sign. If  he  lacks  those  standards  no  amount  of  mental 
effort,  no  thrust  of  individual  cleverness,  not  even  a 
flight  of  genius,  will  bring  forth  from  his  draughting 
board  an  efficient  schoolhouse  plan. 

The  final  test  of  structural  worth  in  a schoolhouse  is 
its  working  efficiency.  A school  building  may  well  be 
called  a factory,  under  corporate  control.  The  super- 
intendents, principals,  and  teachers  compose  the  op- 
erating force.  The  school  board  constitutes  the  board 
of  directors.  The  pupils  form  the  raw  material.  They 
are  graduated  as  the  finished  product  of  the  educational 
factory.  The  quality  of  their  educational  preparation 
for  life  is  the  dividend  which  is  reaped  by  the  stock- 
holders, who  are  the  parents  and  taxpayers.  It  is  the 
duty  of  the  committee-directors  and  faculty-operatives 
to  secure  a high  dividend  rate  from  their  educational 
plant.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  school  architect  to  provide 
them  with  a plant  which  shall  be  100  per  cent  efficient, 
so  far  as  the  structural  element  is  concerned. 

This  duty  is  one  which  the  individual  architect  may 
not  shirk,  if  he  is  to  be  equal  to  the  new  conditions. 
If  he  cannot,  in  himself,  meet  the  requirements,  he  will 
be  outstripped  by  rivals  who  are  competent. 

There  is  a high  preventive  factor,  too,  in  knowledge 
of  standards  for  schoolhouse  planning.  It  is  extrava- 
gant, from  financial  and  utilitarian  viewpoints,  and  it  is 
dangerous,  from  the  angles  of  safety  and  hygiene,  to 
permit  wastage  of  floor  area  when  apportioning  the 
space  units  which  are  to  be  used  for  instruction  pur- 
poses in  a school  building  and  in  apportioning  the  spaces 
which  are  to  be  used  for  administration  and  other 
purposes. 

The  American  Architect  of  November  6,  1918,  said 
in  an  article  on  “ Standardized  Schoolhouse  Design  ” : 


570 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


“The  building  has  a very  important  influence  on  the  occupant, 
and  to  produce  a satisfactory  public-school  pupil  the  teaching 
process  must  include  the  standard  educative  essentials  and  the 
process  be  carried  on  in  a building  containing  certain  physical 
characteristics  and  equipment  which  is  complementary  to  the 
mental  processes,  hence  the  development  of  standard  building 
requirements.  ...  If  the  architect  has  had  the  experience  and 
acquired  the  knowledge  necessary  to  enable  him  to  design  a 
satisfactory  building,  the  possession  of  certain  successful  stand- 
ards may  fortify  him  in  combating  the  possible  ill-conceived 
ideas  and  demands  of  untrained  school  board  members.  If  he 
has  not  had  this  experience  and  its  attendant  judgment  it  will 
increase  his  knowledge  and  aid  him  in  the  solution  of  the  problem.” 

In  other  words,  knowledge  of  planning  standards  is 
both  offensive  and  defensive  equipment.  It  fortifies 
the  architectural  strategist  against  attack  and  sustains 
him  in  advancing  his  forces. 

We  learn  from  the  errors  of  our  predecessors.  When 
this  nation  was  young  its  school  buildings  were  not 


“ located.”  They  “ just  happened.”  The  school  lot 
was  all  too  often  the  least  valuable  site  which  could  con- 
veniently be  found  in  the  community.  The  school 
building,  as  we  are  told  by  Barnard  in  his  book  on 
“ School  Architecture  ” and  by  May  Ayres  in  “ A 
Century  of  Progress  in  Schoolhouse  Construction,” 
was  usually  an  unstudied  affair  situated  at  the  cross- 
roads. 

The  increasing  care  exercised  in  locating  schoolhouses 
and  the  subordination  of  land  values  to  educational 
needs  make  it  all  the  more  incumbent  upon  the  school- 
house  architect  to  justify  the  municipal  sacrifices.  His 
justification  rests  upon  the  distribution  he  makes  of  his 
schoolhouse  area  or  floor  space. 

The  factors  of  time  and  space  in  schoolhouse  opera- 
tion may  not  be  employed  to  the  point  of  the  absolute 


ideal.  The  ideal  employment  of  school  hours  would 
be  to  use  them  all  solely  for  instruction.  The  ideal 
employment  of  schoolhouse  space  would  be  to  use  it 
all  solely  for  instruction. 

But  the  complex  curriculum  of  modern  educational 
courses  will  not  allow  all  the  school  hours  to  be  devoted 
to  instruction.  The  merest  glance  at  a school  program 
shows  this.  Reduction  of  time  wastage  is  the  duty  of 
the  educator. 

The  ideal  use  of  the  school  area  or  floor  space  is  impos- 
sible on  account  of  the  requirements  of  other  physical 
factors  than  those  of  instruction.  In  constructing  a 
schoolhouse  it  is  necessary  to  have  exterior  walls  to 
close  in  the  structure,  interior  partitions  to  divide  this 
inclosed  area  into  rooms,  flues  to  convey  air  and  gases, 
corridors  to  allow  passage  from  room  to  room,  and  ad- 
ministration space.  The  latter  includes  provision  for 
heating,  ventilation,  and  sanitation.  All  these  de- 
mands for  floor  space  must  be  met  by  the  arch- 
itect. Obviously,  the  space  that  is  left  may  be 
devoted  to  instruction. 

The  instruction  area  in  a school  building  is  the 
actual  producing  space  of  the  educational  factory. 
This  production  unit  should  be  as  large  as  pos- 
sible and  be  consistent  with  safety  and  adequate 
administration. 

The  school  structure  must  be  adapted  to  the 
work  which  is  to  be  carried  on  there.  The  build- 
ing must  have  the  right  shape,  size,  and  arrange- 
ment of  rooms.  It  must  be  properly  heated, 
lighted,  and  ventilated.  It  must  have  suitable 
sanitary  equipment. 

The  design  of  the  modern  school  structure 
should  be  elastic,  not  unyielding.  It  should  be 
so  built  that  floor  spaces  may  be  put,  if  neces- 
sary, to  other  uses  than  those  originally  in- 
tended. 

To  secure  these  essentials  and  to  proportion  them  so 
that  they  will  dovetail  into  a harmonious  and  efficient 
whole,  it  is  primarily  necessary  to  work  from  certain 
standards  in  planning.  These  standards  are  now  avail- 
able for  the  school  architect. 

Until  1916  practically  no  consideration  had  been  given 
to  the  relative  amount  of  floor  space  that  should  be 
allotted  in  a school  structure  to  the  various  operating 
functions  of  the  educational  system  carried  on  therein. 
In  that  year  the  National  Education  Association  ap- 
pointed a committee  to  consider  standardization  of 
schoolhouse  planning  and  construction. 

It  was  not  and  it  is  not  now  the  intention  of  the  Na- 
tional Education  Association  to  bind  or  even  to  hamper 
the  architect  in  his  work.  Rather  it  is  the  desire  of  the 
Association’s  Department  of  Administration,  which 


HATCHED  STATES  SHOW  THE  LOCATION  OF  BUILDINGS  TABULATED 


BY  THE  COMMITTEE 

THOSE  STATES  WHICH  HAD  LAWS  ON  CONSTRUCTION  IN  1915  ARE 
CROSS  HATCHED  IN  ADDITION 
NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 
DEPARTMENT  OF  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION 
COMMITTEE  ON  STANDARDIZATION  OF  SCHOOLHOUSE  PLANNING  AND  CONSTRUCTION 


Fig.  491. 


STANDARDS  OF  SCHOOLHOUSE  PLANNING 


directly  appointed  this  Committee  on  Standardization, 
to  provide  both  architect  and  educator  with  a measure 
by  which  a schoolhouse  plan  may  be  scaled  so  that  the 
working  efficiency  of  the  completed  structure  may  be 
determined  before  actual  construction  is  begun. 

The  committee  made  tabulations  from  plans  of  one 
hundred  and  fifty  school  buildings,  located  in  twenty- 
six  different  states  of  this  country.  (See  Figure  491.) 

This  chart  shows  the  locations  of  the  one  hundred 
and  fifty  schools.  The  most  representative  parts  of  the 
country  were  covered  by  the  committee’s  investigation. 
The  committee  was  surprised  to  observe  that  the  nation- 
wide variation  in  instruction  floor-space  existed  in  the 
various  states  separately.  One  might  assume  that  dif- 
ferent state  educational  systems  might  account  for 
the  variation  from  coast  to  coast.  But  state  bound- 
aries inclosed  similar  variations  in  the  percentage  of 
floor  areas  for  instruction. 

Rules  for  Measuring  and  Tabulating  Buildings.  — 

A set  of  rules  has  been  framed  for  measuring  a school- 
house  plan  for  standardization.  These  rules,  number- 
ing twenty,  are  as  follows : 

1.  Every  foot  of  space  of  the  area  of  the  building  is  to  be 
included  in  the  tabulation.  The  sum  of  the  areas  of  the  basement 
and  each  floor  is  called  100  per  cent.  Tabulations  are  to  be  checked 
until  the  sum  of  the  various  space  items  check  within  one-half  of 
one  per  cent  of  the  total  area. 

2.  Line  of  measurement  for  area  of  all  floors  is  to  be  taken 
at  the  outside  of  exterior  walls.  Deduct  all  recesses  which  are 
the  full  story  height. 

3.  The  area  of  basement  floor  is  to  be  measured  from  same 
line  as  outside  wall  of  first  floor. 

4.  Compute  each  floor  and  mezzanine  separately. 

5.  The  area  of  light  wells,  courts,  air  shafts,  etc.,  is  not  to 
be  included  in  floor  area. 

6.  Areas  of  arcades,  open  porches,  uncovered  corridors,  pergo- 
las, and  open-air  theaters  or  auditoriums  are  to  be  figured  sepa- 
rately. 

7.  In  rooms  and  auditoriums  which  extend  through  more 
than  one  story  the  area  of  such  space  shall  be  deducted  from  the 
floor  or  floors  through  which  it  extends. 

8.  In  the  case  of  an  assembly  hall  or  gymnasium  which  has  a 
balcony,  the  area  of  such  balcony  shall  be  taken  separately. 

9.  In  figuring  walls  or  partition  areas,  no  door  or  window 
openings  shall  be  deducted,  but  the  wall  shall  be  figured  solid, 
as  though  no  openings  occurred. 

10.  Exterior  walls  and  interior  partitions  are  to  be  figured 
the  finished  thickness,  including  any  lath  and  plastering. 

xi.  Large  piers  occurring  in  rooms  are  to  be  deducted  from 
floor  areas  and  added  to  wall  areas. 

12.  Flues  are  to  be  figured  to  include  all  surrounding  walls 
and  partitions  except  interior  walls  and  partitions  figured  under  10. 

13.  Chimneys  are  to  be  figured  in  as  flue  areas. 

14.  Where  closets,  bookcases,  or  dead  spaces  occur  in  a bank 
of  flues,  same  are  to  be  figured  in  as  flue  area. 

15.  Stairs  extending  a full  story  in  height  are  to  be  taken  as 
stair  area.  Steps  not  a full  story  in  height  are  to  be  taken  as  part 
of  the  floor  area  of  the  room  or  corridor  in  which  they  occur. 


16.  Area  of  each  individual  space  is  to  be  taken  separately 
in  accordance  with  schedule. 

17.  Wardrobes  are  figured  inside  the  walls. 

18.  Rooms  having  wall  cabinets  are  to  be  figured  from  parti- 
tion walls.  Cabinets  are  to  be  included  with  the  room. 

19.  Waiting  spaces,  closets,  supply  rooms,  toilets,  etc.,  in 
connection  with  offices  shall  be  included  with  the  office  with  which 
they  occur. 

20.  Toilets,  showers,  storage  room,  supply  rooms,  etc.,  when 
connected  with  a main  division,  shall  be  taken  separately  but 
be  included  with  the  total  area  of  that  division. 

Application  of  Measurements.  — In  applications  of 
these  measurements  to  the  plan  the  chief  operating 
divisions  of  the  school  structure  must  be  considered. 
A schoolhouse,  in  its  simplest  architectural  expression, 
consists  of  a certain  total  floor  space  which  is  to 
be  divided  into  units  for  operating  the  educational 
plant. 

Division  of  Floor  Area.  — Educators  and  architects 
have  agreed  upon  six  main  divisions  of  floor  space ; also 
upon  the  relative  value  of  each,  as  expressed  in  the 
percentage  of  the  total  floor  space  which  should  be 
allotted  to  it.  Call  the  entire  area  of  all  floors  one 
hundred  per  cent.  These  divisions  and  their  relative 
values  are : 

Division  Floor  Area 

Administration not  more  than  1 2 per  cent. 

Instruction not  less  than  50  per  cent. 

Accessories not  more  than  3 per  cent. 

Stairs  and  corridors  ....  not  more  than  20  per  cent. 

Flues not  more  than  5 per  cent. 

Walls  and  partitions  ....  not  more  than  10  per  cent. 

Observe  that  this  grouping  sets  aside  not  less  than 
one-half  the  total  floor  area  of  the  structure  for  the 
division  of  instruction.  The  allotments  for  the  other 
five  divisions  are  specified  as  “ not  more  than  ” certain 
percentages,  — as,  not  more  than  20  per  cent  of  the  whole 
floor  area  for  stairs  and  corridors. 

This  minimum  of  fifty  per  cent  for  instruction  is  based 
upon  the  hypothesis  that  school  buildings  are  planned 
primarily  for  instruction  of  pupils,  and  that  this  limit 
per  cent  is  necessary  if  the  structure  is  to  meet  the  tests 
of  economy  and  efficiency. 

The  committee  standards  on  schoolhouse  planning 
are  meant  to  have  a certain  elasticity.  While  the  whole 
area  given  to  Instruction  must  never  fall  below  fifty 
per  cent,  it  may  exceed  that  percentage.  In  fact,  the 
more  it  can  exceed  it,  other  considerations  being  equal, 
the  more  efficient  will  be  the  completed  structure.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  other  divisions,  such  as  Adminis- 
tration, Accessories  and  so  on,  may  be  allotted  less  than 
the  percentage  maximum  quoted  for  each.  But  none 
of  these  five  other  divisions  must  ever  exceed  its  per- 
centage maximum. 


572 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Functions  of  the  Divisions  of  Floor  Areas.  — Each 
of  these  allotment  divisions  is  to  include  certain  struc- 
tural or  educational  functions,  as  follows  : 

Administration.  — All  floor  area  connected  with  govern- 
ment and  maintenance  of  the  school.  It  includes  rooms 
for  officials,  instructors  and  medical  department  service 
and  storage  rooms,  general  wardrobes,  sanitaries,  and  all 
space  required  for  heating  and  ventilating  equipments. 

Instruction.  — Library,  kindergarten,  art  or  draw- 
ing rooms,  class  and  study  rooms,  music  rooms,  labora- 
tories, domestic  science,  manual  training,  commercial 
arts,  household  arts,  auditorium,  gymnasium,  drill 
halls,  and  swimming-pools. 


Accessories.  — Floor  spaces  which  do  not  group  under 
any  of  the  other  five  main  divisions,  such  as  playrooms, 
general  lunch  rooms  used  for  no  other  purposes,  odd 
closets  and  storerooms. 

Stairs  and  Corridors.  — The  channels  of  all  ordinary 
means  of  circulation  and  service ; they  are  essential 
to  proper  use  of  the  building. 

Flues.  — All  vertical  flues  for  conveying  air  or  gases. 

Walls  and  Partitions.- — This  division,  also  styled 
“ Construction,”  includes  the  floor  area  occupied  by  the 
exterior  walls  and  the  interior  partition. 

Principles  of  safety  form  chief  factors  in  the  planning 
of  some  of  these  divisions.  Walls  and  partitions,  for 
example,  are  determined  by  engineering  formulae  for 
strength  of  materials,  by  building  regulations,  and  by 
consideration  of  good  construction. 

Flue  areas  are  determined  by  natural  laws  which  call 
for  certain  dimensions  under  certain  fixed  conditions 
to  give  a predetermined  air  movement  laid  out  by  the 
heating  and  ventilating  engineer. 


Stairways  and  exits  should  be  located  so  that  there 
will  be  no  pockets  or  dead  ends  to  corridors.  Exits 
should  be  located  so  that  no  point  in  any  floor  area 
served  by  them  should  be  more  than  75  feet  distant 
along  the  line  of  travel  from  an  exit;  except  in  build- 
ings of  Class  A construction  (see  Addenda)  in  which  a 
distance  of  100  feet  may  be  permitted. 

Every  stairway  more  than  5 '-o'  in  width  should  be 
provided  with  continuous  intermediate  handrail  sub- 
stantially supported. 

Corridors  should  never  be  less  than  8'-o'  in  width. 
Main  corridors  should  have  a width  of  48  inches  for  the 
first  50  persons  to  be  accommodated  thereby  and  six 
inches  additional  for  each  additional  50  persons 
or  fraction  thereof. 

Results  from  Eighty  Buildings  Measured.  — 

The  results  from  the  first  eighty  buildings  which 
were  tabulated  have  been  arranged  in  graphic 
form.  The  graph  for  education  is  shown  by 
Fig.  492. 

This  chart  (Instruction)  comprises  all  floor 
areas  used  directly  for  any  activity  educating 
the  pupil.  It  also  includes  gymnasium,  audi- 
torium, and  any  space  for  organized  play  or 
recreation. 

The  percentage  of  floor  space  devoted  to  in- 
struction is  laid  out  by  the  vertical  spaces  to 
scale,  using  the  horizontal  line  at  the  base  as  zero. 

Note  that  the  building  on  the  extreme  right 
has  only  37.50  per  cent  of  total  floor  area  devoted 
to  instruction,  while  the  one  on  the  extreme  left 
gives  67.95  per  cent.  The  norm  for  instruction 
in  these  eighty  buildings  is  50  per  cent. 

It  will  also  be  noted  that  forty  of  the  eighty  buildings 
give  more  than  50  per  cent  of  their  total  floor  area  to 
instruction.  Future  school  buildings  should  show  con- 
siderable increase  over  the  50  per  cent  means. 

The  same  method  of  procedure  is  applied  to  deter- 
mine the  space  percentages  allotted  to  the  five  other 
main  divisions  in  apportioning  floor  area.  A tabula- 
tion was  worked  out  of  the  average  per  cent  of  space 
given  to  the  respective  divisions. 

The  committee  found  that  the  tabulations  for  all 
divisions  gave  average  space  percentages  thus : Ad- 
ministration, 12  ; Instruction,  50;  Accessories^;  Stairs 
and  Corridors,  20 ; Flues,  5 ; Walls  and  Partitions,  10. 

The  percentages  thus  determined  have  been  adopted 
by  the  committee,  with  the  proviso  that  the  Instruction 
division  shall  have  a minimum  of  50  per  cent  and  more 
if  possible,  and  that  the  percentages  set  for  the  five  other 
divisions  shall  be  their  maximum. 

The  result  of  the  study  of  the  committee  is  shown  by 
Figure  493. 


PERCFAlTOGRAPli  Of  1 A15TRU  CTlOTi 

m 80  SCHOOL  BUILD  mas 

E A COMMITTEE  OK  STANDARDIZATION  OF  SCnOOLdOUSE  PLANNING  AND  r.OMSTRuCTlf 


1 WORM.  ^o’/“ 


CHART  NO  /03 


Fig.  492. 


STANDARDS  OF  SCHOOLHOUSE  PLANNING 


573 


This  chart,  “ The  Candle  of  Efficiency,”  conveys  at  a 
glance  the  standards  by  which  the  excellence  of  ap- 
portionment of  floor  space  for  each  of  the  main  divisions 
of  a school  building  may  be  judged. 

The  chief  use  of  a schoolhouse  is  for  educational  work. 
A tabulation  of  any  schoolhouse  plan,  compared  with 
the  per  cents  shown  by  the  candle,  will  show  how  nearly 
the  plan  meets  the  standards  of  efficiency  as  worked 
out  from  plans  of  schoolhouses  already  erected. 

The  educator  decides  upon  a certain  program.  Given 
this  program,  it  is  the  province  of  the  architect  to  supply 
the  necessary  space  units  for  each  requirement  of  that 
program.  He  must  so  distribute  these  space  units 
that  there  shall  be  no  wastage  of  floor  area  in  the  build- 
ing. Also  he  must  secure  the  maximum  of  safety,  com- 
fort, and  convenience. 

A factor  to  be  considered  in  allotment  of  floor  space 
to  individual  educational  activities  is  the  proportion 
of  the  day  that  this  floor  space  is  used.  In  manufac- 
turing terms  this  is  the  “ load  factor.” 

If  the  school  day  is  six  hours  and  the  school  week  five 
days,  then  the  working  time  has  thirty  hours. 

If  a certain  room  is  engaged  in  productive  occupa- 
tion thirty  hours  per  week,  its  load  factor  is  ioo  per 
cent.  If  it  is  occupied  but  fifteen  hours  per  week,  its 
;load  factor  is  reduced  to  50  per  cent. 

The  logical  test  of  efficiency  in  planning  a school 
building  is  the  proportion  of  the  building  which  may 
be  used  for  the  manufacture  of  citizens,  or,  putting  it 
another  way,  the  proportion  of  the  building  which  may 
be  used  for  instruction  purposes. 

In  the  nearest  possible  approach  to  the  ideal,  at  least 
50  per  cent  of  the  entire  floor  area  of  the  building  may 
be  used  for  instruction  purposes  100  per  cent  of  the 
school  time. 

Waste  hours  in  the  use  of  a school  plant  are  dis- 
tinctly the  fault  of  the  educator  and  of  the  community. 
But  waste  space  is  usually  the  fault  of  the  architect. 

A Vision  of  the  Future.  — The  school  architect  creates 
something  which  may  be  of  tremendous  aid  to  the 
educator  in  his  work  with  school  children. 

The  architect  must  be  a man  of  vision.  He  must 
make  it  possible  for  the  teacher  to  work  out  new  ideas. 
He  must  have  in  mind  provision  for  the  school  of  to- 
morrow, a school  of  new  standards,  which  will  require 
floor  space  for  new  kinds  of  educational  activities. 

This  school  of  to-morrow  will  need  a great  variety 
)f  different  kinds  of  floor  space,  on  the  assumption  that 
:he  educational  subjects  are  to  have  different  methods  of 
treatment  and  that  different  forms  of  study  will  be 
Pursued. 

This  school  building  of  to-morrow  will  have  standards 
n simplicity  and  a quality  of  economy  relatively  rare 


at  present.  Every  building  will  represent  something 
more  of  human  personality,  personalities  of  the  class- 
room, of  teacher  and  class,  personality  in  shop  and 
laboratory,  personality  in  entrance  halls  and  reception 
rooms,  all  indicating  the  spirit  of  the  educators  who  are 
directing  the  school. 

The  school  building  of  to-morrow  must  set  a standard 
for  the  entire  community.  It  will  be  used  by  parents 
as  well  as  by  children.  It  will  represent  a spiritual 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

DEPARTMENT  Of\$CHOOL,  ADMINISTRATION 


LESS 

WASTE 


THIS  CANDLE  IS  TO 
SHOW  THE  DIVISIONS 
INTO  WHICH  THE  TOTAL 
FLOOR  AREA  OF  A 
SCHOOL  BUILDING 
IS  DIVIDED 

THE  TOTAL  FLOOR  AREA 
IS  TAKEN  AS  100  PERCENT 


GREATER 

EFFICIENCY 


LLS  & PARTITIONS 
\ NOT  OVER  10% 

NOT  OVER  5 % 
.STAIRS  £r  CORRIDORS 


NOT  OVER 


20  % 


ACCESSORIES 

NOT  OVER  J % 

INSTRUCTION 

NOT  LESS  THAN  50  % 

ADMINISTRATION 

NOT  OVER  12% 


THE  CANDLE  EFFICIENCY 

IN  SCHOOLHOUSE  PLANNING 

TRY  THIS  MEASURE 
ON  YOUR  SCHOOL  BUILDING 
THEN  SEND  THE  RESULTS  TO 

COMMITTEE  ON  STANDARDIZATION  OP  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 

FRANK  IRVING  COOPER 
CHAIRMAN  • 55  CORNHILL  * BOSTON 

NOTE : TABULATIONS  SHOW  MANY  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS  WITH  ADMINISTRATION  10% 
STAIRS  AND  CORRIDORS  17%  FLUES  3%  AND  INSTRUCTION  57  PFR.-CENT  • 

COPYRIOHT  1916  BY  FRANK  IRVING  COOPER. 


Fig.  493. 


ideal.  It  will  represent  democracy,  free  education, 
hospitality  and  good-will  to  every  person  entering  its 
portals. 

As  this  educational  problem  widens,  so  will  the  prob- 
lem of  school  architecture  broaden  with  it.  The  com- 
plexity of  architectural  detail  will  increase  and,  more 
than  ever,  it  will  be  the  imperative  necessity  of  the 
school  architect  to  have  his  plan  founded  upon  the 
rock  of  standardization. 


ADDENDA 

Definitions  and  Standards  of  Types  of  Schoolhouse 
Building  Construction  adopted  by  Committees  of  the 


574 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


National  Education  Association,  National  Associa- 
tion of  School  Accounting  and  Business  Officials  of  Public 
Schools,  National  Fire  Protection  Association,  and  The 
American  Institute  of  Architects. 

Type  A.  A building  constructed  entirely  of  fire-resistive 
materials,  including  its  roof,  windows,  doors,  floors  and  finish. 

Type  B.  A building  of  fire-resistive  construction  in  its  walls, 
floors,  stairways  and  ceilings,  but  with  wood  finish,  wood  or  com- 


position floor  surface,  and  wood  roof  construction  over  fireproof 
ceiling. 

Type  C.  A building  with  masonry  walls,  fire-resistive  corridors 
and  stairways,  but  with  ordinary  construction  otherwise,  i e 
combustible  floors,  partitions,  roof  and  finish. 

Type  D.  A building  with  masonry  walls,  but  otherwise  ordi- 
nary or  joist  construction  and  wood  finish. 

Type  E.  A frame  building  constructed  with  wood  above 
foundation,  with  or  without  slate  or  other  semi-fireproof  material 
on  roof. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Chapter  V. 
Chapter  VII. 


The  following  figures  represent  additional  illustrative  material 

as  follows : 

Organization  of  the  Elementary  School  as  Affecting  Buildings,  Figures  494-585 
Organization  of  the  High  School  as  Affecting  Buildings,  Figures  586-669 


SUP  PIEMEN  T ARY  ILL  US  TRA  TIONS 


577 


Mr.  John  J.  Donovan,  Architect. 


Fig.  494.  — McKinley  School,  Front  Elevation,  San  Leandro,  California. 


Mr.  John  J.  Donovan,  Architect. 

Fig.  495.  — McKinley  School,  Main  Entrance,  San  Leandro,  California. 


5/ 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Mr.  John  J.  Donovan,  Architect. 

Fkj.  497.  Washington  Elementary  School,  Front  Elevation,  San  Leandro,  California. 


53 

P$ 

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pci 

M 

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W 

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hi 

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P4 

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£ 

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P&H 


Os 

K. 

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txO 


Mr.  John  J.  Donovan,  Architect 


58° 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Mr.  John  J.  Donovan,  Architect. 

Fig.  499.  — Santa  Fe  Elementary  School,  Front  Elevation,  Oakland,  California. 


Mr.  John  J.  Donovan  and  Mr.  Louis  P.  Hobart,  Associate  Architects 

Fig.  500.  • — Lockwood  Elementary  School,  Front  Elevation,  Oakland,  California. 


o 

to 

6 
i— i 


Oo 

<3 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


582 


Mr.  John  J.  Donovan,  Architect,  and  Mr.  Louis  P.  Hobart,  Associate  Architect. 


Fig.  502.  — Lockwood  Elementary  School,  Patio,  California. 


Mr.  John  J.  Donoran,  Architect. 

Fig.  503.  — McChesney  Elementary  School,  Front  Elevation,  Oakland,  California. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  ILLUSTRATIONS 


583 


Mr.  John  J.  Donovan,  Architect. 

Fig.  504.  — McChesney  Elementary  School,  Terrace  at  Rear  for  Open-air  Study,.  Oakland,  California. 


584 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Fig.  505.  — McChesney  Elementary  School,  Ground  Floor  Plan,  Oakland,  California. 


Mr.  John  J.  Donovan,  Architect. 


Fig.  506.  — McChesney  Elementary  School,  First  Floor  Plan,  Oakland,  California. 


Fig.  507.  — Shepard  School,  First  Floor  Plan,  Chicago,  • Fig.  508.  — Shepard  School,  Second  Floor  Plan,  Fig.  509.  — Shepard  School,  Third  Floor  Plan. 

Illinois.  Chicago,  Illinois.  Chicago,  Illinois. 


586 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Fig.  510.  — Shepard  School,  Perspective,  Chicago,  Illinois 


Mr.  A.  F.  Hussander,  Architect. 


Fig.  511.  — Rezin  Orr  School,  Elevation,  Chicago,  Illinois. 


Mr.  A.  F.  Hussander,  Architect. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  ILLUSTRATIONS 


587 


T/QJ-f  TLOO&  pUN 

°Qtz/n  Oqq  Pu&ucJoiool- 

■ COR.N-KzEi.E&flrc-  -Tf/oNtiS  S?&  ■ 

A ' ^HussA/yotiL-  Aecmfecf  - 3o/teo  Of  tPi/cAf/OAi- Chicago. 


Co/vf/tM/W-  t 

J2  Clajs  Poo\is(/Nci<r KiNOEUffJe/e*/) 

,4js£m&£  y 4! all  ■ 

OrMOAS/c/M. 

flousc-riOLD  Sc/e-MCi f-  Room. 

MA/AUAL  TPAMIAUj  Room. 

Office-  tfc  L /aejay. 

YeAcne-ao  Lovcn Room. 


Fig.  512. 


5§8 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Jecond  J^looq.  Plan 

°RlZ/N  OqQ  Pu&L/CxktiOOL  • 

• Coe.  N- KE^Le&  ffVE  ^THoffDA  Sre, . 

LfHussAHDfn - Aficwjtcj-  3o/tzo t)f  tot/eAy/o/v  E/t/cuo. 
JCALC  !:o' 

Fig.  513. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  ILLUSTRATIONS 


589 


Third  Tloor  Plan 


'RtZlN  0/3/3  PUHL/CJCNOOL  •> 


■Co /?.  ,/•  ■ 

If^huss/tNoee- hecmt ecf-  &o^oOf=f-Di/cApo/j-  C/hcaso. 


.Scaled  l-o 


Fig.  514. 


Page  59°  Fig.  5* 5- 


• — J.  < 

c*>  * 
O Jj 
o i 

lr^ 

E-.-J 
'o  < 

u_, 


592 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


DBREOUN  5CA00L 

Detroit.  Lincoln  Z ro jte.il  ave;j 
Toledo,  o«io 


JECOAD-FLOOE'PLAA 

5CALC  '/glNCn  EQCJALJ  1 TOOT 


DtPAOTENT  Of  A6CMTECTUBE  j 
eOAED'  Qr  HDVCATIOfl 
EDWIN/MEE  • AUGrtlTEXT- 


QETOOUF!  5CA00L 

DETROIT.  LTACOLW  8 FOJTER.  AVCJ 

i Toledo,  Ohio 


TfllRD  FLOOR.  . PLA^ 

Scale  inch  equa.lj  1 Toot 


Figs.  517  and  518. 


5 UPPLEMEN  TA  R V ILL  US  TRA  TIONS 


593 


SUPPLEMENTARY  ILLUSTRATIONS 


595 


PLAN 

5cale  iiN  -1  Foot 
Franc i 5 W- Parker.  school 

5AN  DIEGO  • CAL. 

Fig.  521. 


596 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Mr.  William  Templeton  Johnson,  Arcnitect. 

Fig.  522.  — Francis  W.  Parker  School,  The  Patio,  San  Diego,  California. 


Mr.  William  Templeton  Johnson , Architect. 


Fig.  523.  — Francis  W.  Parker  School,  The  Portico,  San  Diego,  California. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  ILLUSTRATIONS 


597 


Messrs.  Perkins,  Fellows,  and  Hamilton,  Architects. 

Fig.  524.  — Lincolnwood  School,  District  75,  Evanston,  Illinois. 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


' \5CHGDL  WJ11D1NG-DL5T-Z5-  EVAN5TON-  ILL- 

• COLFAX  JTtLtET  & M8  DANIEL  AVfcUUt  • 

-PELKIM5-  FELLOWJ  & HA  M ILT  OH  • ARCHITECTS  * 


SUPPLEMENTARY  ILLUSTRATIONS 


599 


Messrs.  Guilbert  and  Belelle,  Architects. 

Fig.  526.  — Details  of  Doorway,  State  Normal  School,  Newark,  New  Jersey. 


Messrs,  Gnilbcrt  and  Betelle,  Architects. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Messrs . Guilbert  and  Belelle,  Architects . 

Fig.  528.  — Ridge  School,  Newark,  New  Jersey. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  ILLUSTRATIONS 


603 


604 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Mr.  John  J.  Donovan,  Architect,  and  Mr.  Louts  C.  M ullgardt.  Associate  Architect. 

Fig.  532. — Durant  Elementary  School,  Front  Elevation,  Oakland,  California. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  ILLUSTRATIONS 


605 


DtfUKT  * JC/fOOL 
04  XL  A/W  CAL/ fOM/A 

JOM  J DO  HOY  AN  AND  lOWS  CNUSr/AN  Nl/UNAAOT 
USSOC/ATL  /h(lW/r£OTS 


■ IN  £Sf  SrASSf  - 

■ f/w  /laot  />//?/■ 

SCALS  &'•/ -O' 


Fig.  S33. 


'm/NTf  Ua*rN  sri/i/-  ■ 


6o6 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Al/AJ/tT  SCHOOL 
OAKLAND  CJl/LOLH/A 

JO////  J AO  AZOV/)//  AND  loo/s  cyzz/STMN  MM/f/IMT 
assoc/aac.  A/tcM/rtcrs 


Fig.  534- 


Page  609  Fig.  540.  — Central  Grammar  School,  Astoria,  Oregon. 


610 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


’ G LOU  M D 'FLOOL'PL^W’ 

Messrs.  Whitehouse  and  Fouilhaui,  Architects. 

Fig.  541.  — Central  Grammar  School,  Ground  Floor  Plan,  Astoria,  Oregon. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  ILLUSTRATIONS 


611 


> F I L S T * F LOO  k » P L ArM  1 


Messrs.  Whilehouse  and  Foullhaux,  Architects 

Fig.  542.  — Central  Grammar  School,  First  Floor  Plan,  Astoria,  Oregon. 


Messrs.  WMtehouse  and  Fouilhaux,  Architects. 


I 


Mr • Edwin  M.  Gee , Architect. 


lo 

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O 

£ 


N 

>C 

fc-C 


Mr.  Edwin  M.  Gee,  Architect- 


vO 

•'3- 

10 

d 

£ 


*3 


5 U PPLEMEN  TARY  ILL  US  TRA  LIONS 


617 


W ^ 

a 

It- 


SC  HOOL HOUSE 

Atlantic  Heiohtj.  A H 

H- IKarn  and  llop&ins 


. * '/  ^ x 0e*  -> 

> v NR  >•*•  _ . - — ^ 


Oitj/  of  Portsmouth.  . Owner 
-Nffyi to  v erf  By  U.  *r  J ffioan/’ . 


Fig.  548.  — Schoolhouse,  Atlantic  Heights,  New  Hampshire. 


Messrs.  Kilham  and  Hopkins,  Architects. 


Fig.  549- 


1 

i 

i?  I? 

iT 

n 

Zl 

?■? 

?? 

:: 

jji 

m 

it 

VJ 

-»  S 

i 6 CL 

Page  618  Fig.  550. 


Messrs.  Lawrence  and  Holford,  Architects.  Messrs.  Lawrence  and  Hol/ord,  Architects. 

Page  6ig  Fig.  551.  — Fernwood  School,  Portland,  Oregon.  Fig.  552.  — Fernwood  School,  Portland,  Oregon. 


620 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


6 T R.  t E T 


5 T H.  E E T 

F I H 6 T F L O O L P L f\ 


FER.NWOOD  QR.AMMAH  SCHOOL  - PORTLAND-  OIL. 

Messrs.  Lawrence  and  Holford,  Architect* 


Fig.  553. 


UPPLEMENTARY  ILLUSTRATIONS 


621 


1 


622 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


BASEMENT  FLOOR  PLAN  FIRST  FLOOR  PLAN  SECOND  FLOOR  PLAN 

Messrs.  Garter  and  Woodward,  Architects 

Fig.  555.  — ■ Lafayette  Bloom  School,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 


Messrs.  Garter  and  Woodward.  Architect: 


Fig.  556.  — Lafayette  Bloom  School,  Auditorium,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 


I 


Messrs.  Garber  and  Woodward,  Architects. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  ILLUSTRATIONS 


625 


SECOND  FLOOR  PLAN  THIRD  FLOOR  PLAN 


Messrs.  Garber  and  Woodward , Architects. 


<3  ■sol 


Avditojaiua\ 


o 


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<3 


•.  John  J.  Donovan,  Architect 


Mr.  John  J.  Donovan , Architect , and  Mr.  Walter  D.  Reed,  Associate  Architect. 


Page  633 


01 J : AY£ 


3L~£ 

s7;<w  irto.  •> - *-v‘  /r  v 5 

CUo^ZdXlD  f ■XHiii  rija 


A/r.  Jo/m  Donovan,  Architect,  and,  Mr.  Walter  D.  Reed,  Associate  Architect. 

Fig.  567. — Claremont  Elementary  School,  Oakland,  California. 


Mr.  John  J.  Donovan,  Architect  — Mr.  Washington  J.  Miller,  Associate  Architect. 


Page  635  Fig.  569.  — Jefferson  School,  Oakland,  California. 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


636 


- PLAN  or  WEST  WINS  - 


• Plan  or  east  wins  * 


PLAN  or  PO^VEP  BUILDING 

Mr.  John  J.  Donovan,  Architect  — Mr.  Washington  J.  Miller,  Associate  Architect. 


Fig.  570. — -Jefferson  School,  Oakland,  California. 


SUPPLEMENT  A R Y ILLUSTRA  TIONS 


637 


Fig.  571.  — Elementary  School,  Albany,  California. 


Mr.  John  J.  Donovan,  Architect. 


nrrxxiia  | 


Mr.  John  J.  Donovan,  Architect. 


Fig.  572.  — Elementary  School,  Albany,  California. 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Fig.  573.  — Addison  School,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 


Mr.  W.  R.  McCornaci,  Architect. 


Air.  u . u.  AlcUomuct,  A.rcnueci. 


Fig.  574.  — Addison  School,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 


Page  63Q  Fig.  575.  — Addison  School,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 


Page  641  Fig.  577.  — Almira  School,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 


OO 

10 

6 

£ 


Mr.  W.  It.  McCornacl,  Architect. 


I 


o 

10 

o' 

£ 


'O 


<3 

As 


SUPPLEMENTARY  ILLUSTRATIONS 


645 


Fig.  581.  — Empire  School,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 


Mr.  W . R.  McCornack,  Architect. 


Fig.  582.  — Empire  School,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 


E.  M 


E 

Q 


m 

M 


6§ 

£zj  §* 

g V £ 


®-  a 


^5"' 

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^13 

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I 

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il/fCornac*,  .1  rc  hit  set. 


EL  /N 


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2i  S SUI 

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© 2 & 

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fa 


t=i 


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£ 


tv 

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e 


Mr.  W.  R.  McC or nack, Architect. 


L M P ! 12.  E A V El  Al 


Mr.  IV.  It.  McCornack , zlrc/ii/tfc/. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  ILLUSTRATIONS 


649 


Mr.  William  B.  Itlner , Architect. 


Fig.  586.  — High  School,  Greenfield,  Ohio. 


650 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Mr.  William  B.  IUner,  Architect. 


Fig.  588.  — High  School,  Greenfield,  Ohio. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  ILLUSTRATIONS 


■ bASE/AENT  • FLOOL-PLAN- 

SCAIIE  :£»INCH  ■ ESVAI.S  • 1 ■ FOOT- 

SKETCH  • PLAN- 

-HIGH -SCHOOL  ■ AT  - GilEEN FIELD  • OHIO- 
•FOIL  /A*.  E-L-  /AC  CLAFN- 


Fig.  589. 


•WM'E'ITTNER.  • AtCHITEXT- 
JT  LOUU  MI5J0US.I.  IEC. /51S 


Fig.  590.  — High  School,  Ground  Floor  Plan,  Greenfield,  Ohio. 


•finsT  • Floor. • -plan  • -second-  Floojl-?lan- 

Mr.  William  B.  inner.  Architect.  Mr-  William  B.  inner,  Architect. 

Page  652  Fig.  591.  — High  School,  First  Floor  Plan,  Greenfield,  Ohio.  Fig.  592.  High  School,  Second  Floor  Plan,  Greenfield,  Ohio. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  ILLUSTRATIONS 


653 


ELKO  COUNTY  HIGH  SCHOOL.  ELKO.  NEVADA 

C w DICKEY  AND  JOHN  J DONOVAN  ARCHITECTS 


Fig.  594. 


654 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Mr.  C.  W.  Dickey  and  Mr.  John  J.  Donovan,  Architects 

Fig.  595.  — Elko  County  High  School,  General  Elevation,  Elko,  Nevada. 


Mr.  C.  W.  Dickey  and  Mr.  Jolm  J.  Donovan,  Architects. 


Fig.  596.  — Elko  County  High  School,  Main  Floor  Plan,  Elko,  Nevada. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  ILLUSTRATIONS 


655 


C.  tf^/CKtr  / yS  A&or/t* 

, ■/jLdr/7'£C7’s- 

'•jU&  6./Z1T*  //*C#  - Z>4/cZjt/r0  Cr^/*o<jr/A 

tV7 

Mr,  C.  W.  Dickey  and  Mr.  John  J.  Donovan,  Architeccts. 

Fig.  597.  — Elko  County  High  School,  Elevation  of  Dormitory,  Elko,  Nevada. 


HIGH  SCHOOL  BUILDING  • PONTIAC -AUCH  IGAN  • jl  • HIGH  SCHOOL  BUILDING  • PONTIAC  • M.1C  H IGAN 


658 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


■ HICH  SCHOOL  BUILDING  • PO  NT  1 A.C  - M.1C  H IC  A.N  • 


Fig.  603. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  ILLUSTRATIONS 


659 


=£=JtrrrT 


Messrs.  Perkins,  Fellows,  and  Hamilton,  Architects. 

Fig.  604.  — New  Tries  Township  High  School,  Kenilworth,  Illinois. 


66o 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


1»»2. 


Fig.  605. 


SUPPLEMEN TARY  ILLUSTRA  TIONS 


66 1 


Messrs.  Perkins,  Fellows , and  Hamilton,  Architects. 
Fig.  607.  — New  Trier  Township  High  School,  Kenilworth,  Illinois. 


662 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Messrs.  Perkins,  Fellows,  and  Hamilton,  Architects. 

Fig.  608.  — New  Trier  Township  High  School,  Kenilworth,  Illinois. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  ILLUSTRATIONS 


663 


Mr.  Edward  Slotz , Architect. 

Fig.  609.  — Schenley  High  School,  Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania. 


Fig.  610.  — Schenley  High  School,  Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania. 


Page  664  Fig.  6ii.  — Schenley  High  School,  Ground 


Mr.  Edward  Stotz,  Architect. 


666 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Mr.  Edward  Stole,  Architect. 

Fig.  613.  — Schenley  High  School,  Third  Floor  Plan,  Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  ILLUSTRATIONS 


667 


! 


668 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Messrs,  Kilham  and  Hopkins,  Architects. 

Fig.  616.  — Taunton  High  School,  Taunton,  Massachusetts. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  ILLUSTRATIONS 


669 


AVNTON  - HIGH 


-[Vf  » c K ILHAM  6rH0PKlN5  ARCHITECTS 

I ^ PARK  5T  **  ' BOSTON  MA55 


- 3TRE.E.T 


WAS  h INGTON 


Fig.  617. 


Messrs.  Kllham  and  Hopkins,  Architects. 


670 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Fig.  618. 


Messrs.  Kilham  ami  Hopkins,  Architects. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  ILLUSTRATIONS 


671 


Fig.  619. 


672 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


YaVWT  ON'HIC  H ~ SCHQQL~'TAVNTON"~MA55 


KtLMAM  Hopkins -Architect's 

3 PARK  ClTR E E. T ^ ^ BOSTOfl 


SECOND  - F LOO  CL  'PLAN' 


Fig.  620. 


Messrs.  Kilham  and  Hopkins,  Architects. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  ILLUSTRATIONS 


673 


TA  V N T O N • HIGH  - SCHOOL  - TAVN TO N'MASS 


1 1_  n A M C,  HOPKINS  ARCMlTtCTC 

2 Park.  3TB.CE.T  - ••  Bostom 


TMIR.D  - r loo c_  * Roor  ' Plan 


Fig.  621, 


M essrs.  Kilham  and  Hopkins,  Architects. 


674 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Messrs.  Allison  and  Allison.  Architects. 

Fig.  622.  — Polytechnic  High  School,  Monrovia,  California. 


I 1 


r* 1 — F" 

1 """  ^ 

r 

jj 

•UUmUin,,..,.'.  ;..;Ua 

* 

Zi  L 'l 


3 

1 


r 1 aJ a t - ruoo  »./»•- 

« o - V T sji  H .'f  t C.  ■ r*  If.  H d 


Messrs.  Allison  and  Allison,  Architects. 

Fig.  623.  — Polytechnic  High  School,  First  Floor  Plan,  Monrovia,  California. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  ILLUSTRATIONS 


675 


Messrs.  Allison  and  Allison,  Architects. 

Fig.  624.  — Polytechnic  High  School,  Second  Floor  Plan,  Monrovia,  California. 


Fig.  625.  — Polytechnic  High  School,  Monrovia,  California. 


Messrs.  Allison  and  Allison,  Architects. 


676  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Messrs.  Allison  and  Allison,  Architects. 

Fig.  626.  — Polytechnic  High  School,  Monrovia,  California. 


Messrs.  Allison  and  Allison,  Archil  a 


Fig.  627. — High  School,  Santa  Monica,  California, 


SUPPLEMENTARY  ILLUSTRATIONS 


677 


Messrs.  Allison  and  Allison , Architects, 


f • - ■ s • -v_  22  3 m 

Fig.  628.  — High  School,  Santa  Monica,  California. 


678 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Messrs.  Allison  and  Allison,  Architects . 

Mg.  629.  — High  School,  Santa  Monica,  California. 


Messrs.  Allison  and  Allison,  Architects. 


Fig.  630.  — High  School,  Santa  Monica,  California. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  ILLUSTRATIONS 


679 


.5  £.  V £ N T U - • J T (LI.  E,  T • 


Messrs.  Allison  and  Allison,  Architects. 

Fig.  631. — High  School,  Santa  Monica,  California. 


68o 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


‘ HIGH-  SCHOOL  * 

OANTA  MONICA-  CAL. 

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Messrs.  Allison,  and  Allison,  Architects. 

Fig.  633.  — High  School,  Basement  Eloor  Plan,  Santa  Monica,  Calefornla. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  ILLUSTRATIONS 


681 


Mr.  Frank,  L.  Packard  and  Mr.  Frederick  G.  Mueller,  Associate  Architects. 


Fig.  634.  — High  School,  Hamilton,  Ohio. 


Mr.  Frank  L.  Packard  and  Mr.  Frederick  <?.  Mueller,  Associate  Architects. 


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■.  Frank  L.  Packard  and  Mr.  Frederick  G.  Mueller , Associate  Architects. 


Mr.  Frank  L . Packard  and  Mr.  Frederick  G.  Mueller , Associate  Architects. 


Mr.  Frank  L.  Packard  and  Mr.  Frederick  (J.  Mueller,  Associate  Architects. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  ILLUSTRATIONS 


687 


Mr.  Frank  L.  Packard,  Architect,  Mr.  Ralph  Snyder,  Associate  Architect,  and  Mr.  Edward  N.  Babitt,  Engineer. 


Fig.  640.  — High  School,  Parkersburg,  West  Vircinia. 


Fig.  641.  — High  School,  Parkersburg,  West  Virginia. 


688 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Mr.  Frank  L.  Packard,  Architect,  Mr.  Ralph  Snyder,  Associate  Architect,  and  Mr.  Edward  N.  Babitt,  Engineer. 

Fig.  642.  — High  School,  Parkersburg,  West  Virginia. 


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SUPPLEMENTARY  ILLUSTRATIONS 


689 


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Mr.  Frank  L.  Packard , Architect,  Mr.  Ralph  Snyder,  Associate  Architect,  and  Mr.  Edward  N.  Babitt , Engineer. 

Fig.  644.  — High  School,  First  Floor  Plan,  Parkersburg,  West  Virginia. 


690 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


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Fig.  645.  — High  School,  Second  Floor  Plan,  Parkersburg,  West  Virginia. 


Alessrs.  Maginnis  and  Walsh,  Architects. 


692 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


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Messrs.  Maginnis  and  Walsh,  Architects. 


Fig.  648.  — ■ Regis  High  School,  Lobby,  New  York  City, 


5 UPPLEMEN  TARY  ILL  US  ERA  TIONS 


693 


Messrs.  Maginnis  and  Walsh , Architects. 


Fig.  649.  — Regis  High  School,  Main  Hall,  New  York  City. 


Fig.  650.  — Regis  High  School,  New  York  City. 


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696 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


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SUPPLEMENTARY  ILLUSTRATIONS 


697 


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698 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 


Mr.  A.  F.  Hussander,  Architect. 


Mr.  A.  F.  Hussandcr,  Architect. 

Fig.  656. — Cartes  H.  Harrison  Technical  High  School,  Chicago,  Illinois. 


Fig.  655.  — Carter  IT  Harrison  Technical  High  School,  Chicago,  Illinois. 


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Page  708  Fig.  667. 


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SELECTED  REFERENCES 


*American  Architect,  New  York,  current  numbers. 

*American  School  Board  Journal.  Bruce  Publishing  Company, 
Milwaukee,  Wis. 

*Ayres,  Williams,  and  Wood,  Healthful  Schools.  Houghton, 
Mifflin  and  Company.  Boston,  1918.  120. 

*Bruce,  William  C.,  Grade  School  Buildings.  Milwaukee, 
Wisconsin,  Bruce  Publishing  Company  (1914).  235  p.  40. 

High  School  Buildings.  Milwaukee,  American  School  Board 

Journal.  (1913-1919.) 

A collection  of  floor  plans  and  photographs  of  characteristic 
American  High  Schools. 

*Dresslar,  Fletcher  B.  Rural  schoolhouses  and  grounds.  Wash- 
ington, Government  Printing  Office,  1914.  162  pages,  illus., 

plans,  plates.  8°.  (United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulle- 
tin, 1914,  No.  12.) 

— — - School  Architecture,  Encyclopedia  of  Education,  edited  by 
Paul  Monroe.  Vol.  1.  New  York,  The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany, 1911,  p.  183-96. 

*Dutton  and  Snedden.  Administration  of  Public  Education  in 
the  United  States.  The  Macmillan  Company. 

*Hollister,  Horace  Adelbert.  The  planning  and  construction  of 
high  school  buildings ; issued  from  the  high  school  visitors’ 
office,  University  of  Illinois,  for  the  guidance  of  school 


boards  and  those  interested  in  high  school  construction. 
Urbana,  The  University  of  Illinois  (1916).  70  p.,  illus.,  plates, 
plans.  8°.  (University  of  Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol.  XIV,  No.  8, 
October  23,  1916.) 

Public  School  Buildings  and  their  Equipment  with  special 

reference  to  high  schools.  Bulletin  No.  1,  School  of  Educa- 
tion, University  of  Illinois  (1910).  37  p.  inch  illus.,  plates, 

and  plans. 

— Two  city  high  school  buildings.  American  School  Board 
Journal,  44  : 23-24,  55,  April,  1912. 

*Mills,  Wilbur  Thoburn.  American  school  building  standards. 
(2nd.  edi.)  Columbus,  Ohio,  Franklin  Educational  Pub- 
lishing Co.,  1915.  616  p.,  illus.,  plans.  120. 

*Modern  Schoolhouses.  Parts  I— II,  New  York,  the  American 
Architect,  1910-15. 

Perry,  Clarence  A.  Social  center  features  in  new  elementary 
school  architecture  and  the  plans  of  sixteen  socialized  schools. 
Division  of  Recreation.  Russell  Sage  Foundation.  New 
York.  55  p. 

*University  of  the  State  of  New  York.  New  York  School  Build- 
ings and  Grounds.  Vol.  3,  nth  Annual  Report,  1917. 
(Splendid  Bibliography.) 


* Especially  good. 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Absorption  of  sound  waves  in  assembly  halls,  325. 

Academic  department  of  school,  location  of,  21;  slight  changes 
from  customary  requirements  necessary  in  planning  for,  22. 

Academic  type  of  junior  high  school,  building  for,  hi. 

Accessibility,  as  argument  for  comprehensive  type  of  high  school, 
130. 

Acoustics,  of  school  assembly  hall,  324-327  ; of  music  department, 
349- 

Activities  of  physical  education,  classification  of,  222-225. 

Adams,  William  R.,  chapter  by,  on  the  cafeteria,  513-522. 

Adams  Cosmopolitan  School,  San  Francisco,  tests  of  reach  of  pupils 
in,  271. 

Adaptability,  a prime  consideration  in  school  construction,  157. 

Addison  School,  Cleveland,  Ohio,  638,  639,  640. 

Administration  division  of  high  school,  requirements  for,  72-73. 

Administrative  offices  in  school  buildings,  243-252. 

Advertising,  courses  in,  in  commercial  department  of  high  school, 
402. 

Age  requirements  in  typical  vocational  schools,  174,  175,  177,  178, 
181,  183,  189. 

Ages  of  pupils  in  different  grades  of  school,  255,  260. 

Agricultural  laboratories,  198. 

Agriculture,  vocational,  159,  195-197 ; taught  at  Williamson 
School,  176;  laboratory  accommodations  for  courses  in,  390-391. 

Air,  proper  supply  of,  for  schoolrooms,  206-207  ; for  gymnasium, 
229,  236. 

Air  compressor  for  science  department,  353. 

Air  currents  and  ventilation,  206-207. 

Air  filters,  discarding  of,  524-525. 

Air  registers,  location  of,  in  classrooms,  276-277. 

Air  intake  for  heating  and  ventilating  system,  535-536. 

Air  washers,  operation  of,  537. 

Aisles,  width  of,  in  elementary  classroom,  253  ; of  assembly  halls, 
332. 

Albany,  Calif.,  Elementary  School,  637. 

Albert  R.  Sabin  School,  Chicago,  111.,  94,  95. 

Alexander  Graham  Bell  School,  Chicago,  111.,  36-40. 

Almira  School,  Cleveland,  Ohio,  641,  642,  643,  644. 

Americanization  of  foreigners,  work  of  the  school  in,  4,  22  ; com- 
munity cottage  for,  in  connection  with  junior  high  school,  in. 

Andre,  Edouard,  quoted  on  relation  of  architecture  and  landscape, 
61. 

Andrews,  Benjamin  H.,  Education  for  the  Home  by,  cited,  490. 

Anemometer,  for  measuring  air  currents,  206,  207. 

Apparatus,  gymnasium,  229,  233-234.  See  Equipment. 

Applied  chemistry,  courses  in  and  laboratory  for,  377,  384. 

Applied  physics,  special  laboratories  for  courses  in,  364-368. 

Applied  science,  recent  impetus  given  to,  21-22. 

Aquarium,  in  general  science  laboratory,  388,  390. 

Architect,  collaboration  of  physical  director  with  landscape 
designer  and,  in  planning  school  grounds,  9 ; selection  of,  for 
school  construction,  33  ; fee  of,  and  service  rendered  by,  34-35 ; 
the  landscape,  and  his  work,  61-69;  importance  of  work  of, 
in  classroom  construction,  271-272  ; requirements  and  qualifica- 
tions for  school  architect,  573. 

Architectural  drawing,  courses  in,  419 ; room  for,  420. 

Architecture,  landscape,  69.  See  School  architecture. 


Art,  study  of  commercial,  41 1.  See  Drawing. 

Art  department  of  high  school,  requirements  for,  74. 

Artificial  lighting  of  schoolrooms,  563-568. 

Arts,  trade  education  growing  out  of  domestic,  469. 

Art  work  at  Jane  Hayes  Gates  Institute,  194-195. 

Ashland  School,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  105. 

Asphalt  surfacing  for  playgrounds,  on  rock,  11 ; on  concrete,  11. 

Aspirating  coils,  use  of,  530. 

Assembly  hall,  need  for,  20;  locating  the,  21;  in  elementary 
school,  71,  320-321;  in  junior  high  and  pre-vocational  school, 
72,  321,  323;  in  high  school,  73,  321,  323;  estimated  cost  of, 
and  of  equipment,  80,  81 ; moving-picture  apparatus  in  con- 
nection with,  94,  327-331;  location  of,  in  elementary  school, 
95;  combination  of  gymnasium  and,  149;  essential  to  proper 
equipment  of  modern  school,  320 ; acoustics  of,  324-327  ; organs 
in,  327;  quietness  an  essential,  327;  aisles  and  exits,  332; 
painting  and  decoration,  332-333  ; arrangements  in,  for  musical 
performances,  346;  electric  lighting  of,  550,  552. 

Astoria,  Oregon,  Central  Grammar  School,  609,  610,  61 1,  612. 

Athletic  activities  in  physical  education,  223. 

Athletic  fields,  for  junior  high  schools,  8;  for  high  schools,  75; 
plans  and  photographs  of,  7,  15,  16,  17. 

Athletic  period  in  physical  education,  221. 

Atlantic  Heights,  N.  H.,  School  House,  617,  618. 

Attendance  office  in  large  high  school,  251-252. 

Auditorium,  combination  of  music  room  with,  in  elementary  school, 
88;  in  junior  high  school,  113-114.  See  also  Assembly  hall. 

Automobile  highways,  attention  to,  in  planning  for  school  sites,  2. 

Automobile  mechanics,  school  shop  for,  425. 

Automobile  shop,  in  industrial  arts  department  of  high  school,  74 ; 
construction  and  equipment  of,  446,  449. 

Aviary,  for  biological  study,  396. 

Ayres,  May,  A Century  of  Progress  in  Schoolhouse  Construction, 
cited,  570. 

Bacteria  in  air,  dangers  of,  206. 

Bacteriology,  work  in,  396. 

Bailey,  Edna  Watson,  chapter  by,  on  general  science  and  biological 
laboratories,  385-396. 

Balance  room,  chemistry  laboratory,  375,  377. 

Balderston,  L.  R.,  Laundering  by,  cited,  497 ; Housewifery  by, 
cited,  499. 

Baldwin,  Edward  C.,  article  by,  quoted,  76. 

Balustrades  to  stairs,  312-313. 

Bank,  the  school,  401. 

Baseball  backstops,  wire  cage,  15,  237. 

Baseball  grounds,  indoor,  for  junior  high  schools,  9. 

Basement  floor  plans  of  schools,  56,  107,  115,  116,  121,  136,  153, 
190,  199. 

Basket  ball  courts,  for  elementary  schools,  8 ; for  junior  high 
schools,  81,  242 ; at  Emerson  School,  Oakland,  Calif.,  14,  238. 

Bathroom,  in  housekeeping  unit,  home  economics  department,  471, 

5°o. 

Bayonne,  N.  J.,  Vocational  School,  account  of,  183-184. 

Beauty  in  school  grounds,  61. 

Bedroom,  in  housekeeping  unit,  home  economics  department, 

5°°. 


7i3 


714 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Benson  Polytechnic  High  School,  Portland,  Ore.,  shops,  434,  448, 
449,455,  458;  exterior,  528 ; heating  and  ventilating  plant,  529, 
530,  532,  533,  535,  536. 

Berkeley,  Calif.,  John  Muir  School  landscape  plan,  64;  Edison  - 
Junior  High  School  at,  124,  125;  University  of  California 
(dental  clinic),  216;  (bookrack),  297. 

Betelle,  James  0.,  architect,  influence  of  work  of,  18. 

Between-class  relief  period  in  physical  education,  222. 

Bever  and  Usher,  The  Hotne  Economics  Movement  by,  cited,  468. 

Billing  machines,  classes  in  use  of,  406. 

Biological  laboratory,  the,  385,  390,  391-396;  outdoor,  396. 

Blackboards,  space  for,  in  primary  grades,  95 ; material  for,  268  ; 
sizes  of  slate  for,  268-271 ; in  physics  lecture  room,  351,  359; 
eye-strain  caused  by  glossy  surfaces  of,  564;  location  and 
lighting  of,  567. 

Bloomfield,  N.  J.,  Essex  County  School  at,  200. 

Blue-print  rooms,  drawing  department,  420-421. 

Blue-printing  machine,  electric,  421. 

Boilers  for  hot-water  heating  systems,  533-534- 

Boiler  shops,  schools  should  not  be  near,  6. 

Bookkeeping,  courses  in,  403-404 ; farm  and  household  accounts, 
403-404 ; office  practice,  404. 

Bookkeeping  department,  high  school,  requirements  for,  73. 

Bookkeeping  desks,  404. 

Books,  for  science  department,  352.  See  Library. 

Border  plantation  for  school  grounds,  69. 

Boston,  Mass.,  Wentworth  Institute  in,  184-187;  dental  clinic 
in,  216;  plans  of  classrooms  in  schools  of,  261,  262;  seating 
arrangement  for  high  school  classrooms  in,  260,  262  ; device 
used  in,  for  tacking  strips,  271 ; plan  of  cooking-rooms  in,  485. 

Boston  Cooking  School,  468. 

Botany,  courses  in,  and  laboratory  accommodations  for,  390-391. 

Boys’  gymnasium,  apparatus  for,  229,  233. 

Boys’  Technical  High  School,  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  description  of, 
181-182. 

Boys’  Trade  School,  Worcester,  Mass.,  160,  172-174. 

Boys’  Vocational  School,  Newark,  N.  J.,  188-192. 

Boys’  yard,  play  area  and  equipment  for,  in  elementary  schools, 

8 ; in  junior  high  schools,  8 ; separation  of,  from  girls’  division,  9. 

Brass  furnace,  school  foundry,  437. 

Brick  pavements,  for  walks  but  not  for  surfacing  playgrounds,  n. 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  library  of  Public  School,  29,  293  ; libraries  of  high 
schools  in,  300-302 ; physics  department,  Pratt  Institute,  367, 
368,  370,  371,  373  ; domestic  science  department,  Public  School, 
29,  480. 

Bryan  Mullanphy  Elementary  School,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  20-24  J 
kindergarten,  285,  286. 

Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  library  of  Hutchinson  Central  High  School  in,  298, 
299 ; museum  cases,  Hutchinson  High  School,  304. 

Building  codes,  proposed  governmental,  29. 

Buildings.  See  School  Buildings. 

Bulletin  boards,  in  schools,  245  ; in  school  corridors,  309. 

Burdick,  Anna  L.,  description  of  trade  and  industrial  schools  for 
girls  by,  190-195. 

Bushrod  Playground,  Oakland,  Calif.,  239. 

Business  courses.  See  Commercial  department. 

Cabinet  shop,  167-168;  equipment,  456,  461 ; arrangement,  461, 

463- 

Cafeteria,  requirements  for  high  school,  73  ; estimated  cost  of,  and 
of  equipment,  80,  81 ; in  home  economics  work,  202;  desirabil- 
ity of,  for  schools,  513;  the  kitchen,  513—5x9 ; the  storeroom, 
519-520;  cold-storage  room,  520 ; dining-room,  520-522. 

Cafeteria  management,  training  in,  488. 

Calculating  appliances,  classes  in  use  of,  406. 

California,  conditions  in,  as  to  high  schools,  132;  State  law  of, 
in  regard  to  physical  education,  220;  State  Manual  on  Physical 
Education,  quoted,  221-222. 

California,  University  of,  dental  clinic  at,  216. 


Cameras  for  schools,  356. 

Canvas  for  classroom  walls,  274-275. 

Carpentry  shop,  typical,  167-168;  location,  arrangement,  and 
equipment  of,  463. 

Carpentry  work  in  school-building,  32. 

Carter  H.  Harrison  Technical  High  School,  Chicago,  111.,  physical 
training  facilities  at,  228,  231;  main  entrance  lobby,  316;  as- 
^ sembly  hall,  335,  336,  697,  698,  699,  700,  701,  702,  703. 

Ceiling  height  of  classrooms,  260,  263. 

Cement  pavements,  inadvisable  for  surfacing  playgrounds,  11. 

Central  Grammar  School,  Astoria,  Ore.,  609,  610,  611,  612. 

Central  High  School,  Washington,  D.  C.,  50-60,  306. 

Certain,  C.  C.,  writings  on  school  library  by,  291. 

Cesspools  for  schools,  542. 

Chairs  for  school  library,  300. 

Chalk-rails,  height  of,  271. 

Chamber  of  commerce,  junior,  402. 

Characteristics  of  good  school  sites,  4. 

Chart -posting  space  in  physics  lecture  room,  359. 

Cheapness,  economy  vs.,  in  school-building,  29,  31. 

Chemistry,  rooms  and  equipment  for  courses  in,  372-384.  See 
Science  department. 

Chemistry  department,  high  school,  requirements  for,  73. 

Chemistry  laboratory,  location  of,  21. 

Chicago,  111.,  Alexander  Graham  Bell  School  in,  36-40;  Albert  R. 
Sabin  School  in,  94,  95 ; McCormick  Open  Air  School  in,  211 ; 
physical-training  facilities  at  Carter  H.  Harrison  Technical 
High  School,  228,  23T,  316,  335,  336;  plan  of  classrooms  in 
schools  of,  257 ; location  of  wardrobes  under  plan  of  classroom 
in,  267,  697,  698,  699,  700,  701,  702,  703 ; Henry  O.  Shepard 
School,  585,  586 ; Rezin  Orr  Public  School,  586,  587,  588,  589 ; 
Lindblom  High  School,  704,  705,  706,  707,  708,  709. 

Children,  effect  on,  of  exterior  of  schools,  26-28;  influence  on,  of 
beautiful  school  grounds,  61 ; teaching  the  care  of,  in  home 
economics  department,  500-501. 

Children’s  play  space,  8,  9,  237. 

Cincinnati,  Ohio,  Lafayette  Bloom  School,  622,  623 ; Guilford 
School,  624,  625,  626;  Westwood  Public  School,  627,  628,  629, 
630. 

Civic  biology,  use  of  phrase,  390. 

Claremont  Elementary  School,  Oakland,  Calif.,  632,  633. 

Clark  Elementary  and  Soldan  High  School,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  19. 

Classes,  size  of,  in  high  schools,  139-140. 

Classical,  avoidance  of  the,  in  modern  school  design,  27. 

Classroom,  requirements  for,  in  junior  high  and  pre-vocational 
schools,  72;  cost  per,  as  method  of  computing  cost  of  school 
buildings,  75 ; estimated  cost  of  equipment,  81 ; arguments 
against  standardization  of,  88 ; arrangement  of,  in  elementary 
schools,  94 ; equipment  for  visual  instruction  in,  94 ; size  of,  in 
senior  high  schools,  139-140;  in  vocational  schools,  172;  sizes 
of,  for  best  conditions  for  lighting,  hearing,  and  vision,  208,  557, 
559;  open-air,  211,  212;  illustrations  showing  open-air,  and 
plans  of,  2 1 2-2 14;  regarded  as  fundamental  unit  of  school 
organization,  253  ; size  and  plan  of,  for  elementary  schools,  253- 
260 ; size  of  furniture  for,  260 ; size  and  plan  of  high  school,  260- 
263 ; natural  lighting  of,  263-267 ; blackboard  material  and 
specifications,  268-271 ; value  of  architect’s  work  in  construc- 
tion of,  271 ; material  for  and  construction  of  floors,  272  ; interior 
mill  work  or  trim,  272-273  ; doors  of,  273-274;  transoms,  274; 
plaster,  canvas,  and  painting,  274-275 ; floor  treatment,  275- 
276;  location  of  air  registers  in,  276-277;  Venetian  blinds  for 
window  shades  of , 277-278;  the  library,  294-295 ; in  commercial 
department,  410;  telephone  for,  557. 

Clawson  Elementary  School,  Oakland,  Calif.,  89-93 5 principal's 
office,  247;  classroom  in,  270;  kindergarten  in,  279-2S1; 
kindergarten  porch,  282;  appointments  for  musical  instruction 
at,  342  ; manual-training  room,  461;  domestic  science  room, 
491 ; plumbing  installation,  543,  544,  546,  548. 

Cleanliness,  planning  school  buildings  for,  8S. 


GENERAL  INDEX 


715 


Cleveland,  Ohio,  Addison  School,  638,  639,  640;  Almira  School, 
641,  642,  643,  644;  Empire  School,  645,  646,  647,  648. 

Cleveland  School,  Newark,  N.  J.,  kindergarten,  290. 

Clinics,  general  school,  213,  216-217;  dental,  216,  217;  eye,  217. 

Clinton,  Mass.,  High  School,  survey  of,  referred  to,  148;  recom- 
mendations made  in  connection  with,  150-151,  153. 

Clock,  electric  program,  for  schools,  555-556. 

Clothing  unit,  home  economics  department,  470,  501-512. 

Clubrooms  in  intermediate  schools,  8. 

Code  of  lighting  school  buildings,  559-568. 

Cold-storage  room,  school  cafeteria,  520. 

Coleman,  S.  E.,  aluminum  fume  hood  of,  377. 

Color,  harmony  of  lines,  texture,  and,  in  plant  composition,  63. 

Color  schemes  for  classrooms,  275. 

Commercial  department  of  schools,  location  of,  21,  399;  require- 
ments for,  in  high  elementary  school,  71 ; in  junior  high  and  pre- 
vocational  school,  72;  in  high  school,  73,  397-410;  estimated 
cost  of  equipment,  81 ; functions  of,  and  relation  to  school  in 
general,  397;  detailed  description,  399-410. 

Commercial  geography,  study  of,  409. 

Commercial  studies,  planning  of  rooms  for,  22. 

Community  cottage  connected  with  neighborhood  type  of  junior 
high  school,  hi. 

Community  room,  housekeeping  unit,  home  economics  department, 

^ 499- 

Community  type  of  junior  high  school,  111-112. 

Community  use,  of  schools,  8,  320;  of  school  playgrounds,  11; 
planning  of  school  buildings  for,  20 ; location  of  school  assembly 
halls  with  view  to,  95;  planning  neighborhood  type  of  junior 
high  school  for,  1 1 1-1 12;  of  school  play  yard,  236 ; of  science 
department,  350;  and  practical  work  in  applied  science,  385. 

Competitions,  entrance  of  architects  into,  33. 

Composite  high  school,  128. 

Composition,  attention  to,  in  planting,  63-64. 

Comprehensive  type  of  high  school,  arguments  favoring,  127-131. 

Concrete  work  in  school  construction,  32, 

Conservatory,  394 ; for  biological  study,  396. 

Construction,  types  of,  for  school  buildings,  76-77. 

Continuation  classes,  20;  planning  of  school  building  for,  21; 
in  advertising  and  salesmanship,  402 ; in  bookkeeping,  405 ; 
spectacular  growth  of  idea,  416  ; use  of  library  by  pupils  of,  293. 

Continuation  principal,  office  of,  in  high  school,  251. 

Cooking  department,  high  school,  requirements  for,  74;  electric 
service  for,  552. 

Cooking  unit,  home  economics  department,  470;  arrangement, 
equipment,  and  general  description,  472-490. 

Cooley,  Anna  M.,  article  on  Domestic  Art  by,  cited,  507. 

Cooper,  Frank  Irving,  chapter  by,  on  standards  of  schoolhouse 
planning,  569-574. 

Corrective  gymnastics,  included  under  physical  education,  125; 
room  for,  in  gymnasium,  234. 

Corrective  period  in  physical  education,  222. 

Correlation  of  departments  in  school  planning,  21. 

Corridors  of  school  buildings,  305-309. 

Cosmopolitan  type,  of  junior  high  school,  1 1 2 ; of  high  school,  128. 

Cost  of  school  buildings,  70  ff. ; methods  of  computing,  75-76; 
of  ventilation,  526. 

Course  of  study,  arrangement  of  elementary  school  dependent  on, 
95-96;  of  junior  high  school,  114;  of  senior  high  school,  as 
affecting  accommodations,  138. 

Courts,  size  of,  8. 

Court  surface  for  playground,  10. 

Cox,  E.  Morris,  on  organization  of  elementary  school  as  affecting 
buildings,  85-96 ; on  organization  of  the  intermediate  or  junior 
high  school  as  affecting  buildings,  111-114. 

Crippled  soldiers,  technical  education  for,  384. 

Crocker  Field,  Fitchburg,  Mass.,  chart  for  administration  of,  15; 
photographs  of,  16,  17  ; field  house  in,  16. 

Crowder,  General,  quoted  on  need  of  physical  education,  218. 


Crystal  School  Dist.  Calif.,  Grammar  School,  602,  603. 

Cubic  contents,  computing  cost  of  school  buildings  by,  76. 

Current  supply  for  science  department,  354-355. 

Curriculum-,  effectiveness  of  organization  of,  in  comprehensive 
high  schools,  13 1 ; place  of  physical  education  in,  225. 

Curtis,  Henry  S.,  opinion  of,  on  size  of  school  sites,  6.  8. 

Dancing,  provisions  for,  in  school  playgrounds,  8,  9. 

Dark  room,  connected  with  physics  laboratory,  363-364;  for 
drawing  courses,  421-422. 

Dark-room  picture  projection,  science  department,  353-356. 

David  Ranken  Jr.  School  of  Mechanical  Trades,  St.  Louis,  Mo., 
174;  account  of,  174-175;  buildings,  equipment,  and  courses, 
175- 

Day  schools,  teaching  of  home  economics  in,  199,  200. 

Deafeners,  floor,  for  classrooms,  272. 

Deans  of  girls  and  of  boys,  offices  of,  in  high  school,  251. 

Demonstration  room,  school  shops,  427. 

Dental  clinic:  Forsyth,  Boston,  Mass.,  216;  University  of  Cali- 
fornia, Berkeley,  Calif.,  216. 

Departmental  work  for  special  type  of  pupils,  4. 

Department  heads,  offices  for,  in  large  high  schools,  252  ; of  com- 
mercial department,  399. 

Departments  of  school,  correlation  of,  21. 

Desks,  hygienic  requirements  for,  208-209;  sizes  for,  260;  for 
school  library,  300,  303,  304 ; bookkeeping,  404 ; typewriter,  405. 

Dietetics,  domestic  chemistry  and,  384  n. 

Dietetics  laboratory  of  cooking  unit,  home  economics  department, 
475,  477- 

Dining-room,  domestic  science  department,  491-493;  of  school 
cafeteria,  520-522. 

Directed  study,  defined,  140. 

Dish-washing  devices,  for  school  kitchens,  488 ; for  school  cafeteria, 
5i8,  519. 

Doctor,  school,  212,  217. 

Domestic  arts  department,  469,  552. 

Domestic  chemistry,  study  of,  384. 

Domestic  science.  See  Home  economics. 

Doors,  of  classrooms,  273-274 ; of  school  library,  296 ; opening  into 
corridors,  309 ; at  entrances,  318-319 ; between  rooms  of  music 
department,  349. 

Downer’s  Grove,  111.,  kindergarten  at,  288,  289. 

Dramatic  activities  in  physical  education,  222-223. 

Drawing,  need  for  general  instruction  in  principles  of,  411. 

Drawing  department,  location  of,  21;  planning  of,  22;  require- 
ments for,  in  high  elementary  school,  71;  in  high  school,  74, 
412,  415,  420-422  ; in  elementary  school,  88,  412  ; in  industrial 
type  of  junior  high  school,  in;  connected  with  vocational 
industrial  shop,  172;  chapter  on  the,  411-423;  freehand,  416- 
419 ; mechanical,  419-420. 

Dressing  rooms,  in  school  buildings,  14;  in  gymnasium,  226.  See 
Wardrobe. 

Dressing,  floor,  for  classrooms,  276. 

Dresslar,  F.  B.,  cited  concerning  chalk-rails,  271. 

Dressmaking,  teaching  of,  501-509. 

Drinking  fountains,  sanitary,  210,  211;  number  of,  210-211. 

Dunwoody,  William  Hood,  establishment  of  Industrial  Institute 
by,  178. 

Dunwoody  Industrial  Institute.  See  William  Hood  Dunwoody 
Industrial  Institute. 

Duplication  of  departments  in  schools,  waste  in,  2,  4. 

Durant  Elementary  School,  Oakland,  Calif.,  604,  605,  606. 

Dust,  as  a factor  in  aerial  infections,  207. 

Economy,  effect  of,  on  school  architecture,  24 ; distinguished  from 
cheapness  in  building,  29,  31. 

Edison  Junior  High  School,  Berkeley,  Calif.,  124,  125. 

Education,  devotion  of  American  people  to,  and  effects  on  school 
architecture,  18 ; aims  of  general,  and  of  vocational,  contrasted, 
157.  See  Vocational  education. 


yi6 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Educational  grades,  classification  of,  in  estimating  cost  of  school 
buildings,  78. 

Edward  Lee  McLean  High  School,  Greenfield,  Ohio,  gymnasium 
of,  230;  main  entrance  vestibule,  317. 

Edward  S.  Bragg  School,  Fond  du  Lac,  Wis.,  100,  101 ; assembly 
hall  gymnasium,  337. 

Electrical  appliances,  in  kitchen  of  home  economics  department, 
488 ; used  in  University  of  New  Mexico,  493. 

Electrical  generating  system  for  high  schools,  75. 

Electrical  installations  in  school  buildings,  77-79,  55°-568. 

Electrical  shop,  school,  74,  449,  45M  construction  of,  and  equip- 
ment, 168,  451. 

Electricity,  direct  and  alternating  current,  courses  in  and  labora- 
tory for,  364,  368-369. 

Electric  service,  kinds  of,  for  schools,  550. 

Electric  wiring  for  lecture  room,  science  department,  354. 

Elementary  schools,  location  of,  2,  3 ; avoiding  duplication  of  de- 
partments in  intermediate  schools  and,  2,  4 ; size  of  grounds  for, 
6 ; play  areas  and  equipment  for,  8 ; photographs  of,  19,  21,  25, 
27-29,  32-34,  36,  86,  89,  92-93,  96,  98-100,  102-106,  2r2-2i3 ; 
floor  plans  of,  22-24,  30,  35,  38-40,  86-87,  90-91,  94-97,  107,  1 10 ; 
planning  and  architecture  of,  23  ; special  desirability  of  pleasing 
architecture  for,  27;  requirements  for  buildings  for,  70-71; 
classification  of,  in  estimating  cost  of  school  buildings,  78  ; costs 
for  construction  of,  and  installation  of  heating,  ventilating,  and 
electrical  systems,  78;  organization  of,  as  affecting  buildings, 
85  ff. ; size  and  location  of  site,  85 ; general  arrangement  of 
building,  85-88 ; planning  for  cleanliness,  88  ; matter  of  height, 
88 ; arguments  against  standardization  of  classrooms,  88 ; 
special  rooms  in,  88,  93  ; complete  equipment  of,  93  ; facilities  for 
physical  education  and  health  and  sanitation,  93-94 ; arrange- 
ment of  classrooms,  94 ; equipment  for  visual  instruction,  94 ; 
assembly  hall,  office,  and  library  in,  95 ; relation  between  course 
of  study  and  arrangement  of,  95-96;  provisions  for  manual- 
training shops  in,  159;  home-making  departments  of,  200; 
best  sizes  for  classrooms,  208;  place  of  physical  education  in 
curriculum  of,  225;  equipment  of  play  yard  of,  237-238,  241 ; 
administrative  offices  in  small,  243-245 ; administrative  offices 
in  large,  245-248;  age  of  pupils  in,  260;  blackboard  data  for, 
271 ; size  of  library  for,  293  ; corridors  in,  305,  307  ; assembly 
hall  in,  320-321;  music  department  of,  342;  drawing  depart- 
ment in,  412  ; equipment  of,  for  instruction  in  home  economics, 
470. 

Elko,  Nevada:  Elko  County  High  School,  653,  654,  655. 

Emerson  School,  Oakland,  Calif.,  plan  of  site  for,  12,  14-T5  ; views 
of,  25,  27,  28 ; layout  of  grounds  of,  26,  234 ; kindergarten  porch 
of,  236;  apparatus  in  play  yard  of,  237-238,  241 ; windows  in, 
273- 

Empire  School,  Cleveland,  Ohio,  645,  646,  647,  648. 

Employers,  cooperation  of,  in  work  of  vocational  schools,  175. 

Enclosures  for  stairways,  31 1-3 12. 

Engines.  See  Steam  and  gas  engines. 

Entrances  to  stairs  and  corridors,  3x8-319. 

Equipment,  of  school  buildings,  80-81 ; importance  of  saving 
sufficient  funds  for,  93 ; of  science  laboratories  in  junior  high 
schools,  1x2;  of  office  in  junior  high  school,  113;  of  different 
rooms  of  high  school,  149 ; problem  of,  for  vocational  schools, 
161-162;  of  typical  shops  for  unit  trade  courses,  164-172;  of 
machine  shop,  166-167  ; of  typical  vocational  schools,  174,  175, 
176, 177,  178,  180-181,  182,  183,  189;  of  girls’  industrial  schools, 
191;  for  agriculture  instruction,  195— 197  ; of  home  economics 
schools,  199,  200,  202,  470;  of  gymnasium,  229,  233-234;  of 
play  yard,  236-237,  241-242 ; of  kindergarten,  281 ; of  high 
school  library,  297-298 ; of  music  department,  348 ; of  science 
department,  351;  of  physics  laboratory,  361-363;  of  school 
bank,  401;  of  bookkeeping  department,  404-405;  filing,  in 
commercial  department,  409 ; freehand  drawing,  416-419 ; of 
school  shops,  430-463,  467  ; of  unit  kitchen,  487-488  ; care  of 
domestic  science,  490 ; of  serving  unit,  490,  493-494 ; for  teach- 


ing laundering,  496-498 ; of  clothing  unit,  502 ; trade-sewing, 
507,  509;  of  kitchen  of  cafeteria,  515. 

Evanston,  111.,  Oakton  School  District,  76,  102,  103 ; assembly 
hall,  Lincolnwood  School,  338. 

Evening  schools,  158;  accommodations  for,  160;  for  vocational 
education,  17 2-1 73  ; home  economics  taught  in,  199. 

Ewing,  William  F.,  chapter  by,  on  administrative  offices  in  public 
school  buildings,  243-252. 

Excavation  work  in  school  construction,  32. 

Exercise  floors  in  gymnasium,  226. 

Exhibition  room,  industrial  arts  department,  74,  463,  465. 

Exhibits,  commercial,  for  students  of  commercial  geography,  409- 
410. 

Exits,  from  stairs  and  corridors,  318 ; from  assembly  halls,  332. 

Exotic  plants  in  school  groxmds,  66. 

Exterior  of  schools,  importance  of  attention  to  composition  of, 
24-28. 

Eye  clinics  in  schools,  217. 

Eye-strain,  caused  by  glossy  surfaces,  564-565. 

Eye-strain-preventive  desks,  208,  209. 

Factories,  avoiding  locating  school  sites  near,  6,  9 ; use  of,  for 
industrial  school  purposes,  160;  as  temporary  quarters  for  vo- 
cational schools,  172. 

Factory  planning  and  school  planning  compared,  20. 

Factory  type  of  industrial  school,  construction  of,  162-163. 

Fanning,  David,  legacy  of,  to  Worcester  Girls’  Trade  School,  193. 

Fans,  exhaust,  in  school  buildings,  540. 

Farm  accounting,  courses  in,  403-404. 

Farming.  See  Agriculture. 

Farms,  school,  396. 

Federal  government,  promotion  of  vocational  education  by,  159. 

Federal  supervision  of  school-building  plans,  proposed,  29. 

Fences,  for  school  playgrounds,  11 ; border  of  planting  for,  69. 

Fernwood  Elementary  School,  Portland,  Ore.,  619,  620,  621. 

Field  house,  photograph  of,  16 ; for  school  play  yard,  237. 

Filing  system  commercial  department,  399,  401 ; equipment,  409. 

Filters,  air,  524-525. 

Fire-alarm  system  in  schools,  556. 

Fire  doors,  construction  of,  309. 

Fire-engine  houses,  location  of  schools  relative  to,  6. 

Fire  escapes  on  school  buildings,  319. 

Fire  hazards,  location  of  schools  and,  6. 

Fire  hose,  548-549. 

Fireless  cookers  for  school  kitchens,  488. 

Fireproofing  of  school  libraries,  304. 

Fire  protection  in  schools,  547-548. 

First-aid  dispensary  in  connection  with  playgrounds,  14. 

Fisk,  Eugene  Lyman,  quoted  on  need  of  physical  education, 
218. 

Fitchburg,  Mass.,  Crocker  Field  at,  15,  16,  17. 

Flexibility,  desirability  of,  in  high  school  building,  138 ; quality  of, 
necessary  in  construction  of  trade  schools,  163,  164;  of  plan  for 
buildings  of  Wentworth  Institute,  184-185. 

Floor  drains  of  schools,  545. 

Floor  plans,  of  schools  and  shops,  22-24,  30,  35,  38-40,  44-45,  56- 
60,  86-87,  90-91,  94-95,  ioi>  io7,  115-118,  121-123,  125,  129- 
131,  136-137,  143-146,  153-156,  I73-H4,  177,  179-181,  1S3- 

187,  189-192,  194,  196,  197-199,  214,  215,  244,  246,  280,  283, 

288,  426,  428,  432,  435,  438,  440,  443,  445,  447,  450,  454,  457, 

459,  464,  466 ; of  open-air  classrooms,  214-215 ; of  gymnasiums, 

223,  224;  of  administrative  offices,  244,  246,  249,  250;  of  class- 
rooms, 254-259,  261-262,  264-267,  269;  of  libraries,  293,  295, 
299,300;  of  stairs,  310,  314 ; of  assembly  halls,  321,  343-345  ; 
for  seating  orchestra,  343-345  ; of  music  department,  347  ; of 
science  departments,  355,  360,  366,  369,  372,  376,  3S6,  387,  389, 
392;  of  commercial  department,  398,  400,  40S-410 ; of  drawing 
department,  413,  414,  418,  420;  of  home  economics  department, 
471-474,  476,  478,  480,  485,  4S6,  4S9,  503,  50S,  511 ; of  cafeteria, 


GENERAL  INDEX 


717 


514,  515;  of  plumbing  system,  546;  of  electrical  installation, 
55i,  567- 

Floors,  material  for  and  construction  of,  272  ; oiling  of,  275-276; 
dressings  for,  276;  of  libraries,  296;  of  corridors,  309. 

Floor  space,  for  general  school  buildings  and  for  industrial  schools, 
159;  in  trade  schools,  164;  for  home  economics  department, 
200;  in  elementary  classrooms,  255;  division  of,  571-572. 

Flowers  in  school  grounds,  64;  proper  use  of,  67,  69. 

Fond  du  Lac,  Wis.,  Edward  S.  Bragg  School  at,  100,  101,  337. 

Foods,  study  of  chemistry  of,  384. 

Foreign  and  domestic  trade,  course  in,  409. 

Foreign-born  residents,  special  type  of  education  for  children  of,  4. 

Forges,  types  of,  444. 

Forge  shop,  industrial  arts  department  of  high  school,  74,  439-446 ; 
estimated  cost  of  equipment,  81. 

Formal  activities  in  physical  education,  223. 

Forsyth  Dental  Clinic,  Boston,  Mass.,  216. 

Foundry,  high  school,  74,  424-425;  construction  and  equipment, 
436-439. 

Francis  Nicholls  School,  New  Orleans,  La.,  191. 

Francis  W.  Parker  Elementary  School,  San  Diego,  Calif.,  open-air 
classroom  at,  213;  kindergarten,  284,  594,  595,  596. 

Franklin  High  School,  Portland,  Ore.,  heating  and  ventilating 
plant,  537,  538;  toilet  rooms,  547. 

Freehand  drawing  department,  412  ; 416;  equipment  for,  416-419. 

Fremont  School,  Sacramento,  Calif.,  open-air  kindergarten,  290. 

Fresno,  Calif.,  Longfellow  School,  grounds  of,  238. 

Furnaces,  heating  by,  528-531. 

Furniture,  purchase  of,  for  schools,  80;  size  of,  in  classrooms,  260; 
for  dining-room  of  domestic-science  department,  492-493. 

Future,  school  of  the,  21-24,  573- 

Games,  among  activities  of  physical  education,  222-223;  special 
room  for,  in  gymnasium,  234-235;  taught  in  kindergarten,  282. 

Gardens,  protection  of,  in  school  grounds,  9 ; experimental,  for 
high  schools,  9. 

Gary  schools,  lunch  room  experiment  in,  488. 

Gary  system,  distinctive  curriculum  and  conduct  of  studies  under, 
4 n. 

Gates  Institute.  See  Jane  Hayes  Gates  Institute. 

General  education  and  vocational  education,  1 57-1 59. 

General  industrial  school,  the,  161-162. 

General  science  and  biological  laboratories,  385-396. 

Geography,  commercial,  409. 

Geometrical  drawing  rooms,  419. 

German  system  of  physical  education,  219. 

Gilkey,  Howard,  on  landscape  development  of  school  grounds,  61- 
69. 

Girls,  trade  and  industrial  schools  for,  190-195;  home  economics 
school  for,  199-203  ; instruction  in  chemistry  for,  384. 

Girls’  gymnasium,  apparatus  for,  233. 

Girls’  Trade  School,  Worcester,  Mass.,  193-194,  200. 

Girls’  Vocational  School,  Newark,  N.  J.,  200. 

Girls’  yard,  play  area  and  equipment  for,  in  elementary  school,  8, 
237-238;  in  junior  high  school,  8;  separation  of,  from  boys’ 
division,  9. 

Glasgow  School,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  104. 

Glass,  thickness  and  quality  of,  in  school  construction,  32  ; amount 
of  area  of,  for  classroom,  264,  266;  for  blackboards,  268;  use 
of,  in  classroom  doors,  274. 

Glendora,  Calif.,  Grammar  School  No.  2,  108,  109,  no,  607,  608. 

Gravity  furnace  systems,  528-531. 

Gravity  steam  systems,  531. 

Greenfield,  Ohio,  views  of  Edward  Lee  McLean  High  School,  230, 
317,  649,  650,  651,  652. 

Grinding  room,  equipment  of,  431,  434. 

Grounds.  See  School  grounds. 

Grover  Cleveland  High  School,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  141-146;  audi- 
torium, 331,  332  ; music  room,  349 ; chemistry  laboratory,  382  ; 


physics  laboratory,  361 ; conservatory,  394 ; typing  room,  407  ; 
drawing  rooms,  421,  422;  cooking- room,  494;  laundry  labora- 
tory, 505;  cafeteria,  516. 

Guilbert,  E.  F.,  architect,  influence  of  work  of,  18. 

Guilford  School,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  624,  625,  626. 

Gulick,  Luther  H.,  Public  School  Athletic  League  organized  by, 
219. 

Gulick  and  Ayres,  Medical  Inspection  of  Schools,  cited,  217. 

Gymnasium,  separate  building  for,  of  high  school,  9 ; locating  the, 
21 ; estimated  cost  of,  and  of  equipment,  80,  81 ; in  junior  high 
school,  1 13;  time-allotment  for  physical  training  in,  in  high 
schools,  147-148;  combination  of  assembly  hall  and,  149;  ar- 
rangement and  equipment  of  indoor,  225-236;  outdoor  or  semi- 
outdoor,  236-242. 

Gymnasium,  plans  of,  223,  224;  Pontiac  High  School,  Mich.,  227  ; 
Carter  H.  Harrison  Technical  High  School,  Chicago,  111.,  228, 
231;  Junior  High  School,  Trenton,  N.  J.,  229;  Edward  Lee 
McLean  High  School,  Greenfield,  Ohio,  230. 

Gymnasium  apparatus,  space  for,  in  elementary  school  play  area, 
8 ; in  junior  high  school,  8. 

Gymnasium  frames,  at  Emerson  School,  Oakland,  Calif.,  14,  238. 

Gymnasium  requirements,  high  elementary  school,  71 ; in  junior 
high  and  pre-vocational  school,  72;  high  school,  73. 

Gymnastics  and  physical  education,  221-225. 

Haldane,  Report  by,  cited,  205. 

Hall,  Mary  E.,  writings  on  school  Library  by,  291. 

Halls  in  elementary  school,  85. 

Hamilton,  Ohio,  High  School,  680,  681,  682,  683,  684,  685. 

Handball  courts,  for  elementary  school,  8 ; for  junior  high  school, 
8;  at  Emerson  School,  Oakland,  Calif.,  14,  238. 

Hand-rails  in  stairways,  3 12-3 13. 

Hardware,  quality  of,  in  school  construction,  32. 

Harmony  in  planting,  63-64. 

Health,  measures  for  safeguarding,  212-213,  216-217. 

Health  and  sanitation,  equipment  relative  to,  in  elementary 
schools,  93-94. 

Health  education,  effectiveness  of  comprehensive  high  school  for, 

1 29-130. 

Heating  of  school  buildings,  207-208;  use  of  stoves,  527-528; 
by  furnaces,  528-531 ; steam  systems,  531 ; hot-water  systems, 
53  x— 53  5 ; description  of  plant  for  ventilating  and,  535-540. 

Heating  plant,  location  of,  21. 

Heating  systems,  types  of,  77 ; calculating  cost  of,  78-79. 

Heavy  gymnastics  in  physical  education,  222. 

Height  of  elementary  school  buildings,  88. 

Henry  O.  Shepard  School,  Chicago,  111.,  585,  586. 

Hetherington,  Clark  W.,  California  State  Manual  of  Physical 
Education  by,  quoted,  221-222;  classification  of  physical 
education  activities  by,  222-225. 

High  schools,  location  of,  2,3;  size  of  sites,  2 ; choice  of  sites  for,  9 ; 
location  of  building,  9-10;  photographs  of,  19,  41-55,  133-135, 
141-142,  152;  of  the  future,  23;  influence  exerted  on  student 
by  architecture  of,  27-28;  floor  plans  of,  44-45,  56-60,  136-137, 
143-146,  153-156;  requirements  for  buildings  for,  72-75; 
classification  of,  in  estimating  cost  of  school  buildings,  78 ; 
costs  for  construction  of,  and  installation  of  heating,  ventilat- 
ing, and  electrical  systems,  78 ; estimated  cost  of  building  and 
equipment,  80-81 ; measuring  static  capacity  of,  82  ; organiza- 
tion and  administration  of,  as  affecting  buildings,  126  ff. ; com- 
prehensive vs.  special-type,  127-131 ; determination  of  contrib- 
uting area  for,  131-132;  advantages  of  union,  132;  internal 
organization  of,  as  affecting  accommodations,  138-148 ; estimate 
and  tabulation  of  accommodations  needed  in,  148-150;  voca- 
tional education  in,  158;  floor  space  given  to  manual-training 
shops  in,  159;  vocational  home  economics  department  in,  200- 
202  ; best  sizes  for  classrooms,  208 ; place  of  physical  education 
in  curriculum  of,  225;  playground  equipment  for,  242;  ad- 
ministrative offices  in,  248-252;  age  of  pupils  in,  260;  class- 


7i8 


GENERAL  INDEX 


rooms  in,  260-263  ; blackboard  data  for,  271 ; library  facilities 
for,  294;  corridors  in,  307  ; assembly  hall  for,  321,  323  ; music 
department  of,  346;  place  of  science  in  curriculum  of,  351; 
commercial  departments  of,  397-410 ; department  of  drawing  in, 
412,415;  shops  in  industrial  department,  424-425 ; cafeteria 
for,  513-S22. 

Hockey  field,  at  Mosswood  Park,  Oakland,  Calif.,  241. 

Hodgdon,  D.  R.,  quoted  on  teaching  of  science,  385. 

Home  economics,  schools  for  instruction  in,  158-159,  199-200; 
standards  in  selection  and  equipment  of  rooms  for  instruction  in, 
202-203 ; development  of  education  in,  468 ; new  meaning 
given  to,  469  ; change  in  teaching  of,  469-470 ; equipment  of 
elementary  and  secondary  schools  for  instruction  in,  470 ; rooms 
for  department  of,  470,  472;  the  serving  unit,  470,  490-494; 
the  cooking  unit,  472-490;  the  laundry  unit,  494-498;  the 
housekeeping  and  home  nursing  unit,  498-501 ; the  clothing 
unit,  501-512. 

Home  economics  department,  requirements  for,  in  high  school,  74 ; 
estimated  cost  of  building  and  of  equipment,  80,  81 ; chapter  on, 
468-512. 

Home-making  education,  199;  rooms  for,  in  high  schools,  74; 
provision  for,  of  comprehensive  high  school,  129-130;  separate 
schools  for,  200. 

Home  nursing,  education  in,  498. 

Hospital  diet  kitchen  equipment,  490. 

Hospitals,  location  of  schools  relative  to,  6. 

Hot-water  circulation  in  school  buildings,  547. 

Hot-water  heating  systems,  531-535. 

Household  accounts,  courses  in,  403-404. 

Household  arts,  instruction  in,  for  pupils  who  would  ordinarily 
leave  school  after  sixth  grade,  4. 

Household  arts  department,  location  of,  21;  planning  of,  22; 
requirements  for,  in  elementary  school,  71 ; in  junior  high  and 
pre- vocational  school,  72. 

Household  chemistry,  study  of,  384. 

Housekeeping  and  home  nursing  unit,  home  economics  depart- 
ment, 470,  498-501. 

House  painting  and  decorating,  rooms  for  instruction  in,  and  equip- 
ment, 169-170. 

Humidity,  factor  of,  in  connection  with  ventilation,  205,  525-526. 

Hunting  games,  among  physical  activities,  223. 

Hussander,  A.  F.,  influence  of  work  of,  18;  seating  plan  of  class- 
rooms by,  255,  258. 

Hutchinson  Central  High  School,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  library  of,  298, 
299 ; museum  cases  at,  304. 

Hydraulics,  courses  in,  364 ; laboratory  for,  365 ; experiments  in, 
36_5,  367- 

Hygiene  of  schools,  204-217. 

Hygiene  courses,  laboratory  accommodations  for,  390-391. 

Illinois,  union  high  schools  in,  132. 

Illuminating  Engineering  Society,  code  of  lighting  school  buildings, 
quoted,  557,  559-568. 

Imperial  Valley,  Calif.,  Westmoreland  School  grounds,  68. 

Inclines,  impracticable  for  school  buildings,  318. 

Incubators,  electric,  in  general  science  laboratory,  388. 

Indenturing  of  students,  at  Williamson  School,  177. 

Indigenous  plants  in  school  grounds,  64,  66. 

Individual  unit  kitchen  desk,  home  economics  department,  475. 

Indoor  baseball  grounds,  9 . 

Indoor  gymnasium,  arrangement  and  equipment  of,  225-236. 

Industrial  arts,  instruction  in,  for  pupils  who  would  otherwise  leave 
school  after  sixth  grade,  4. 

Industrial  arts  department,  planning  of,  22;  requirements  for,  in 
junior  high  and  pre-vocational  school,  72;  high  school,  74; 
chapter  on,  424-467. 

Industrial  shops,  high  school,  location  of,  9. 

Industrial  schools,  158;  buildings  for,  159-160;  serious  need 
for  buildings,  160;  general,  161-162;  new  buildings  for,  and 


their  equipment,  162-190;  for  girls,  190-195.  See  Vocational 
schools. 

Industrial  type  of  junior  high  school,  building  for,  in. 

Inspection,  of  school  buildings,  31-33  ; of  plumbing  work,  544. 

Instruction,  department  of,  in  low  elementary  school,  71;  re- 
quirements for  department  of,  in  low  and  in  high  elementary 
school,  71;  in  junior  high  and  pre-vocational  school,  72;  in 
high  school,  73. 

Instructional  period  in  physical  education,  221-222. 

Instruments  for  mechanical  drawing  course,  41 1. 

Intermediate  schools.  See  Junior  high  schools. 

Internal  organization  of  high  school  as  affecting  accommodations, 
138-148. 

Ittner,  William  B.,  influence  of  work  of,  18 ; report  by,  concerning 
costs,  quoted,  83-84. 

Jacketed  stoves,  use  of,  for  heating,  527-528. 

Jails,  avoiding  locating  schools  near,  6. 

Jane  Hayes  Gates  Institute,  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  190,  194-195 ; 
home-making  department  of,  200. 

Janitor’s  quarters,  in  small  elementary  school,  245 ; in  large  ele- 
mentary school,  247. 

Jefferson  School,  Oakland,  Calif.,  634,  635,  636. 

Job  records  of  office-training  students,  403. 

John  Muir  School,  Berkeley,  Calif.,  landscape  plan,  64. 

Johnson,  George  E.,  work  of,  for  playground  movement,  219. 

Jordan,  Arthur  L.,  chapter  by,  on  physics  and  chemistry,  350. 

Jumping-pit,  at  Emerson  School,  Oakland,  Calif.,  15,  238. 

Junior  chambers  of  commerce,  402. 

Junior  high  schools,  location  of,  2,  3 ; avoiding  duplication  of  de- 
partments in  elementary  schools  and,  2,  4 ; use  of,  as  community 
centers,  8 ; play  areas  and  equipment  for,  8 ; planning  and 
architecture  of,  23;  requirements  for  buildings  for,  71-72;  or- 
ganization of,  as  affecting  buildings,  111  ff. ; academic,  industrial, 
neighborhood  or  community,  and  cosmopolitan  types  of,  in- 
x 1 2 ; photographs  of,  112-114,  119-120,  124;  floor  plans  of, 
115,  116-118,  121-123,  125,  128-131;  cosmopolitan  type  of, 
1 12;  science  laboratories  in,  112;  library  in,  112,  293-294; 
office  equipment,  113;  teachers’  rooms,  auditorium,  and  gym- 
nasium, 113-114;  coqrse  of  study,  as  bearing  upon  building 
plans,  1 14;  reasons  for  introduction  of,  126-127 ; arguments  in 
favor  of  comprehensive  type  of,  12  7-13 1 ; determination  of  con- 
tributing area  for,  133 ; best  sizes  for  classrooms,  208 ; place  of 
physical  education  in  curriculum  of,  225;  playground  equip- 
ment for,  241-242 ; administrative  offices  in,  248-249 ; age  of 
pupils  in,  260;  assembly  hall  for,  321,  323  ; music  department 
of,  342,  346;  place  of  science  department  relative  to,  351; 
drawing  department  in,  412 ; shops  for,  465,  467  ; plan  of  house- 
hold art  suite  for,  51 1. 

Kansas  City,  Mo.,  account  of  Lathrop  School  in,  177-178;  Jane 
Hayes  Gates  Institute  in,  190,  194-195. 

Kenilworth,  111.,  New  Trier  Township  High  School,  15,  41 ; cafe- 
teria, 517,  659,  660,  661,  662. 

Keys  for  gymnasium  lockers,  226. 

Kidder,  Architects’  and  Builders’  Pocket  Book,  quoted,  and  cited, 
3i3,  325- 

Kimball,  Heating  and  Ventilating  of  High  Schools,  quoted,  207. 

Kindergartens,  location  of,  88 ; standardization  of  rooms,  95 ; age 
of  pupils  in,  260;  blackboard  data  for,  271;  planning  of  room 
for,  279;  exposure  and  size,  279-281 ; plans  of  rooms,  280,  2S3, 
288;  furnishings  for,  281;  subjects  taught,  281-282;  plans  and 
interior  views,  280,  281,  284-287,  289-290. 

Kingsburg,  Calif.,  Union  High  School  landscape  plan,  67. 

Kingsley,  Clarence  D.,  on  organization  and  administration  of  senior 
high  schools  as  affecting  buildings,  126-153. 

Kinne,  Helen,  Equipment  for  Teaching  Domestic  Science  by,  cited, 
487. 

Kirkwood,  Mo.,  Grammar  School,  106,  107. 


GENERAL  INDEX 


719 


Kitchen,  in  home  economics  department,  200-201,  475;  location 
and  size  of,  203  ; of  cafeteria  for  high  school,  513-519. 

Kitchen  laboratory  in  home-making  departments  of  schools,  200. 

Laboratories,  requirements  for  high  school,  73-74;  science,  in 
junior  high  schools,  112;  size  of,  for  senior  high  schools,  139; 
use  of  rooms  in,  for  recitations,  149,  197  ; science,  in  connection 
with  vocational  industrial  shop,  172;  domestic  science,  at  Jane 
Hayes  Gates  Institute,  194;  agricultural,  198;  kitchen,  in 
home-making  departments  of  schools,  200 ; special,  for  courses 
in  applied  physics,  364-370;  general  science  and  biological, 
385-396 ; commercial  departments  as  educational  experimental, 
397- 

Laboratory,  the  physics,  361;  chemistry,  372-373;  dietetics, 
475,  477;  laundry,  496-498,  503,  504. 

Laboratory  breakage  fund,  science  department,  356-357. 

Laboratory  desk  type  of  arrangement  of  cooking  unit,  home  eco- 
nomics department,  472-473. 

Laclede  Elementary  School,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  86,  87  ; kindergarten, 
287. 

Lafayette  School,  Newark,  N.  J.,  32,  33. 

Lafayette  Bloom  School,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  622,  623. 

Landings  of  stairs,  312. 

Landscape  architecture,  value  of,  69. 

Landscape  designer,  cooperation  of  physical  director  with  architect 
and,  in  planning  school  grounds,  9. 

Landscape  development  of  school  grounds,  61-69;  estimated  cost 
of,  80,  81. 

Lanterns  for  lecture  room  of  science  department,  353-354. 

Lantern  slides  for  science  department,  355. 

Lathrop  School  of  Mechanical  Trades,  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  history 
and  location  of,  177  ; buildings  of,  177-178  ; equipment,  courses, 
and  other  data,  178. 

Laundering,  teaching  of,  494-496. 

Laundry  equipment  in  home  economics  department  of  vocational 
school,  202. 

Laundry  unit,  home  economics  department,  470,  494-498. 

Lavatories  in  school  buildings,  210. 

Lawn  as  surface  of  playground,  xo. 

Lawrence,  Mass.,  assembly  hall  of  Oliver  School  in,  339. 

Lecture  room,  science  department,  353-356;  physics,  357-361; 
chemistry,  372  ; for  courses  in  applied  physics,  372  ; in  drawing 
department,  420. 

Legge,  Robert  T.,  chapter  by,  on  the  hygiene  of  schools,  204-217. 

Legislation  concerning  school  buildings,  suggested,  29. 

Leland  Stanford  Jr.  University  Elementary  School,  Palo  Alto, 
Calif.,  96-99  ; open-air  classroom  at,  212. 

Library,  location  of,  21,  292-293  ; in  high  elementary  school,  71  ; 
requirements  for  high  school,  73  ; estimated  cost  of  equipment, 
81;  in  elementary  school,  95  ; in  junior  high  school,  1 12  ; articu- 
lation of  study  halls  with,  in  high  schools,  147  ; in  large  ele- 
mentary school,  247  ; importance  of,  in  relation  to  whole  school 
plant,  291-292  ; course  in  the  use  of,  recommended,  292  ; ques- 
tion of  size,  293-295  ; interior  construction,  295-296  ; ventila- 
tion and  lighting,  296 ; finish  and  equipment,  297-304  ; fire- 
proofing, 304;  of  music  department,  349;  of  science  depart- 
ment, 352  ; of  drawing  department,  420,  423. 

Lighting,  of  factory  type  of  industrial  school,  162-163;  °f  home 
economics  departments,  203 ; of  schoolrooms  in  general,  208 ; 
of  gymnasium,  229;  of  classrooms,  263-267;  of  school  library, 
296;  of  corridors,  307;  of  stairways,  315;  of  assembly  hall, 
331-332  ; of  physics  lecture  room,  359,  361 ; of  physical  labora- 
tory, 361 ; of  laboratories  used  for  evening  work,  384;  of  book- 
keeping rooms,  405 ; of  drawing  rooms,  415,  416,  423  ; of  school 
shops,  427 ; of  exhibit  room,  463  ; of  laundry  room,  home  eco- 
nomics department,  496;  resume  of  requirements  in  school 
lighting,  557,  559. 

lighting  installation,  design  of,  565-567. 

Lincoln  Elementary  School,  Toledo,  Ohio,  285,  590,  591,  592,  593. 


Lincoln  High  School,  Portland,  Ore.,  152-156;  trade-sewing 
room,  512. 

Lincolnwood  School,  Evanston,  111.,  Assembly  Hall,  338. 

Lindblom  High  School,  Chicago,  111.,  704,  705,  706,  707,  708,  709. 

Linoleum  for  classroom  floors,  276. 

Literature,  taught  in  kindergarten,  281. 

Little  Rock,  Ark.,  Junior  High  School,  1 19-123. 

Location  of  school  buildings,  6,  9. 

Locker  rooms,  school  shops,  427. 

Lockers,  in  gymnasium,  225-226;  in  corridor  walls,  308. 

Lockwood  Elementary  School,  Oakland,  Calif.,  580,  581,  582. 

Logan  County  Industrial  Arts  High  School,  Sterling,  Colo.,  197, 
198. 

Longfellow  School,  Fresno,  Calif.,  grounds  of,  238. 

Los  Angeles,  Calif.,  high  school  landscape  plan,  65;  high  school 
library  regulations  in,  292 ; Lincoln  High  School,  trade-sewing 
room,  512. 

Lunches  for  open-air  classes,  211-212. 

Lunch  rooms,  in  home  economics  work,  202 ; for  teachers,  248 ; 
education  in  management  of,  488. 

Lux  School,  San  Francisco,  Calif.,  teachers’  dining-room,  499,  500 ; 
laundry  room,  502 ; household  arts  classroom,  506 ; teachers’ 
rest  room,  507  ; household  arts  drawing  room,  509. 

McChesney  Elementary  School,  Oakland,  Calif.,  582,  583,  584. 

McCormick  Open  Air  School,  Chicago,  111.,  211. 

McKinley  School,  San  Leandro,  Calif.,  577,  578. 

Machines,  for  direct  and  alternating  current  electricity  laboratory, 
368-369. 

Machine  shop,  in  industrial  arts  department  of  high  school,  74; 
estimated  cost  of  equipment  of,  81 ; construction  and  equipment 
of,  166-167,  434-436. 

Madison,  Elizabeth,  writings  on  school  library  by,  291. 

Manhattan  Trade  School,  New  York  City,  description  of,  191,  193. 

Manual  training,  requirements  for  department,  in  high  elemen- 
tary school,  71 ; in  kindergarten,  282. 

Masonry  work  in  school  construction,  32. 

Massachusetts,  conditions  in,  as  to  high  schools,  132;  size  of 
high  school  classes  in,  140. 

Materials  for  school  buildings,  economy  distinguished  from  cheap- 
ness in,  29,  31. 

Measurement  of  schoolhouse  plan  for  standardization,  rules  for, 
S?I' 

Mechanical  department,  in  low  elementary  school,  70;  in  high 
elementary  school,  71 ; in  junior  high  and  pre-vocational  school, 
71- 

Mechanical  drawing,  in  public  school  curriculum,  411,  412;  high 
school  department  of,  412,  415;  courses  in,  419;  geometrical 
and  trade  drawing  rooms,  419-420. 

Mechanical  plant,  high  school,  requirements  for,  73. 

Mechanics,  courses  in,  364;  laboratory  for,  365. 

Medical  department,  in  low  elementary  school,  70;  in  high  ele- 
mentary school,  71 ; in  junior  high  and  pre-vocational  school, 
71 ; in  high  school,  73. 

Menagerie,  of  biological  laboratory,  393,  395. 

Microscopes,  in  biological  laboratory,  395-396. 

Millinery,  teaching  of,  501. 

Mill  work  for  classroom  interiors,  272. 

Milwaukee,  buildings  of  Trade  School  for  Boys  in,  160;  account 
of  Boys’  Technical  High  School  in,  181-182 ; Public  School  of 
Trades  for  Girls  in,  193. 

Modeste,  Calif.,  high  school  grounds,  62 ; sewing-unit  layout  for 
high  school,  508. 

Monrovia,  Calif.,  Polytechnic  High  School,  673,  674,  675. 

Morgan,  Agnes  Fay,  chapter  by,  on  the  home  economics  depart- 
ment, 468-512. 

Morrill  Act,  passage  of,  468  n. 

Mosswood  Park,  Oakland,  Calif.,  tennis  courts  at,  240;  hockey 
field  at,  241. 


720 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Motive  of  American  school  architecture,  18. 

Mott  School,  Toledo,  Ohio,  613,  614,  6x5,  616. 

Moving  pictures,  apparatus  in  auditorium  of  junior  high  school, 
113-114;  screen  for,  in  school  assembly  halls,  324 ; booths  for, 
in  assembly  halls,  327,  328,  331 ; apparatus  in  science  depart- 
ment, 353-356- 

Mxdtiple  uses,  principle  of,  applied  to  rooms  in  high  school,  149. 

Museum  cases  in  school  libraries,  298,  304. 

Music,  taught  in  kindergarten,  281. 

Music  department,  342-349 ; separate  building  for,  in  high  school, 
9;  requirements  for,  in  high  elementary  school,  71;  in  junior 
high  and  pre-vocational  school,  72;  in  senior  high  school,  74; 
estimated  cost  of  equipment,  81. 

Music  room,  combination  of,  with  auditorium,  in  elementary 
school,  88. 

Myers,  Romaine  W.,  chapter  by,  on  electrical  installation  and 
illumination,  550-568. 

Naramore,  Floyd  A.,  suggestion  by,  for  tacking  strips,  271. 

Nash,  Jay  B.,  chapter  by,  on  physical  education,  218-242. 

National  Education  Association,  recommendations  of,  on  size  of 
school  sites,  6,  8. 

Nationalizing  of  immigrants,  22.  See  Americanization  of  for- 
eigners. 

Natural  play  activities  in  physical  education,  222-223. 

Nature  study,  in  kindergarten,  282. 

Neighborhood  type  of  junior  high  school,  111-112. 

Newark,  N.  J.,  Lafayette  School  in,  32,  33;  South  Side  High 
School  in,  133-137;  Boys’  Vocational  School  in,  188-190,  191, 
192;  Girls’  Vocational  School  in,  200;  kindergarten  of  Cleve- 
land School,  290 ; assembly  hall  of  South  Side  High  School,  340  ; 
State  Normal  School,  599;  Ridge  School,  600,  601. 

New  Bedford,  Mass,,  building  of  industrial  school  in,  160;  ac- 
count of  Vocational  School,  182-183. 

New  Couch  School,  Portland,  Ore.,  fan  installation,  539,  540. 

New  Orleans,  La.,  Lrancis  Nicholls  School  in,  191. 

New  Trier  Township  High  School,  Kenilworth,  111.,  15,  41 ; foun- 
dry, 439;  cafeteria,  517,  659,  660,  661,  662. 

New  York  City,  Manhattan  Trade  School  in,  191,  193;  investi- 
gation of  ventilation  question  by  Health  Department  of,  207 ; 
playground  movement  in,  219;  elementary  school  floor  plans 
in,  255,  259  ; Regis  High  School,  690,  691,  692,  693,  694,  695,  696. 

New  York  State,  law  of,  in  regard  to  physical  education,  220. 

Nolan,  Thomas,  editor  of  Kidder’s  Architects'  and  Builders'  Pocket 
Book,  313. 

Northampton,  Mass.,  Smith  Agricultural  School  at,  196-197,  199. 

Nurses,  school,  212,  216,  217. 

Oakland,  Calif.,  layout  of  Emerson  School  site,  12  and  234 ; 14-15  ; 
views  of  Emerson  School,  25-28 ; views  of  Clawson  Elementary 
School,  89-93  j kindergarten  porch,  Emerson  School,  236  ; ap- 
paratus in  play  yard  of  Emerson  School,  237-238,  241 ; Bushrod 
Playground,  239;  Mosswood  Park  tennis  courts,  240;  track  in 
Bushrod  Playground,  241 ; hockey  field,  Mosswood  Park,  241 ; 
classroom,  Clawson  Schoi  1,  270;  open  windows,  Emerson 
school,  273  ; kindergarten,  Clawson  School,  281 ; kindergarten 
porch,  Clawson  School,  282;  theater-auditorium  in,  329,  330; 
Clawson  School  manual-training  room,  461 ; Clawson  School 
domest  c science  room,  491 ; plumbing  installation,  Clawson 
School,  543,  544,  546,  548;  Santa  Fe  Elementary  School,  579, 
580;  Lockwood  Elementary  School,  580,  581,582;  McChesney 
Elementary  School,  582,  583,  584;  Durant  Elementary  School, 
604,  605,  606;  Claremont  Elementary  School,  632,  633  ; Jeffer- 
son School,  634,  635,  636. 

Oakland  Technical  High  School,  Oakland,  Calif.,  group  plan  of, 
I3>  I5;  views  of,  42-49;  description  of  administrative  offices, 
249-250;  use  of  library  by  pupils,  293  ; physical  lecture  room, 
356;  physics  laboratory,  362;  chemistry  lecture  room,  377; 
chemistry  laboratory,  378;  bookkeeping  department,  404; 


typing  room,  406;  freehand  drawing  room,  417;  shops,  425, 
429,  433,  441,  460;  cooking-room,  487;  costume-designing 
classroom,  510. 

Oak  Park  School,  Sacramento,  Calif.,  30,  31. 

Oakton  School  District  76,  Evanston,  111.,  102,  103. 

Odors,  in  relation  to  school  hygiene,  205. 

Office,  arrangement  of  library  and,  in  elementary  school,  95; 
music,  in  music  department  of  high  school,  349. 

Office  equipment,  junior  high  school,  113. 

Offices,  in  gymnasium,  225;  administrative,  in  public  school 
buildings,  243-252;  of  commercial  department,  399 ; teachers’, 
in  commercial  department,  407 ; of  drawing  department,  420 ; 
of  school  shops,  427. 

Office  training,  in  commercial  department  of  high  school,  402-403. 

Oiling  of  classroom  floors,  275-276. 

Oil  macadam  surface  for  playground,  10-11. 

O’Leary,  Iris  Prouty,  Cooking  in  the  Vocational  School,  etc.,  by, 
cited,  487. 

Oliver  School,  Lawrence,  Mass.,  assembly  hall,  339. 

Open-air  schools,  211-212;  classrooms  in,  and  plans  of,  2 12-2 14; 
discussed,  527. 

Open  type  of  plan  in  school  architecture,  24. 

Orchestra,  accommodations  for,  in  assembly  halls,  343,  344,  345, 
346. 

Organ,  in  assembly  halls,  327  ; a valuable  acquisition  to  any  high 
school,  348. 

Ornamental  embellishments  in  school  architecture,  infrequent  use 
of,  18. 

Outdoor  laboratory  for  study  of  biology,  396. 

Ovens,  in  cafeteria  kitchen,  515. 

Overhead  lighting  for  classrooms,  264. 

Ozonating  air,  ventilating  by,  524. 

Packard,  Frank  L.,  architect,  influence  of  work  of,  18. 

Painting,  inspection  of,  in  school  construction,  32 ; of  classrooms, 
275;  of  corridors,  308-309;  of  assembly  halls,  332-333. 

Painting  and  decorating,  workshops  for  teaching,  169-170. 

Palo  Alto,  Calif.,  Leland  Stanford  Jr.  University  Elementary 
School  in,  96-99,  212. 

Parkersburg,  W.  Va.,  school  assembly  hall,  341,  686,  687,  688,  689. 

Partitions,  movable,  in  industrial  schools,  163 ; for  inclosing 
stairways,  311-312. 

Part-time  schools,  158;  accommodations  for,  160;  bu  ldings  for, 
172;  home  economics  taught  in,  199. 

Pattern-making  shop,  room  for,  and  equipment,  171-172,  430-431. 

Pergola  porch,  open,  at  Emerson  School,  Oakland,  Calif.,  15. 

Periods  in  high  school  day,  relation  of.  to  accommodations  needed, 
148 ; length  of,  148. 

Periods  of  leadership  and  instruction  in  physical  education,  221- 
222. 

Perkins,  Dwight  H.,  architect,  influence  of  work  of,  18. 

Personal  combative  activities  in  physical  education,  223. 

Physical  director,  collaboration  of,  in  planning  school  grounds,  9. 

Physical  education,  for  pupils  who  would  ordinarily  leave  school 
after  sixth  grade,  4 ; facilities  for,  in  elementary  schools,  93 ; 
time-allotment  for,  in  high  schools,  147-148;  need  of,  218-219; 
history  of,  219;  rise  of  playground  movement,  219;  new  era 
in,  from  1914  to  1918,  219-220 ; State  laws  concerning,  220-221 ; 
definition  and  aims  of,  221 ; periods  of  leadership  and  instruction 
in,  221-222;  phases  of,  222-225;  place  of,  in  the  curriculum, 
225  ; plant  and  equipment  for,  225-237. 

Physical-training  periods,  classification  and  relationships  between, 
221-222. 

Physics,  provision  for  department  of,  357-364;  applied,  364-372. 
See  Science  department. 

Physics  department,  high  school,  requirements  for,  74. 

Physiology,  laboratory  accommodations,  390-391. 

Picture  moldings  in  school  corridors,  309. 

Pictures,  for  physics  lecture  room,  359. 


GENERAL  INDEX 


721 


Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  playground  movement  in,  219;  interior  views 
of  Schenley  High  School,  296,  297,  313,  315,  334,  383,  391,  492, 
501,  663,  664,  665. 

Placement  bureau,  commercial  department  of  high  school,  401. 

Planning  of  school  buildings,  18,  20-21. 

Plans,  for  school  sites,  1-2,  3 ; of  playgrounds,  5,  242  ; of  athletic 
fields,  7,  15  ; of  school  grounds,  12-14,  26,  37,  43,  62,  64-68,  97, 
no,  127-128,  178,  234,  238;  of  shops,  165-171,  198,  426,  428, 
432,  438,  440,  445,  447,  450,  454,  457,  459!  of  vocational  home 
economics  department,  201 ; of  unit  kitchens,  202 ; of  eye- 
strain-preventive desks,  208,  209 ; of  lockers  in  corridors,  308. 
See  Floor  plans. 

Planting  on  school  grounds,  relation  of  architecture  and,  61,  63; 
border  for  fence,  69. 

Plastering,  quality  of,  in  school  construction,  32;  for  classrooms, 
274- 

Play  activities  in  physical  education,  222-223. 

Playground  movement,  rise  of,  219 ; a phase  of  physical  education 
program,  225. 

Playgrounds,  importance  of,  1 ; plans  of,  5,  242 ; of  elementary 
schools,  8;  of  junior  high  schools,  8-9;  of  high  schools,  10; 
surfacing  of,  10-11;  fencing  of,  11;  community  use  of,  11 ; 
toilet,  dressing-room,  and  other  accommodations  for,  11,  14; 
location  of  accommodations,  21;  for  elementary  schools,  85, 
96;  photographs  of,  239-241;  for  kindergartens,  279,  281. 

Playground  supervisor,  offices  for,  in  schools,  245,  248. 

Playrooms  in  schools,  an  essential,  20;  covered,  88. 

Play  yard,  equipment,  plan,  and  size  of,  236-237;  views  and 
plans  of,  237,  239,  241,  242. 

Plumbing,  room  for  instruction  in,  and  equipment,  171 ; of  school 
buildings,  209-211;  special,  for  science  department,  352-353; 
complexity  of  modern  systems,  541 ; survey  of  building  site  and 
excavation  work,  541-542;  soil  pipes,  cesspools,  septic  tanks, 
and  roof  drains,  542-543 ; toilet  facilities,  materials,  and  under- 
ground pipes,  543-544 ; constant  inspection  to  be  maintained, 
544;  union  connections,  valves,  wall  and  floor  plates,  544-545  ; 
water  supply  and  water  distribution,  545,  547  ; hot-water  circu- 
lation, 547 ; fire  protection  system,  547-548 ; standpipe  and 
fire-hose  installation,  548-549 ; pipe  covering  and  plumbing 
fixtures,  549. 

Plumbing  shop,  functions  and  equipment  of,  453. 

Polytechnic  High  School,  Monrovia,  Calif.,  673,  674,  675. 

Pontiac,  Mich.,  High  School,  gymnasium  of,  227,  656,  657, 
658. 

Portable  schoolhouses,  stoves  used  for  heating,  527-528. 

Portland,  Ore.,  Lincoln  High  School,  152-156;  Benson  Poly- 
technic High  School,  434,  448,  449,  455,  458,  528,  529-536; 
Franklin  High  School,  537,  538,  547 ; New  Couch  School,  539, 
540;  Fernwood  Grammar  School,  620,  621. 

Power  food  chopper,  school  cafeteria,  517. 

Power  hammer,  for  school  forge  shop,  444;  foundation  for,  444, 
446. 

Power  plants  in  industrial  schools,  163. 

Practice  house  in  vocational  home  economics  department,  202. 

Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  laboratories,  367,  368,  370,  371, 
373- 

Pressure  cookers  for  school  kitchens,  488. 

Pre-vocational  school,  requirements  for  buildings  for,  71-72. 

Primary  grades,  provision  for  schoolroom  activities  in,  95-96. 
See  also  Elementary  school. 

Principal’s  offices,  requirements  for,  70,  71,  72;  cost  of  equip- 
ment, 81;  in  small  elementary  schools,  244-245;  in  large  ele- 
mentary schools,  246;  in  medium-sized  high  schools,  248. 

Principals’  secretaries,  403. 

Printing,  rooms  for  instruction  in,  and  equipment,  75,  168-169, 
451-453,  467;  high  school  course  in,  425. 

Program  systems,  electric,  for  schools,  555. 

Projectoscope  equipment  in  elementary  schools,  94. 

Psychological  tests,  commercial  department  of  high  school,  401. 


Psychrometer,  wet-bulb,  for  determining  temperature  and  relative 
humidity  of  rooms,  205. 

Puente,  Calif.,  Union  High  School  plan,  66. 

Pullman  Free  School  of  Manual  Training,  187 ; description  of, 
187-188. 

Pupil,  cost  per,  as  method  of  computing  cost  of  school  buildings, 
75-76. 

Pupils,  reach  of,  271. 

Pupils’  service  department,  in  low  elementary  schools,  71;  in 
high  elementary  schools,  71 ; in  junior  high  and  pre-vocational 
schools,  72  ; in  high  schools,  73. 

Quietness,  an  essential  in  assembly  halls,  327. 

Radiators,  recesses  for,  in  school  corridors,  309. 

Radio  classes,  407. 

Railroad  crossings,  attention  to,  in  planning  for  school  sites,  2. 

Railroad  tracks,  avoidance  of  school  sites  along,  6. 

Ramps  in  school  buildings,  318. 

Ranken  School  of  Trades.  See  David  Ranken  Jr.  School  of  Me- 
chanical Trades. 

Reach  of  pupils,  data  concerning,  271. 

Recitation  rooms,  size  and  number  of,  in  high  schools,  139 ; com- 
bination of  laboratories  and,  149,  197. 

Recreational  facilities  in  elementary  schools,  93. 

Reed,  George  E.,  chapter  by,  on  heating  and  ventilating,  523-540; 
chapter  by,  on  plumbing,  541-549. 

Reflectoscopes  for  lecture  room,  science  department,  354. 

Refrigerators  for  cooking  unit,  home  economics  department,  484. 

Regis  High  School,  New  York  City,  690,  691,  692,  693,  694,  695, 
696. 

Registrar’s  office  in  high  school,  72,  251. 

Related  activities  included  under  physical  education,  223,  225. 

Requirements  for  schools,  lists  of,  70-75. 

Research,  recent  impetus  given  to,  21-22. 

Rest  rooms  in  schools,  245,  246-247,  249. 

Rezin  Orr  Public  School,  Chicago,  Ilk,  586,  587,  588,  589. 

Rhythm,  taught  in  kindergarten,  281-282. 

Rhythmic  activities  in  physical  education,  223. 

Richardson,  Anna  E.,  account  of  vocational  home  economics 
schools  by,  199-203. 

Risers  of  stairs,  313. 

Rochester,  Minn.,  school  library  regulations  at,  291-292. 

Rochester,  N.  Y.,  industrial  school,  building  of,  160. 

Roof  dampers,  use  of  and  necessity  for,  540. 

Running  track,  in  indoor  gymnasium,  226. 

Rural  communities,  the  6-4-2  plan  in,  127  ; union  high  schools  for, 
132. 

Rural  schools,  farm  bookkeeping  in,  404. 

Sabine,  Wallace  C.,  work  on  architectural  acoustics  by,  cited,  324, 
325- 

Sacramento,  Calif.,  Oak  Park  School,  30,  31;  kindergarten  of 
Fremont  School,  290. 

Safety  welfare  work  in  schools,  212-213,  216-217. 

St.  Louis,  Mo.,  Clark  Elementary  and  Soldan  High  School,  19; 
Bryan  Mullanphy  Elementary  School,  20-24,  285,  286;  La- 
clede Elementary  School,  86,  87,  287;  Glasgow  School,  104, 
Ashland  School,  105  ; Grover  Cleveland  High  School,  141-146, 
33L  332,  349,  352,  361,  394,  4°7,  421,  422,  494,  505,  516;  de- 
scription of  David  Ranken  Jr.  School  of  Mechanical  Trades, 
174-175- 

Salesmanship,  courses  in,  in  commercial  department  of  high  school, 
402  ; general  and  specialty,  402. 

Sand  box,  in  space  for  small  children,  elementary  school,  8;  in 
junior  high  school,  9;  at  Emerson  School,  Oakland,  Calif.,  14, 

15,  237,  238. 

San  Diego,  Calif.,  Francis  W.  Parker  Elementary  School,  213; 
kindergarten  of  Francis  W.  Parker  School,  284;  study-room 
library  of  high  school,  298,  594,  595,  596. 


722 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Sand  table,  in  general  science  laboratory,  388. 

San  Francisco,  Calif.,  interior  views  of  Lux  School,  499,  500,  502, 
S06,  507.  5°9- 

Sanitary  installations  in  school  buildings,  77. 

Sanitation,  of  school  sites,  6;  laboratory  accommodations  for 
courses  in,  390-391. 

San  Leandro,  Calif.,  McKinley  School,  577,  578;  Washington 
School,  578. 

San  Luis  Obispo,  Calif.,  Elementary  School,  631. 

Santa  Barbara,  Calif.,  High  School,  proposed  new,  14,  127-131. 

Santa  Fe  Elementary  School,  Oakland,  Calif.,  579,  580. 

Santa  Monica,  Calif.,  High  School,  675,  676,  677,  678,  679. 

Schedule  providing  for  limited  introduction  of  supervised  study 
in  high  schools,  150-151,  153. 

Schenley  High  School,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  library,  296;  stairway  at, 
313;  main  entrance  lobby,  315;  auditorium,  334;  chemistry 
laboratory,  383 ; general  science  laboratory,  391 ; domestic- 
science  room,  492;  model  dining-room,  501,  663,  664,  665. 

School  architecture,  motive  of  American,  18 ; formation  of  plan, 
18,  20-21;  correlation  of  departments,  21;  planning  school  of 
the’future,  21-24,  573  ; the  exterior  composition,  24-28;  ques- 
tion of  standardization,  28-29  ; relation  of  planting  and,  61,  63. 

School  bank,  the,  401. 

School-building  codes,  securing  of  uniformity  in,  29. 

School-building  inspectors,  31-33. 

School  buildings,  proper  planning  for,  18,  20-21  ; of  the  future, 
21-24 ; exterior  of,  24,  26-28  ; pros  and  cons  of  standardization, 
28-29 ; legislation  suggested  for  governing  construction,  29 ; 
materials  for,  29,  31 ; inspection  of  construction  work,  31-33; 
choice  of  architect  and  his  service,  33-3 5 ; cost  of,  70-76  ; types 
of  construction  for,  76-77 : classification  of  heating  and  venti- 
lation, 77;  sanitary  installations,  77;  electrical  installations, 
77-78,  550-568  ; classification  of  educational  grades,  78  ; calcu- 
lating costs  of  heating  and  ventilating  systems  and  electrical 
installation,  78-79;  cost  of  equipment,  80-81;  comparative 
costs  and  records,  81-82  ; static  capacity  as  a basis  for  comput- 
ing costs,  82-83  ; for  vocational  schools,  157  ff. ; new,  for  trade 
or  industrial  education,  162-163  ; for  agricultural  schools,  195- 
197  ; matters  of  hygiene  connected  with,  204-217 ; adminis- 
trative offices  in,  243-252 ; the  kindergarten,  279-291 ; the 
library,  291-304;  corridors,  stairways,  and  entrances,  305-319  ; 
the  assembly  hall,  320-341;  the  music  department,  342-349; 
physics  and  chemistry  departments,  350-384;  general  science 
and  biological  laboratories,  385-396;  the  commercial  depart- 
ment, 397-4x0;  the  drawing  department,  411-423  ; the  indus- 
trial arts  department,  424;  the  home  economics  department, 
468-512;  the  cafeteria,  513-522;  heating  and  ventilating  of, 
523-540;  plumbing  system  of,  541-549;  electrical  installation 
and  illumination,  550-568;  standards  of  planning  of,  569-574. 

School  clinics,  213,  216-217. 

School  day,  periods  in,  and  length  of,  148. 

School  farms,  396. 

School  grounds,  size  of,  6,  8 ; avoidance  of  waste  in  planning,  9 ; 
plans  of,  12-13,  62,  64-68;  landscape  development  of,  61-69. 

Schoolhouse  planning,  standards  of,  569-574. 

School  hygiene,  204-217. 

School  library,  chapter  on,  291-304.  See  Library. 

Schools,  part-time  and  evening,  158. 

School  sites.  See  Sites  of  schools. 

Science,  modern  teaching  of  general,  385. 

Science  building,  estimated  cost  of,  and  of  equipment,  80,  81. 

Science  department,  location  of,  21;  planning  of,  22;  require- 
ments for,  in  high  elementary  school,  71 ; in  junior  high  and 
pre-vocational  school,  72;.  in  high  school,  73-74;  room  for,  in 
elementary  school,  93;  laboratories  for,  in  junior  high  school, 
112;  connected  with  vocational  industrial  shop,  172;  plans 
for,  in  school  building,  350-357;  electric  service  for,  552,  554. 

Screens  for  lantern  pictures,  science  department,  354. 

Secretaries,  student,  403  ; principals’,  403. 


Seesaws,  in  small  children’s  space,  elementary  schools,  8;  in 
junior  high  schools,  9. 

Self-testing  activities  in  physical  education,  222. 

Senior  high  school.  See  High  school. 

Septic  tanks  for  schools,  542. 

Service  department,  high  school,  requirements  for,  73. 

Serving  counter,  school  cafeteria,  520-521. 

Sewing,  teaching  of,  501-509. 

Sewing  department,  high  school,  74. 

Shades  for  classroom  windows,  277 ; use  of  Venetian  blinds,  277- 
278. 

Sheet-metal  shop,  room  fitted  up  for,  and  equipment,  170-171; 
arrangement  of,  453,  456. 

Shops,  location  of,  21,  425-430;  in  industrial  arts  department  of 
high  school,  74,  424-425;  estimated  cost  of  building  and  of 
equipment,  80,  81 ; in  industrial  type  of  junior  high  school,  111 ; 
size  of,  for  senior  high  school,  139 ; equipment  for,  161 ; floor 
space  for,  164;  floor  plans  of,  165-171,  198,  426,  428,  432,  438, 
440,  445,  447,  4So,  454,  457,  459!  description  of  typical  shop, 
165-166  ; separate  building  for,  197  ; combination,  197-198. 

Shop  window,  a model,  402. 

Shorthand  and  typing  department,  high  school,  73. 

Shower  baths,  14;  locating  the,  21;  a necessary  part  of  school 
equipment,  93  ; in  gymnasium,  226. 

Shrubs  in  school  grounds,  64. 

Sinks,  for  unit  kitchen  arrangement,  483 ; in  cafeteria  kitchen, 
_ 516-5x7. 

Sisson,  Ralph  C.,  chapter  by,  on  the  drawing  department,  41 1-423. 

Sites  of  schools,  selection  of,  1 ; foresight  necessary  in  choice  of, 
1-2  ; general  plan  of,  2,  3 ; advantages  of  zone  planning,  2,  4; 
characteristics  of  good,  4,  6 ; size  of,  6,  8 ; of  high  schools,  9 ; 
relation  of,  to  cost  of  school  buildings,  75  ; size  and  location,  for 
elementary  school,  85;  for  junior  high  school,  111 ; of  schools 
for  trade  or  industrial  education,  162 ; importance  of,  in  con- 
sidering ceiling  height,  260;  and  lighting  of  classrooms,  263. 

Skokie  Elementary  School,  Winnetka,  111.,  34,  35,  36. 

Slate,  use  of,  for  blackboards,  268-271. 

Slides,  in  small  children’s  space,  elementary  school,  8 ; in  junior 
high  schools,  9;  at  Emerson  School,  Oakland,  Calif.,  14,  238. 

Slides,  lantern,  for  science  department,  355. 

Smith,  Ruth  McNary,  Equipping  a Diet  Kitchen  by,  cited,  490. 

Smith  Agricultural  School,  Northampton,  Mass.,  196-197,  199. 

Smith-Hughes  Act,  for  promoting  vocational  education,  159 ; 
impetus  given  vocational  education  by,  427. 

Snedden,  David,  quoted  on  “home-making”  education,  469. 

Snyder,  C.  B.  J.,  influence  of  work  of,  18 ; cited  on  standardization, 
28;  classroom  plans  by-,  255,  259;  quoted  concerning  stair  re- 
quirements, 31 1 ; plans  of  stairs  by,  314;  quoted  on  fireproof 
stairways,  318. 

Soccer  posts,  at  Emerson  School,  Oakland,  Calif.,  14,  238. 

Socialization,  emphasized  in  kindergarten,  282. 

Sound,  action  of,  and  its  control,  in  assembly  halls,  324-327. 

Sound  insulators  for  classroom  floors,  272. 

South  Side  High  School,  Newark,  N.  J.,  133-137;  assembly  hall, 
340. 

Special  corrective  period  in  physical  education,  222. 

Special  rooms  in  elementary  school,  88. 

Special  school  buildings,  types  of,  160. 

Special-type  high  schools,  comprehensive  vs.,  127-131. 

Springfield,  Mass.,  industrial  school,  building  of,  160. 

Stables,  location  of  schools  relative  to,  6. 

Stacks,  library,  295-296. 

Staff  of  senior  high  school,  relation  of.  to  accommodations,  13S-139. 

Stage  of  assembly  hall,  320,  323-324. 

Stairs  and  stairways  in  elementary  school,  85,  88 ; in  schools  in 
general,  310-318. 

Standardization,  in  school  planning,  28-29  > of  classrooms,  SS. 

Standards  of  schoolhouse  planning,  569-574. 

Standpipes  in  school  buildings,  548-549. 


GENERAL  INDEX 


723 


States,  promotion  of  vocational  education  by,  159;  laws  of,  con- 
cerning physical  education,  220-221. 

Static  capacity,  computation  of  school-building  costs  by,  82-83. 

Steam  and  gas  engines,  courses  in,  364;  laboratory  for,  367-368. 

Steam  systems  of  heating,  531. 

Steel  work  in  school  construction,  32. 

Stenotypy  classes,  407. 

Stereopticon  equipment  in  elementary  schools,  94. 

Sterling,  Colo.,  Logan  County  Industrial  Arts  High  School  at,  197, 
198. 

Storage  spaces  under  stairs,  318. 

Store,  the  school,  401-402. 

Storeroom,  for  physics  lecture-room  apparatus,  361 ; the  central, 
for  industrial  arts  department,  465;  of  cafeteria,  519-520. 

Storerooms,  connected  with  school  playgrounds,  14 ; connected 
with  physics  laboratory,  363 ; for  applied  physics  laboratories, 
370;  for  biological  laboratory,  393;  for  drawing  department, 
420-421. 

Stoves,  in  domestic-science  department,  481 ; use  of,  for  heating, 
527-528. 

Street-car  lines,  precautions  in  locating  schools  near,  6,  9. 

Street  conditions,  attention  to,  in  planning  for  school  sites, 
2,  6,  9. 

Strength  of  materials,  courses  in,  364;  laboratory  for,  365. 

Stuart,  Reginald  R.,  chapter  by,  on  the  commercial  department, 
397-410. 

Study,  provisions  for,  in  high  schools,  140 ; directed  and  undirected, 
140,  142  ; schedule  providing  for  limited  introduction  of  super- 
vised, in  high  schools,  150-151,  153. 

Study  halls,  size  of,  in  high  schools,  147;  articulation  of,  with 
library,  147. 

Study-sittings,  number  of,  in  high  schools,  142,  147. 

Supervised  play  period  in  physical  education,  221. 

Supervised  study  in  high  schools,  150-151,  153. 

Supplies,  kept  in  school  store,  401-402  ; regulations  governing,  for 
school  shops,  465. 

Surfacing  of  school  playgrounds,  10-n. 

Surveys  of  proposed  school  sites,  6. 

Swedish  system  of  physical  education,  219. 

Swimming-pools,  for  junior  high  schools,  8 ; essential  in  school 
equipment,  20,  93;  locating,  21;  in  high  schools,  75;  plans 
and  view  of,  224,  231,  232  ; specifications  and  requirements  for, 
235-236. 

Swings,  in  small  children’s  space,  elementary  schools,  8 ; in  junior 
high  schools,  9. 

Switchboards,  for  lecture  rooms,  357,  358;  laboratory,  362,  365, 
37°,  373-375,  379;  for  electric  service,  554-555- 

Tables,  for  chemistry  laboratory,  375,  381 ; in  cooking  unit,  home 
economics  department,  477,  479,  481. 

Tabulation  of  accommodations  needed  in  high  schools,  148-150. 

Tacking  strips,  suggestions  and  devices  for,  271. 

Taunton,  Mass.,  Taunton  High  School,  666,  667,  668,  669,  670, 
671,  672. 

Teacher’s  closet  in  wardrobe,  267-268. 

Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  laundry  laboratory  at,  497, 
504- 

Teachers’  dining-rooms,  499,  500. 

Teachers’  lunch  room  in  large  elementary  school,  248. 

Teachers’  rooms,  in  elementary  schools,  70,  71,  245,  246-247;  in 
junior  high  and  pre-vocational  schools,  71,  113  ; in  high  schools, 
73,  249. 

Technical  drawing  room,  420. 

Technical  education  for  adults,  384. 

Teeth,  care  of  school  children’s,  216,  217. 

Telephone,  training  business  students  in  use  of,  401. 

Telephone  system  in  schools,  556-557. 

Temperature,  of  rooms,  205;  of  open-air  classrooms,  211. 

Temperature  control  in  school  buildings,  540. 


Tenney,  Walter  A.,  chapter  by,  on  the  industrial  arts  department, 
424-467. 

Tennis  courts,  for  elementary  schools,  8,  237;  for  junior  high 
schools,  8;  at  Mosswood  Park,  Oakland,  Calif.,  240. 

Tests,  psychological,  in  commercial  department  of  high  school,  401. 

Textile  apparatus,  clothing  unit  of  home  economics  department, 
5°2,  504- 

Texture,  harmony  of,  in  plant  composition,  63. 

Theater-auditorium,  Oakland,  Calif.,  329,  330. 

Three-block  system,  introduction  of,  126-127;  variations  in,  127. 

Toilet  rooms,  near  playgrounds,  11,  14;  in  school  buildings,  210; 
in  gymnasium,  226;  ventilation  of,  540;  plumbing  of,  543; 
plumbing  fixtures  for,  549. 

Toledo,  Ohio,  Lincoln  School,  kindergarten,  285,  590,  591,  592, 
593  ; Mott  School,  613,  614,  615,  616. 

Tools,  for  manual-training  and  technical  high  schools,  161 ; for 
equipment  of  shops,  166-171. 

Trade  drawing  room,  419-420. 

Trade  education,  growing  out  of  domestic  arts,  469.  See  Home 
economics. 

Trade  schools,  158;  planning  of  buildings  for,  159;  photographs 
of,  172,  176;  for  girls,  190-195  ; home-making  departments  of, 
200.  See  also  Industrial  schools  and  Vocational  schools. 

Trade -sewing  equipment,  507,  509. 

Trade  shops  of  high  school,  location  of,  9. 

Trade  unit  plan  of  construction  for  industrial  schools,  164-165. 

Transoms  in  classrooms,  274. 

Treads  of  stairs,  313,  315. 

Trees  in  school  grounds,  64. 

Trenton,  N.  J.,  Junior  High  School,  112-118,  333  ; gymnasium  of, 
229  ; printing  shop  of,  452  ; cooking  room  of,  498. 

Trim  for  classroom  interiors,  272. 

Tuition  at  vocational  schools,  175,  181. 

Types  of  construction  for  school  buildings,  76-77. 

Typewriter  desks,  405. 

Typewriters,  care  and  repair  of,  406  ; selection  of  makes,  407,  409. 

Typing,  importance  of,  405  ; classes  in,  rooms  for,  and  desks,  405. 

Unification,  comprehensive  high  school  as  an  instrument  for,  129. 

Union  high  schools,  132. 

Unit  basis,  construction  of  factory  type  of  school  building  on,  165. 

Unit  kitchens,  home  economics  department,  473,  475,  477. 

Unit  plan  of  buildings  at  Wentworth  Institute,  184-186. 

Unit  trade  courses,  equipment  of  typical  shops  for,  164-172. 

Unit  trade  schools,  160. 

University  of  California,  Berkeley,  Calif.  (Dental  Clinic),  216; 
(bookstack),  297. 

Utensils,  for  equipment  of  unit  kitchen,  home  economics  depart- 
ment, 484-487. 

Vacuum  piping  for  science  department,  353. 

Varnish,  floor,  for  classrooms,  276. 

Vegetable-peeling  machine,  school  cafeteria,  519. 

Vegetable  preparation  table,  cafeteria  kitchen,  517-518. 

Venetian  blinds,  use  of,  for  window  shades,  277-278. 

Ventilating  systems,  types  of,  77 ; calculating  cost  of,  78-79. 

Ventilation,  means  of,  in  elementary  schools,  94 ; of  home  eco- 
nomics departments,  203  ; of  school  buildings  in  general,  204- 
205;  summary  of  requirements  for,  206;  of  toilet  rooms,  210, 
540 ; of  gymnasium,  229,  236  ; location  of  air  registers,  276-277  ; 
of  library  rooms,  296  ; of  lecture  room,  science  department,  353  ; 
of  laundry  room,  home  economics  department,  496-497 ; criti- 
cism and  discussion  of  mechanical,  523-524;  standard  of 
purity,  524;  ozonating,  524;  air  filters,  524-525;  humidity, 
525-526;  air  volume,  526;  cost,  526;  by  windows,  526-527; 
open-air  rooms,  527 ; powers  of,  possessed  by  jacketed  stoves, 
528;  where  furnaces  are  used,  528-531 ; plant  for  heating  and, 
535-54°- 

Vermont  high  school  system,  127;  for  rural  areas,  133. 


724 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Vestibules  of  entrance  to  school  buildings,  318. 

Vibration,  guarding  against,  in  locating  science  group  rooms,  351. 

Vice-principal’s  suite,  high  school,  cost  of  equipment,  81. 

Vines  on  playground  fences,  n. 

Visual  instruction,  equipment  for,  in  elementary  schools,  94. 

Vocational  education,  for  special  type  of  pupils,  4 ; comprehensive 
high  school  best  for  effectiveness  of,  128-129;  aims  of  general 
education  contrasted  with  those  of,  157-158;  recent  develop- 
ment of,  158;  agencies  which  are  promoting,  159;  trend  of 
high  school  education  toward,  412. 

Vocational  music,  equipment  for  instruction  in,  346,  348. 

Vocational  schools,  organization  of,  157-158;  function  of,  158- 
159  i types  of  and  buildings  for,  158,  160-161 ; description  of 
typical,  173-190;  floor  plans  of,  173-175,  1 77,  179-181,183- 
187, 189-193,  196-199,  201-202 ; photographs  of,  182,  184,  188  ; 
equipment  of,  195-198;  for  teaching  home  economics,  199-203. 

Volley  ball  courts,  for  elementary  schools,  8;  for  junior  high 
schools,  8;  at  Emerson  School,  Oakland,  Calif.,  14,  238. 

Walls  of  classrooms,  treatment  of,  208;  material  for,  272-273  ; of 
corridors,  307-308. 

Ward,  Gilbert  0.,  writings  on  school  library  by,  291. 

Wardrobes,  location  of,  relative  to  classrooms,  267-268. 

Warren,  Irene,  writings  on  school  library  by,  291. 

Wasco,  Calif.,  Union  High  School,  arrangement  of  buildings  and 
grounds  ojf,  242. 

Washing  machines,  school  laundry  unit,  497. 

Washington,  D.  C.,  Central  High  School,  50-60;  main  corridor, 
306. 

Washington  School,  Oakland,  Calif.,  578. 

Wash  rooms,  school  shops,  427. 

Waste,  in  duplication  of  departments  in  schools,  2,  4;  avoiding,  in 
planning  of  school  grounds,  9. 

Water  activities  in  physical  education,  223. 

Water  distribution  in  schools,  545,  547. 

Water  for  swimming-pools,  requirements  for,  235-236. 

Water  supply  for  toilet  rooms,  545. 

Watson,  F.  R.,  work  on  architectural  acoustics  by,  cited,  324. 

Weaver,  Frank,  forge  designed  by,  442,  444. 


Wentworth  Institute,  Boston,  Mass.,  buildings  of,  160,  184-187. 

Westmoreland  School  grounds,  Imperial  Valley,  Calif.,  68. 

Westwood  Public  School,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  627,  628,  629,  630. 

Wheelwright,  Edmund  M.,  architect,  influence  of  work  of,  18. 

White,  Eva  W.,  Household  Arts  by,  cited,  488. 

Wider  use  of  school  grounds,  n. 

William  Hood  Dunwoody  Industrial  Institute,  Minneapolis, 
Minn.,  buildings  of,  160,  180;  history  and  location  of,  178- 
180;  equipment  and  courses  at,  180-181. 

Williamson,  Isaiah  U.,  school  founded  by,  175-176. 

Williamson  Free  School  of  Mechanical  Trades,  buildings  of,  160, 
176;  history  and  location  of,  175-176;  equipment  and  courses 
at,  176-177;  requirements  for  admission,  indenturing  of  stu- 
dents, etc.,  177. 

Windows,  handling  of,  264,  266;  in  Clawson  School,  Oakland, 
Calif.,  270;  in  Emerson  School,  Oakland,  Calif.,  273;  for 
classroom,  277;  shades  for,  277;  specifications  and  recom- 
mendations in  connection  with  lighting,  561-563. 

Window  stools,  height  of,  266-267. 

Window  ventilation  for  schools,  526-527. 

Winnetka,  111.,  Skokie  Elementary  School,  34,  35,  36. 

Winslow,  Charles  H.,  survey  by,  189. 

Winslow,  E,  A.,  cited  on  ventilation,  205. 

Winter  activities  in  physical  education,  223. 

Wood  finishing,  workshop  for  teaching,  169-170. 

Woods,  Glen  H.,  chapter  by,  on  the  music  department,  342-349. 

Woodworking  shops,  description  of  typical,  167-168. 

Worcester,  Mass.,  Boys’  Trade  School,  160,  172,  173  ; account  of, 
1 73-1 74;  equipment  and  courses,  174. 

Worcester,  Mass.,  Girls’  Trade  School,  193-194 ; home-making 
department  of,  200. 

Workers,  two  types  of  schools  for,  T58. 

Working  pupils,  schedule  for,  in  high  schools,  151,  153. 

Workshop,  science  department,  351-352.  See  Shops. 

Wright,  J.  D.,  chapter  by,  on  buildings  and  equipment  for  voca- 
tional schools,  157-203. 

Zone  planning  for  school  grounds,  benefits  of,  2,  4. 

Zoology,  courses  in,  and  laboratory  accommodations  for,  390-391. 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America. 


